2.

2
June 2021
Masculinity and Challenges for Women in Indian Culture
I. Sivakumar
K. Manimekalai
Masculinity and Challenges for Women in Indian Culture
By I. Sivakumar1, K. Manimekalai2
Abstract
Construction of masculinity in India has been approached and studied from a variety of feminist
perspectives. The feminist perspective focused on the discourse and gained much greater momentum
during the pre-colonial and colonial periods. During the pre-independence era, the status of women in the
areas of productive, reproductive, sexual health, mobility, and economic resources deteriorated to great
extent owing to intense patriarchal oppression. Now in the post-colonial period sex-determination tests
leading to the massacre of female fetuses, declining sex-ratio are unfavourable to women. Rapidly
changing sex-ratios and increasing evidence of violence against women are the strong pointers that have
justified the scrutiny of gender framework that defines how masculinities are constructed and manifested.
Women behave in self-limiting ways not because they are socialized as females but because they are
locked into a lack of decision-making power, invisibility, multiple roles in the gender injustice society.
This article stresses the need for sustained efforts to increase the involvement of both men and women to
remove socio-cultural barriers, stereotypical attitudes, and violence against women for creating a gender-
balanced society.
Keywords: Patriarchy, Violence, Theoretical analysis, Feminist perspectives, Indian women, Masculinity,
Indian masculinity, patriarchy, Feminist psychoanalysis
Introduction
Indian society like a number of ‘classical’ societies is still patriarchal. Patriarchal values regulating
sexuality, reproduction, and social productions are expressed through specific cultural metaphors. Overt
rules prohibiting women from certain important specific activities and denying certain rights did exist.
But the more subtle expression of patriarchy is through symbolism i.e., giving messages of the inferiority
of women through legends that highlight the self-sacrificing, self-effacing pure image of women. It is also
expressed through the ritual practices which day in and day out emphasize the role of women as faithful
wives and devout mothers. Also, women are trained not to challenge discrimination, subordination,
exploitation, and subjugation at various levels in the system. These norms restrict women from having
aspirations beyond marriage. Similarly, for men, gender norms are constructed around masculinity and a
man’s sense of self hinges on his ability to control women. Until the daughter is married, her protection
and chastity are considered as a mark of the father’s honour and masculinity.
1 Dr. I. Sivakumar: Post Doctorate Fellow, Women’s Studies, Alagappa University, India. His research
focuses on
the area of gender issues and exploring the challenges and constructive practices adopted by Indian
culture. He has published more than 30 publications.
2.21
Prof. K. Manimekalai: She was the former Vice-Chancellor, Mother Teresa Women’s University,
Kodaikanal. She has 35 years of experience in teaching, research, training, and extension programmes.
She has published more than 60 publications as books, articles, and research reports. She has been
bestowed with several honors and awards
This paper analyses various discourses involved in the construction of masculinity and various challenges
faced by women in India. The main objective of this study is to explore the contributing factors that can
be attributed to men’s attitudes and behaviours on a wide range of issues as they relate to gender equality
in Indian culture, based on the available secondary data. Indian men growing up in the eighties and
nineties of the 20th century have grown up seeing a particular form of patriarchal masculinity that is
being challenged in contemporary times. So, is masculinity in crisis? Most certainly it would appear that
masculinity is in a period of flux, with the definition of what a man is and how he is to behave being
uncertain. What is more certainly true is that masculinity as it has played out in the last few hundred years
is being challenged.
2.22
Journal of International Women’s Studies Vol. 22, No. 5 June 2021
politics is not for women. Socialization goes on as a continuous process through various agencies –
family, school, media, religion, etc. the role and images supplied to reinforce the gender ideology. This
explanation is functionalist approach because people are acted upon by society and socialization is
viewed as beyond human control. Those who reject this approach hold that the ideology imposed is that
of dominant groups. In the symbolic interaction men are the dominant groups and women constitute the
subordinate groups.
2.23
Sexual Division of Labour and Masculinity
In the Indian society, a statement like “home and childcare taste sweeter to women while business and
profession taste sweeter to men”, has for a long time been receiving an unquestioned social approval. The
socio-cultural norms have, by and large, restricted the role of women to the bearing and rearing of
children and attending to household chores; and women are not expected to involve themselves in work
outside the home. An oft-quoted verse from the ancient Tamil classical (Sangam) literature has explicitly
stated that the soul of a man is in his work outside whereas the soul of a woman is in taking care of the
man (Kurunthogai: 135). A synonymous term for women in the Tamil language is “Illal” (one who rules
the home).
