Applied

Qualitative
Studies
Classes 3-4

1
 Agenda for today
1. Group project – questions?
2. Applied Qualitative Studies
– Research Design
• Secondary data
• Exploratory research design: qualitative research
• Conclusive research design
– Surveys
– Observational data

2
Revision
 Step 3: Formulating Research Design

Types of error
Total Error

Random Sampling Non-sampling Error

Error

Response Error Non-response Error

Researcher Error Interviewer Error Respondent Error

Surrogate Information Error Respondent Selection Error Inability Error

Measurement Error Questioning Error Unwillingness Error
Population Definition Error Recording Error
Sampling Frame Error Cheating Error
Data Analysis Error
Back to the Research process!

Step 1: Defining the Problem

Step 2: Developing an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

Step 4: Doing Field Work or Collecting Data

Step 5: Preparing and Analyzing Data

Step 6: Preparing and Presenting the Report

 Types and sources of data

Marketing Research Data

Secondary Data Primary Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Descriptive Causal

Survey Data Observational and Other Experimental Data

Data
Secondary data

•All internal and external sources of data that was collected for other
purposes, but has information helpful for the problem at hand
Vs primary data, collected specifically for the problem

•External sources include

• Published materials
• Computerized databases
• Syndicated services

•Overall easily available and cheap

Secondary data

Advantages Disadvantages

Helps to identify the problem Might present fit issues

Better to define it
Enriches approach Might lack accuracy
Points out best design
Answers already somes questions Might be outdated
Allows for more insightful interpretation
Secondary data

Choosing the best secondary data – criteria:

•Price
•Purpose
•Sample / population
•Content and methodology
•Accuracy
•Up to date
•Dependability
Secondary data

Internal data sources:

•CRM systems
•Sales
•Operations
•Call center

Have the nice advantage of only costing... Time!

Secondary data

External data sources:

•Panels
•Census
•Webscrapping
•Household vs institutional
•Electronic scanner services
•Psycographics and AIO (or U&A)

Difficult to choose!
Secondary data

Ethical issues:

•Not exploring secondary data when necessary...

•...or going for it when dispensable
•Obtaining through shady means
•Using one not relevant or appropriate for the problem
 Qualitative Research – where if fits

Marketing Research Data

Secondary Data Primary Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Descriptive Causal

Survey Data Observational and Other Experimental Data

Data
Qualitative Research – types and techniques
Qualitative Research Procedures

Direct (Non- Indirect

disguised) (Disguised)

Projective
Techniques
Focus Groups Depth Interviews

Association Completion Construction Expressive

Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques
 Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Objective To gain a qualitative understanding of To quantify the data and generalize the
the underlying reasons and results from the sample to the
motivations population of interest

Sample Small number of non-representative Large number of representative cases

cases
Structured
Data Collection Unstructured
Statistical
Data Analysis Non-statistical
Recommend a final course of action
Outcome Develop an initial understanding
Qualitative Research – focus groups
•8-12 people
•1-3 hours
•Recorded
•Usually with an incentive
•Informal atmosphere
•One moderator
•Prescreened respondents
•Can be observed in
real time
Qualitative Research – focus groups

Can I moderate? Yes, you can!... IF you can be:

•Firm, but kind
•Give time to everyone
•Raise questions
•Foster involvement
•Flexible
•...and sensitive!
Qualitative Research – focus groups

Different types:
•Two way / client personell
•Two moderators
•Online / telesession
•Mini groups
•Respondent as moderator
•Moderator duel
Qualitative Research – focus groups

Advantages and disadvantages – you tell me!

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Qualitative Research – focus groups

Advantages
•Synergie
•Get the ball going
•Spontaneous
•Specific info
•Easier to structure
•Research speed
•Safety / security
•Response rate
Qualitative Research – focus groups

Disadvantages
•Not representative
•Moderator risk
•Misjudgement
•Overpowering respondents risk
Qualitative Research – Depth interviews

What are those?

•Conducted on a 121 basis
•To uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, feelings...

Used for:
•Deep understanding of individuals
•Sensitive topics
•Politically correct challenging topics
•Researching busy professionals
Qualitative Research – Depth interviews

Good because:
•Goes deeper
•Associates responses to respondent
•No social pressure for politically correct answers

Bad because:
•Skilled interviewers are rare and expensive
•More prone to subjectiveness
•More challenging to analyze and interpret data
Qualitative Research – Depth interviews
Techniques:

•Laddering: line of questioning proceeds from product characteristics to user

characteristics. This technique allows the researcher to tap into the
consumer's network of meanings.

•Hidden issue questioning: focus is not on socially shared values but rather
on personal “sore spots;” not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal
concerns.

