RENEWABLEENERGYSOURCES BETCK105E/205E

Module-2:
SOLAR ENERGY

INTRODUCTION:
Energy from the sun is called solar energy. In general, the energy produced and radiated by
the sun,more specifically the term refers to the sun's energy that reaches the earth.Solar energy,
received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy,
such as heat and electricity, which can be utilized by man. Since the sun is expected to radiate at an
essentially constant rate for a few billion years, it may be regarded as an in-exhaustible source of
useful energy.

The sun is a large sphere of very ho tgases.It’s diameter is 1.39x106KM.While that of the earth is
1.27x104 KM. The mean distance between the two is 1.5x108KM. Solar energy reaching the top of
the earth's atmosphere consists of about 8 per cent ultraviolet radiation, 46 per cent visible light, and
46 per cent infrared radiation.

SOLAR CONSTANT :
The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called the solar
constant ISC. This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the
sun's direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Because of the sun's distance and
activity vary throughout the year, the rate of arrival of solar radiation varies accordingly. The
National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) standard value for the solar constant,
expressed in three common units, is as follows :

1.353kilowatts per square metre or 1353 watt per square metre.

116.5 langleys (calories per sq. cm) per hour, or 1165 kcal per sq.m per hour (1 langley being equal
to l cal/cm of so lar radiation received in one day).
429.2Btu per sq. ft. perhour.

The distance between the earth and the sun varies a little through the year. The earth is closest to the
sun in the summer and farthest away in the winter. This variation in distance produces a nearly
sinusoidal variation in the intensity of solar radiation I that reaches the earth. This can be
approximated by the equation

Where, n is the day of the year.

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SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH'S SURFACE :

The solar radiation that penetrates the earth's atmosphere and reaches the surface differs in
both amount and character from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere. In the first place, part of
the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by clouds. Furthermore, the radiation
entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules in the air. Oxygen and ozone (O3), formed
from oxygen, absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation, and water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb
some of the energy in the infrared range. In addition, part of the solar radiation is scattered i.e., its
direction has been changed) by droplets in clouds by atmospheric molecules, and by dust particles.

Figure:Direct,diffuse and totalradiation

Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly from the sun
is called direct radiation" or Beam radiation. It is the radiation which produces a shadow when
interrupted by an opaque object. Diffuse radiation is that solar radiation received from the sun after
its direction has been changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere. Because of the solar
radiation is scattered in all directions in the atmosphere, diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all
parts of the sky. The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth's surface is the sum of the
direct and diffuse radiation.

SOLARRADIATIONMEASUREMENTS:

Measurements of solar radiation are important because of the increasing number of solar heating and
cooling applications, and the need for accurate solar irradiation data to predict performance.
Experimental determination of the energy transferred to a surface by solar radiation required
instruments which will measure the heating effect of direct solar radiation and diffuse solar radiation.
Solar radiation measuring instruments are of two types:

1. Pyrheliometer
2. Pyranometer

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PYRHELIOMETER:

Pyrheliometer is a device used for measuring direct beam radiation at normal incidence. Its outer
structure looks like a long tube projecting the image of a telescope and we have to point the lens to
the sun to measure the radiance. The sensor disc is located at the base of a tube whose axis is aligned
with the direction of sun's rays. Here the lens is pointed towards the sun and the radiation will pass
through the lens, tube and at the end falls on to the black object present at the bottom. black body
usually absorbs all radiations without emitting anything back into the atmosphere. After the black
body absorbs the radiation its gets heated up since the radiation itself is energy and after absorption,
the atoms in the body get exited. This blackbody is used as a core component in sun radiation
measuringinstruments.Pyrheliometerusesthermopilewhichconvertsheattoanelectrical signal for the
measurement of temperature.

Figure:Pyrheliometer

NOTE:

{Thermocouple
The thermocouple is a simple device constructed using two conductors made of different material as
shown in the figure.

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Here two wires are connected to form aloop with two junctions and these junctions are designated as
‘A’&‘B’.Now a candle is brought near junction ‘A’while junction ‘B’is left alone.With the candle
being present junction at ‘A’ its temperature rises considerably while junction B stays cold at room
temperature. Because of this temperature difference, a voltage (potential difference) appears at the
junctions according to the ‘See beck effect’. Since the circuit is closed a current ‘I’ flows through the
circuit as shown in the figure and to measure this current we will connect an ammeter in series. It is
important to remember that the magnitude of current ‘I’ in the loop is directly proportional to
the temperature difference at the junctions, so higher temperature differences result in a higher
magnitude of the current. So by getting the reading of ammeter, we can calculate the temperature
difference at the junctions.