A woman’s connection to the market and the ‘public’ is derived from her connection to her husband and
family. Similarly, a woman working for payment outside her home has been lowly valued and less
respected. A woman working as an unpaid family labourer in her family’s farm is more socially
acceptable than a woman working in the same field as a paid or waged labourer (Ministry of Labour,
Govt. of India, 1997: 62).
Depending on different social values ascribed to women and men, there are variations in male-female job
polarization. The effects of stereotypical thinking and gender bias influence women and men as they do
their higher education, producing differences in their career expectations and choices. Young men receive
a message from society that they should prepare themselves for a career that would support a family.
Young women get a different message that their careers will be less important than their men’s. Even
higher education confines women with little chance for advancement (Brannon, 1996: 310).
2.24
Violence and Masculinity
The contemporary women’s movements were instrumental in identifying and bringing into focus gender
issues affecting women in different parts of the world. Although issues like violence against women are
universal, they manifest themselves differently in different societies, e.g., dowry killing, genital
mutilation, honour killings, etc. The women’s movements and their academic offshoot - Women’s Studies
- not only made these “invisible” issues visible; they provided a sound, comprehensive, alternative
framework for the analysis of all ‘human” issues. The “women’s perspective” on everything from
sexuality, gender relations to development paradigm, and ecology were evolved through a fine blend of
scholarship and experience sharing. The most serious attempt to break the dichotomy between “theory”
and “action”, “experience” and “discourse” came from the women’s movements.
While Roop Kanwar’s sati mobilized feminist to raise voice against the violence in the name of religion.
The Government reacted and passed a sati prevention bill which was a repeat of the 1929 legislation
which again had several flaws. This law blurred the division between
Journal of International Women’s Studies Vol. 22, No. 5 June 2021
forced and voluntary sati, defines sati as a crime against women, and makes the other people involved in
the sati guilty only by abetting the women’s act.
In 1980, the Mathura rape case judgment which left free the policemen who raped a minor tribal girl
‘Mathura’ and blamed the poor girl as responsible for her fate, shocked the middle class educated women
in India. In the former, the scales tilted in favor of women while in the latter the court invoked article 25
which guarantees the fundamental rights to worship. On 16th December night 2012, a heinous crime
shocked the Nation’s Capital when a girl was gang-raped in a moving bus on Delhi road, leading to the
countrywide public outrage. The untimely death of the victim acted as a driving force to take action to
curb crime against women. The brutality of the crime and widespread agitation forced the Government to
amend the existing laws. Mane and Aggleton, 2001 found the society’s expectations of women differ
from men, society accepts many practices that are harmful to women’s sexual health such as early
marriage and sexual or domestic violence.
2.25
Caste and Masculinity
In Rajasthan, researchers explored the role of caste in men’s conceptions of masculinity and violence. The
study was undertaken in two districts, which are culturally and economically different districts of the
State. Differences that emphasise the different aspects of masculinity by caste were explored. For
example, Rajputs emphasized courage and taking part in larger issues that affected the society, while Jats
emphasized being hard workers and providers of the family. However, across castes, there were deep
commonalities in men’s conceptions of masculinity and violence. For all respondents, violence towards
their wives was catalyzed by perceived “failed” masculinity, including disputes over either spouse not
performing their role adequately or threats towards the husband’s masculine entitlements (Satish Kumar.,
Gupt S.D., and George, 2002). In Punjab, researchers explored the impact of militancy and the
consequences of broader economic change with increased agricultural growth negatively resulting in
increased domestic violence. The study was undertaken in two districts with varied experience of
militancy and agricultural change. The main finding of the study was that the role of women, especially
among upper castes in Punjab, is to support the public face of their husbands’ masculinity. During the
militancy period, when men’s masculinity was undermined in the public sphere, women were particularly
vulnerable to violence from their husbands in the private sphere. Currently, with industrialization and the
Green Revolution, lower castes have access to higher incomes and are better able to emulate higher castes
to gain status. This process includes lower caste men emulating upper-caste men’s tight control of women
and reporting much higher levels of violence (Dagar Rainuka, 2002).