•Symbolic analysis: goes for the symbolic meaning of objects by comparing

them with their opposites. The logical opposites of a product that are
investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary “non-
product,” and opposite types of products.
Qualitative Research
Techniques:

•Projective: asking the person to answer relatively to a third person,

interpreting their behavior.

•Word association: asking people to say the TOM words associated with a
seed word. Analysis focuses on amount, frequency and respondents that
associate the same word

•And others in your book...

Qualitative Research – Buillding your script

Warm-up: greetings, introduction to study, consent request

Main body:
• Broad question (if in-depth) or set of questions (semi-structured interview or focus group)
• Organised by theme if it has several questions
• Questions can use techniques mentioned before
(consult exemples on moodle page)
AI?
Wrap-up: sociodem info needed, thanks, farewells
Qualitative Research
Do’s and Don’t’s:

•Be there: it’s about being there with the person, not looking through the
window, not taking notes, not messing with your phone.

•Body language:
– People respond to our posture as well as our words. Look bored and you will be bored
by your interviewee!
– Notice if body language changes throughtout interview – that’s part of the result

•Steering: don’t ask questions. You have asked the person to tell a story and
questions will interrupt the reasoning.

•Record: analysis is post interview – make sure you capture information with
good quality (no coffee shop sounds drowning the interview).
Qualitative Research

So – why use qualitative research?

Analysing qualitative data
There are various ways to analyse qualitative data, depending on:
• the amount (number and length of interviews / focus groups / observation);
• how structured the tool (interview / focus group / observation) was.

Often the analysis grid is used to establish comparisons between respondents and identify
response patterns. It also allows for streamlined preliminary conclusions that aid in building a
questionnaire. You can find an example in our moodle page.
Analysing qualitative data

Focus on student research – Interview extract with categories attached (Saunders

et al 2016)
Analysing qualitative data

Sources and types of codes (Saunders et al 2016)

Analysing qualitative data

Comparing approaches to Grounded Theory Method (Saunders et al 2016)

Analysing qualitative data

A three-dimensional analytical framework for Critical Discourse Analysis

Source: Developed from Fairclough (1992) in (Saunders et al 2016)
 Analysing qualitative data

Using a data cloud to display the frequency of key terms (Saunders et al 2016)
 Analysing qualitative data

Using CAQDAS to explore how key words are used in context (Saunders et al
2016)
 Analysing qualitative data

Atlas TI is a qualitative data analysis SaaS that uses OpenAI to create tentative
coding.
Conclusive Research
The Research process

Step 1: Defining the Problem

Step 2: Developing an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

Step 4: Doing Field Work or Collecting Data

Step 5: Preparing and Analyzing Data

Step 6: Preparing and Presenting the Report

 Step 3: Formulating Research Design

Classification
Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive Research

Research Design Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Single Cross-Sectional Multiple Cross-

Design Sectional Design
Descriptive Research Design

Survey data
Respondents are queried and manifest their opinions, views feelings, etc

Vs

Observation data
Respondents are monitered on choice, behavior, actions, etc
Descriptive Research Design

SURVEY
METHODS

Telephone Personal Mail Electronic

In-Home Mall Computer-Assisted

E-mail Internet
Intercept Personal Interviewing

Traditional Computer-Assisted
Mail Mail
Telephone Telephone Interviewing
Interview Panel
Descriptive Research Design – Survey Methods

How to choose? Pay attention to:

1.Task
2.Situation
3.Respondents
Descriptive Research Design
1. Task

• Diversity of Questions and Flexibility of Data Collection

How important is it for the interviewer to interact with the respondents?
• Use of Physical Stimuli
Are physical stimuli such as the product, a product prototype, commercials, or
promotional displays necessary during the interview?
• Sample Control
How easy is to control for respondent fit with the sample?
• Quantity of Data
Ability to collect large amounts of data.
• Response Rate
What response rate am I going for?
Descriptive Research Design

2. Situational factors

• Control of the Data Collection Environment

The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the
respondent answers the questionnaire.

• Control of Field Force

The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in data
collection.
Descriptive Research Design

2. Situational factors (cont)

• Potential for Interviewer Bias

The extent of the interviewer's role determines the potential for bias.

• Speed
The total time taken for administering the survey to the entire sample.

• Cost
The total cost of administering the survey and collecting the data.
Descriptive Research Design

3. Respondents

• Perceived Anonymity
Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents' perceptions that their identities
will not be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher.

• Social Desirability/Sensitive Information

Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to give answers that are
socially acceptable, whether or not they are true. With some exceptions,
obtaining sensitive information is inversely related to social desirability.
Descriptive Research Design

3. Respondents (contd)

• Low Incidence Rate

Incidence rate refers to rate of occurrence of persons eligible to participate in
the study.