The number of thermocouple is connected in series to form a thermopile.}

Threepyrheliometers havebeenin wide-spread useto measurenormalincident beam radiation:

1. Angstrom compensation pyrheliometer

2. Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer

3. Eppley pyrheliometer

Angstrom compensation pyrheliometer:

In this pyrheliometer, a thin blackened shaded manganin strip (Size 20 x 2 x 0.1 mm) is heated
electrically until it is at the same temperature as a similar strip which is exposed to solar radiation. It
is shown schematically in Fig. 2.5.1.Under steady state conditions (both strips at identical
temperature)the energy used for heating is equal to the absorbed solar energy.The thermocouples on
the back of each strip, connected in opposition through a sensitive galvanometer (or other null
detector), are used to test for the equality of temperature. The energy H of direct radiation is
calculated by means of the formula,
HDN=Ki2
Where ,HDN=Direct radiation incident on an area normal to sun's rays
i = Heating Current in amperes
K is a dimension and instrument constant.

Figure: Electric circuit for Angstrom Pyrheliometer

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Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer:

It consists essentially of a blackened silver disk positioned

at the lower end of a tube with diaphragms to limit the whole
aperture to 5.7°. A mercury in glass thermometer is used to
measure the temperature at the disk. A shutter made of three
polished metal leaves is provided at the upper end of the tube to
allow solar radiation to fall on the disk at regular intervals and the
corresponding changes in temperature of the disk are measured.
The thermometer stem is bent through 90° so that it lies along the
tube to minimize its exposure to the sun.

(S-Shutter,T-Thermometer,D- Disk)

Figure: Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer

Eppley pyrheliometer:

The sensitive element in an Eppley pyrheliometer is a temperature compensated 15 junction bis-muth

silver thermopile mounted at the base of a brass tube, the limiting diaphragms of which subtend an
angle of 5.7°, A thermopile is basically a series arrangement of thermocouples used to develop a
much greater voltage than is possible using only one.
It is a stable instrument and can be used as a sub-standard. The instrument has found wide
acceptance with in the U.S.A. and many parts of the world.

PYRANOMETER:

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A pyranometer is an instrument which measures total or global radiation over a hemispherical field
of view. In most pyranometers, the sun's radiation is allowed to fall on a black surface to which the
hot junctions of a thermopile are attached. The cold junctions of the thermopile are located in such a
way that they do not receive the radiation. As a result, an e.m.f. proportional to the solar radiation is
generated. This e.m.f.which is usually in therangeof0 to 10 mV can beread, recorded orintegrated
over a period of time with regular calibration of about + 2 percent can be obtained.

SUNSHINE RECORDER:

The duration of bright sunshine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine recorder. The sun's rays
are focused by a glass-sphere to point on a card strip held in a groove in a spherical bowl mounted
concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there is a bright sunshine, the image formed is intense
enough to burn a spot on the card strip. Through the days the sun moves across the sky, the image
moves along the strip. Thus a burnt space whose length is proportional to the duration of sun shine is
obtained on the strip.

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS:

Flat Plate Collector:

The schematic illustration of the liquid flat plate collector isas shown in figure. It is perhaps the most
fundamental yet most researched technology for solar-powered domestic hot water systems.The
principle of this technology is quite simple. The sun heats the dark flat surface, which collects as
much energy as possible, and then the energy is passed to the liquid for further use.

It consists of a black absorber surface on which the solar radiation falls after filtering through one or
more transparent glass covers. This incident solar energy is transferred to a liquid flowing through
tubes which are either attached to or integral to the absorber plate. This is an useful gain of energy.

The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet 1 to 2 mm in thickness, while the tubes, which
are also of metal, range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the
bottom (in some cases, to the top) of the absorber plate with the pitch ranging from 5 to 15 cm. In
some designs, the tubes are also in line and integral with the absorber plate. For the absorber plate
corrugated galvanized sheet is a material widely available throughout the world.