Journal of International Women’s Studies Vol. 22, No. 5 June 2021
Conclusion
Achieving gender equality is not possible without changes in men’s lives as well as in women’s. It is
important to be cognizant of the fact that gender inequalities in patriarchal societies favour men; thus, it is
essential to encourage men to take responsibility for reproductive health as a responsible sexual partner,
husband, and father. Men, in particular, should be educated and socialized about responsible sexual
relations and to play a vital role in sharing women’s burdens. Also, sustained efforts need to be
maintained to increase the involvement of men in the family by removing stereotypical attitudes, socio-
cultural barriers, violence against women, and gender injustice. For effective changes in sexual behaviour,
these underlying structural factors need to be considered and addressed seriously.
According to a review by the Public Health Foundation of India and ICRW in 2014, organizations used
gender-accommodating or gender-transformative strategies to change the attitudes of men and boys
around gender-equity. As the transition is taking place in India there is a change in the mindset of the
people and women are entering into the public space. This will break the cultural code and masculinity;
ultimately result in a gender fair society.
Acknowledgment
This paper was written under the financial supporter of Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)
2.0, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, India.

2.3
TUI - A Journal on Tribal Life and Culture, XVII(1), 27-35, ISSN No- 2319-7382 (2014)
CULTURE AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
IN THE STUDY OF TRIBES IN INDIA
Bhaskar Kumar Kakati**
Abstract
Scholars have different view regarding level of empowerment among the tribal women. Some have
considered that tribal women are considerably empowered while others put question on the empowerment
of tribal women. They have also find out the different socio-cultural, political, as well as economic factors
affecting the empowerment of tribal women. Whatever the different determinates of empowerment the
theorizing agrees on one thing that the women’s position and degree of empowerment is defined by
gender and gender relations in society. In almost every sphere of human functioning, the roles, rights
defined for women are subordinated to those defined for men. The cultural notions prevailed among the
tribal society is responsible for unequal distribution of power, resource and prestige among men and
women. Objective of this paper is to understand how gender roles are conceived, enacted and learnt along
with unequal distribution of resource, power and prestige within a complex relationship through cultural
process among the tribal communities of India which in turn has considerably affects the empowerment
process of tribal women.
Key Words: Empowerment, Sexuality, Productivity, Social stratification
** Ph D Student, Tata Institute of Social Science, 14- A Bhuban Road, Uzan Bazaar,
Guwahati- 1(Assam), Email- [email protected], Contact No- 9854754514
TUI - A Journal on Tribal Life and Culture, XVII(1), 27-35, ISSN No- 2319-7382 (2014)
Women’s position and degree of empowerment is defined by gender and gender relations in society.
Although women have more obligations but culturally and legally sanction power control the women to
have less control and access to resources and information. Thus in almost every sphere of human
functioning, the roles, rights defined for women are subordinated to those defined for men. (Kishor &
Gupta, 2004). Various studies (Bhasin, 2007; Dube ,2001; Agarwal, 1997a, 1997b, 2003 ; Desai, 1994 ;
Shiva, 1988/2011) shows that there is unequal distribution of power, property and honor in the society,
which leads to hierarchies of position or strata ( Tumin, 1987) in the society which is termed as social
stratification. Social stratification is not a new phenomenon or development in society but it was there in
earliest days of man. “In such primitive conditions, both age and sex: in combination with physical
strength, must have been important criteria of stratification. Women and children last was probably the
dominant rule of order” (ibid: 1-2). A Man’s right over the woman’s sexuality, reproductive and
productive capacity (Dube, 2001; Bardhan, 1985 ), exclusion of women from the right of property
especially land (Geetha, 2007; Rao, 2004; Dube, 2001 ;Agarwal ,1997b; Chen, 1989), hierarchical
domestic division of labor ( Hartmann, 1976), sexual division of labour (Bardhan, 1985 ) lack of choice
and control over social resources (Bhasin, 2007), illiteracy (Pujari, 2012), cultural argument(Geetha,
2007;Das, 2006; Rao, 2004; Dube, 2001) ideological phenomenon (Dube, 1997/2009; Chen, 1989) are
some of the major factors of low status of women in society. Thus “inequality of gender relations is
embodied in various societal institutions, but is reproduced daily in household” (Kishor & Gupta, 2004:
694).