• Respondent Control
Methods that allow respondents control over the interviewing process will
solicit greater cooperation and are therefore desirable.
Descriptive Research Design – Survey Methods

New magazine for college students – what survey method:

1.Mail?
2.Telephone?
3.CAPI?
4.Online?
Typology of participant observation researcher roles (Saunders 2009)
Focus on student research – structured observation of staff behaviours at
Fastfoodchain (Saunders 2009)
Descriptive Research Design – Observation

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Analysis Trace Analysis

Observation Observation
Descriptive Research Design – Observation

Different degrees of:

1.Structure
2.Disguise
3.Naturality
Descriptive Research Design

1. Structured vs unstructured observation

For structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be

observed and how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor
performing inventory analysis in a store.

In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the

phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g., observing children
playing with new toys.
Descriptive Research Design

2. Disguised vs undisguised observation

In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware of observation. This can

only be done with specific rules and conditions. Disguise may be accomplished by
using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices.
Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks. Example: mistery
shopping.

In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are under
observation.
Descriptive Research Design

3. Natural vs contrived observation

Natural observation evaluates behavior as it takes place normally. For example,

one could observe the behavior of respondents shopping at FNAC.

In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is observed in an artificial

environment, such as a test store.
Descriptive Research Design
– Observation Methods

Types

1.Personal
2.Mechanical
3.Audit
4.Content analysis
5.Trace analysis
Observation methods

1. Personal observation

• The researcher observes behavior as it takes place

• Does not interfere or manipulate

• Examples include:
• Shelf choice of consumers
• Traffic in a store
Observation methods
2. Mechanical observation

• Might involve respondent action…

• Eye-tracking monitors
• Pupilometers
• Psychogalvanometers
• Voice pitch analyzers
• Devices measuring response latency

• …Or not:
• The AC Nielsen audimeter
• Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a
building.
• On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
• Optical scanners in supermarkets
Observation methods

3. Audit observation

• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing

inventory analysis.

• Data are collected personally by the researcher.

• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects.

Observation methods

4. Content analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest

content of a communication.

• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects), themes

(propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message),
or topics (subject of the message).

• Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the
communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.

• Content analysis in qualitative research…

Observation methods

5. Trace analysis

• Data collection is based on evidence of past behavior, rather than observing

the behavior itself. Examples:
• The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess
the affluence of customers.
• The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine
people's favorite magazines.
• Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine
browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.
Causal Research
Causal Research Design – concept
A statement such as "X causes Y" will have the following meaning
to an ordinary person and to a scientist:

________________________________________________________________________
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
________________________________________________________________________
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.

X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the

(X is a deterministic occurrence of Y more probable
cause of Y). (X is a probabilistic cause of Y).

It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is a

that X is a cause of Y. cause of Y. At best, we can
infer that X is a cause of Y.
Causal Research Design – conditions
• Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause, X, and an effect, Y,
occur together or vary together in the way predicted by the hypothesis
under consideration.

• The time order of occurrence condition states that the causing event must
occur either before or simultaneously with the effect; it cannot occur
afterwards.

• The absence of other possible causal factors means that the factor or
variable being investigated should be the only possible causal explanation.
 Causal Research Design – conditions
Consider purchases at a fashion store like Zara – looking at possible impact
factors.

Low Income High Income

Purchase Purchase
High Low High Low

High 300

Education
High 122 (61%) 78 (39%) 200 (100%) 241 (80%) 59 (20%)
Education

171 (57%) 129 (43%) 300 (100%) Low 151 (76%) 49 (24%) 200
Low
Causal Research Design – definitions
• Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are manipulated
and whose effects are measured and compared, e.g., price levels.

• Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response

to the independent variables or treatments is being examined, e.g.,
consumers or stores.

• Dependent variables are the variables which measure the effect of the
independent variables on the test units, e.g., sales, profits, and market
shares.

• Extraneous variables are all variables other than the independent

variables that affect the response of the test units, e.g., store size, store
location, and competitive effort.
Causal Research Design

– experimental design
This type of causal research design implies setting:

• the test units and how these units are to be divided into homogeneous
subsamples,
• what independent variables or treatments are to be manipulated,
• what dependent variables are to be measured; and
• how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.
Causal Research Design

– experimental design
Validity in experimentation:

• Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the independent

variables or treatments actually caused the observed effects on the
dependent variables. Control of extraneous variables is a necessary
condition for establishing internal validity.

• External validity refers to whether the cause-and-effect relationships

found in the experiment can be generalized. To what populations,
settings, times, independent variables, and dependent variables can the
results be projected?
Our team project:
questions?