SOLAR DISTILLATION:

Solar energy can be used for converting saline (Impure) water into distilled water. The pure water
can be obtained by distillation in the simplest solar still, generally known as the basin type solar
still". It is shown schematically in below Figure. Such solar stills have been operated for farm and
community use in several countries. It consists of a blackened basin containing saline water at a
shallow depth, over which is a transparent air tight cover that encloses completely the space above
the basin. It has a roof-like shape. The cover, which is usually glass, may be of plastic, is sloped
towards a collection trough. Solar radiation passes through the cover and is absorbed and converted
into heat in the black surface. Impure water in the basin or tray is heated and the vapour produced is
condensed to purified water on the cooler interior of the roof. The transparent roof material, (mainly
glass)transmits nearly all radiation falling on it and absorbs very little ;hence it remains cool enough

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to condense the water vapour. The condensed water flows down the sloping roof and is collected in
troughs at the bottom.

Figure:SolarWater Still

SOLAR POND ELECTRIC POWERPLANT:

Figure:Solarpondelectric powerplantwithcoolingtower

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The Solar pond electric power plant with cooling tower is as shown in above figure. Here hot water
from the bottom level of the pond is pumped to the evaporator where the working fluid to vaporized.
The vapour flows under high pressure to the turbine and thereby expanding through the turbine
wheel and the electric generator linked to it. The vapour then travels to the condenser where cold
water from the cooling tower condenses the vapour back it to a liquid. The liquid is pumped back to
the evaporator where the cycle is repeated.

SOLAR CELL or PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL:

The direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy by means of the photovoltaic effect,that
is the conversion of light(or other electromagnetic radiation) into electricity.The photovoltaic effect
is defined as the generation of the electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing
radiation energy conversion devices which are used to convert sunlight to electricity by the use of the
photo voltaic effects are called solar cells. A single converter cell is called a solar cell or more
generally, a photo voltaic cell, and combination of such cells, designed to increase the electric power
output is called a solar module or solar array.

Figure:PhotovoltaicCell

Photo voltaic cells are made of semiconductors that generate electricity when they absorb light.When
the semiconductor material absorbs light, the electrons of the material starts emitting. This happens
because the light consists small energize particles called photons. When the electrons absorb the
photons, they become energized and starts moving into the material. Because of the effect of an
electric field, the particles move only in one direction and develops current. The semiconductor
materials have the metallic electrodes through which the current goes out of it.

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Basic Photo voltaic System for Power Generation:

Figure: Basic Photovoltaic System integrated with power grid.

A basic photovoltaic system integrated with the utility grid is shown in above Fig. It permits solarly
generated electrical power to be delivered to a local load. It consists of :

(i) Solar Array, large or small, which converts the solar radiation to useful DC electrical power.

(ii) A Blocking Diode which lets the array-generated power flow only toward the battery or grid.
Without a blocking diode the battery would discharge back through the solar array during times of no
radiation.

(iii) Battery Storage, in which the solarly generated electric energy may be stored.

(iv) Inverter / Converter converts the direct current into the alternating current and vice versa. The
conversion is essential because some of the appliances require AC supply for their work.

APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

(i) Water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water,
(ii) Radio beacons for ship navigation at ports,
(ii) community radio and television sets,
(iv)cathodic protection of oil pipelines,
(u)weather monitoring,
(vi)railway signaling equipment,
(vi)battery charging,
(vi)street lighting.
The major application of photovoltaic systems lies in water pumping for drinking water supply and
irrigation in rural areas.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Photo voltaic Solar Energy Conversion:

Advantages:

(i) Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity through a simple solid state device.
(ii) Absence of moving parts.
(iii) Ability to function unattended for longperiods.
(iv) Modular nature in which desired currents, voltages and power levels can be achieved by mere
integration.
(v) Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate.
(vi) They do not create pollution.
(vii) They have a long effective life.
(viii) They are highly reliable.
(ix) They consume no fuel to operate as the sun's energy is free.
(x) They have wide power handling capabilities from microwatts to kilowatts or even megawatts
when modules are combined into large area arrays.
(xi) They are easy to fabricate, being one of the simplest of semi conductor devices.

Disadvantages:

(i) The efficiency of solar panels is low compared to other renewable sources of energy.
(ii) Energy from the sun is intermittent and unpredictable and can only be harnessed in the presence
of sunlight. Also, the power generated gets reduced during cloudy weather.
(iii) Long-range transmission of solar energy is inefficient and difficult to carry. The current
produced is DC in nature and the conversion of DC current to AC current involves the use of
additional equipment such as inverters.
(iv) Photovoltaic panels are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily. Additional insurance costs
are required to ensure a safeguard of the investments.

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