Women’s subordination is not a new phenomenon. In all sphere of life, whether it is economic, societal,
cultural, or political, the subordination of women is a common phenomenon. Although many writings
taking about the primitive society (Engels, 1884/2010) and about the Early Vedic Period in context to
India (Tripathi, 1942/1999) where women enjoyed a high or equal position with men. However, over a
period of time with the settled agriculture the position of women became subordinate to men with the
male line of decent and paternal law of inheritance, which, Engels termed as the world
TUI - A Journal on Tribal Life and Culture, XVII(1), 27-35, ISSN No- 2319-7382 (2014)
historical defeat of the female sex (Engels, 1884/2010:87). This was defeat of the female sex from which
onward “the man took command in the home also; the woman was degraded and reduced to servitude; she
became the slave of his lust and a mere instrument for the production of children” (ibid: 87).
ITUI - A Journal on Tribal Life and Culture, XVII(1), 27-35, ISSN No- 2319-7382 (2014)
What is the motive of this division of the work as studies shows that it is not women’s physical capacity
which constraint but social sanction which restricts women from doing many activities. For example the
belief that men alone should plough because those who menstruate pollute the earth (Krishna, 2004).
However it need to be understand why society put such sanction. Weightage of the work and control of
resources are major factors of these sanctions. “In all societies different types of work are evaluated
differently” (Beteille, 1974/2007 a: 89) and this evaluation of work raise the question of weightage of
work, More economically valuable works are assigned to men and those work which are seems to be
economically unproductive are assign to women. These unequal division of work seems to be have link
with the control to the resources. For example, if we take the agricultural community then it is common
that women are not allow to plough. What does it means. The meaning is clear. It is one of the control of
men over the labour of women. Specifically a woman have to always depend upon man for agriculture.
This way her control over land are being denied. This also lead to another repercuation on women.
“Women in household mode of production not only do the bulk of productive work not remunerated
directly, but even their direct earnings (from animal rearing, cottage industry, petty trading, even wages)
automatically belong to the family fund controlled by the usually male head household” (Bardhan, 1985 :
2262). “Many studies show that normally nearly all of a woman’s earnings are absorbed by the family
and are devoted to the maintenance of the family, whereas only about 60 per cent of a man’s earnings go
towards the family” (Mukund, 1999:1354).
Men’s control over the income of women (Bhasin, 2007; Rao 2004; Desai, 1994) is found to be one of the
major aspects of women subjugation in India. Not only women’s emotional attachment with their family
(Desai, 1994), poor infrastructure (Rao, 2004) but ancient legal texts (Mukund, 1999) also facilitates the
men to control the income of women. “When women do earn income, they contribute most of their
earnings to household maintenance, whereas men reserve some of their income for personal
consumption” (Desai, 1994: 14). Regarding the male control over the valuable forest product, Nitya Rao
in her study in Santhal villages of Dumka, Jharkhand reveals that the forest economy is primarily a
female one, with women responsible for collection, processing, and sale of forest produce. Although there
is no restriction on mobility of
TUI - A Journal on Tribal Life and Culture, XVII(1), 27-35, ISSN No- 2319-7382 (2014)
women among the Santhal, yet due to the lack of proper transportation, the duty of marketing of forest
produce gradually being taken over by men, who carry the produce on bicycles. This has reduced the
women’s transport burden and time pressure, but the negative consequence is that they have lost control
over the income from selling the firewood and fruits that they collect (Rao, 2004). Along with these
systems, the ancient legal texts are unanimous that income earned by women, especially from their own
labour or work were not belonged to the women, but belong to the family. The basic justification for these
injunctions was that in a system of patrilocal residence, women (and their time/work) were essentially
under the control of the husband or his family, and therefore whatever was earned or acquired under these
conditions naturally belonged to the family (Mukund, 1999). And through these process “a man’s right
over the woman do not relate only to her sexuality and reproductive capacity, but encompass her
productive capacity and labour power also. Just as he entitled to have control over her sexuality and over
the production of her sexuality, he is entitled to have control over her labour and also the proceeds of
production” (Dube, 2001:142). In this context, the tradition of bride price (Krishna, 2005; Dube, 2001;
Jewitt and Kumar, 2004/2005; Chowdhry, 1994) is one of the such instrument to retain the control of men
over the women labour. This is the reason why in tribal society “father considers a girl as an asset as she
contributes a lot to the family” (Bhasin, 2007: 8).
Earlier studies shows that the sexual division of labour among tribal society is being organized by
different taboos, control of specific knowledge system and unequal property relation. A study conducted
in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, Ramdas and her team ,it was found among some healers believed
that the knowledge of medicine should not be teach to women as it would not be effective if used by
menstruating women. While women performed 50 to 90 percent of all day-to-day care and management
activities of domestic livestock but they were denied access to specialized knowledge relating to the
healing of animals. This was because systems of knowledge should go from father to son and never to
daughter (Ramdas et.al, 2004). To control these knowledge system the tribal society has evolved the
system of unequal distribution of property specially land. Interestingly “agriculture is heavily relied on
women and have been evolved by women (Krishna, 2005; Shiva, 1988/2011) but ironically women have
no control over the
TUI - A Journal on Tribal Life and Culture, XVII(1), 27-35, ISSN No- 2319-7382 (2014)
inheritance of the land (Agarwal, 1997a, 1997b ; Desai, 1994 ). However, complete alienation of women
from property right among some tribe is not a correct explanation (Shimray, 2004; Thakur & Thakur
1994/2009; Kishwar, 1987). Dutta, (1976) as mentioned by Thakur and Thakur (1994/2009) found that
“in some tribes, unmarried women and widows are given rights over their earnings or property acquired
by themselves” (Thakur and Thakur, 1994/2009:13). The exclusion of women from the right of property
especially land is rooted in and cultural argument (Geetha, 2007; Rao,2004; Dube, 2001) Indian ancient
text (Agarwal ,1997b) and ideological phenomenon (Dube, 1997/2009; Chen, 1989). A study carried out
by Madhu Kishwar among the Hos of Singhbhum found that the denial of equal land rights to women
among Hos is often justified on the grounds of patrilocal family structure. People have the notion that
woman shifts to her husband’s home after marriage,so how she will able to cultivate the land in her natal
family. More over “it is also argued that she, as a wife, acquires an unwritten but real right in her
husband's family land, from which all her needs are met” (Kishwar, 1987: 150). Thus there is no use of
woman to inheriting the paternal land.
Studies show witch- hunting and force marriage is closely associated with the alienation of women from
the right of inheriting of land. Witch-hunting is not the suppression of a rebellion; it is itself a rebellion,
not by women, but by men in the process of establishing the authority of men as mentioned by Nathan,
Kelker & Xiaogang. They further added that “it is the men who in their attempt to change an established
order denounce women, or certain types of women, as witches. Along with the general ideological,
religious and political attack on women, witch- hunting is the specific attack on women’s land rights and
strengthening of men’s domination over land” (Nathan, Kelker & Xiaogang, 1998:WS 59-WS61).
Another such form of exclusion of women from their right over land is forced marriage. Madhu Kishwar
found that among Hos community “often, young women are pushed into marriage, much against their
wishes, by male relatives who wish to grab their land” (Kishwar, 1987: 154). Thus the cultural notions
prevail among the tribal societies alienate women from their inheritance claim. “A number of women are
forced to migrate in order to earn their livelihood since their hold over family land is so
TUI - A Journal on Tribal Life and Culture, XVII(1), 27-35, ISSN No- 2319-7382 (2014)
insecure and dependent on the attitude of their male relatives even though these women do the bulk
agricultural work “(Thakur and Thakur, 1994/2009:14).
Above discussion shows how among the tribal society the labour of women are control through the
different cultural process like control of resource, control of knowledge system, taboos, bride price etc.
These process in other hand control the empowerment process among them as empowerment is a process
of cultural adaptation which starts inner-self through external internal intervention or self assertion in
which a person gain control over himself or herself to control others. These cultural process starts in the
household in the process of socialization. The division of household labour based on sex finally excluded
the women from economically productive work. Secondly, control of knowledge by men through taboos.
Men’s control over knowledge in above discussion found to be one of the factors, which excluded women
from specialization. Due to lack of specialization women has to work as labourer and being the owner of
the knowledge men control the productivity and labour as master. Thirdly, bride- price entitled a man to
control over the body of a woman and her sexuality, productive and reproductive activities. Fourthly,
women have no control over her earning. Often women considered their husband as mallic (owner). The
control over her labour entitled the men to control over her earning. Thus, women’s earning is considered
as income of husband. Being the owner of the woman (wife) man (husband) has full control over the
income of the woman. Fifth, the customary practices which exclude the tribal women from inheritance of
property. Naturally, all these condition led to dependence of women on men. The option is less for the
women. Thus, the cultural notions prevailed among different tribal societies are found to be the major
factor for unequal distribution of property, honor, power. Moreover, it is the cultural notion, which gives
rights to men to have right over women’s sexuality, productive and reproductive capacity. Although the
status of tribal women in tribal society is higher than other non-tribal women but from the above
discussion it can be argue that still there is need to empower the tribal women in different spheres of life
in different level as Kabeer rightly mentioned that empowerment means ‘expansion in people’s ability to
make strategic life choices in a context where this ability was previously denied to them’(Kabeer,
1999:437) which found to be restricted by cultural notions, prevailed among the tribal communities.

2.4
Women Empowerment in Indian Culture: A Review
Harshida Patel1*, Ankit Patel2
ABSTRACT
In Indian Culture Women empowerment is a debatable subject. Women constitute almost 50% of the
world’s population but India has shown disproportionate sex ratio whereby female’s population has been
comparatively lower than males. As far as their social status is concerned, they are not treated as equal to
men in all the places. In the Western societies, the women have got equal right and status with men in all
walks of life. But gender disabilities and discriminations are found in India even today. The paradoxical
situation has such that she was sometimes concerned as Goddess and at other times merely as slave.
Keywords: Women Empowerment, Indian Culture
The economic, social, religious, cultural and psychological factors affect origination and success
of women empowerment (Habib, Roni & Haque, 2005). The reasons and motivations for starting business
or economic activities by rural women are enormous. The important reasons are earning money or
attractive source of income, enjoying better life, availability of loans, favorable government policy,
influence of success stories, personal satisfaction, desire to utilize own skill and talents, unfavorable
present working environment, self-employment and employment to others, assurance of carrier and
family security, fulfillment of creative urge of the borrowers’ experience in family business, self-
confidence, non-ability to find suitable job or work,
However, due to the traditional practices and customs the status of women has not improved much. Some
women have felt that traditional values and practices are interfering and restrictive in the development of
their personality. They have started protesting against the traditional values and are trying to break
through the old values. The women who are actively engaged in protesting social norms and restrictions
against women are the modern women. They have strong urge for social freedom. But there are a good
number of women who have little urge for social freedom and are happy in leading a traditional way of
life there is individual differences in the urge for social freedom in women. Free participation of women
in the National Development Plan is the need of the hour. The modern women have changed their outlook
and attitudes to
1 PhD Research Scholar, Dept. of Psychology, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Guj. India 2
Clinical Psychology, Dept. of Psychology, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Guj. India
*Responding Author
Women Empowerment in Indian Culture: A Review
© The International Journal of Indian Psychology, ISSN 2348-5396 (e)| ISSN: 2349-3429 (p) | 171
social issues, norms etc. in the interest of the development of the nation. The urge for social freedom in
women has its importance in the life of women as well as the nation.
Dr. Lakshmi Pandey and Bi. Shabila (2016) finding in their study, clearly indicate that all the respondents
were expressed moderate level of WSF and eager to uplift their social status equal to men. They were also
expressed moderate urge of power motive. These findings correspond with other research findings. There
is no denying the fact that women in India have made a considerable progress in the last fifty years, but
yet they have to struggle against many handicaps and social evils in the male dominated society. It also
confirm to the image of women in a changing scenario. The liberating effect of economic independence
and social change is revolutionizing their lives enormously. Hence, it is needless to say industrialization,
globalization and liberalization has made a tremendous impact on women’s status and empowerment.
According to Sneha Saha, Tanishka S. Safri (2016) Over the past three decades, there has been a
recognition and acknowledgement of the differences between women and men. One difference is the way
in which men and women develop psychologically. Jean Baker Miller posed the question of how women
develop in her 1976 book, Toward a New Psychology of Women. Until then, traditional theories of
psychology described development as a climb from childlike dependence to mature independence. A
person’s goal, according to these theories, was to become a self-sufficient, clearly differentiated,
autonomous self. A person would spend his or her life separating and individuating until he or she
reached maturity, at which point the person was equipped for intimacy. This kind of realization in 21st
century women shows the lessened yet strong relevance of dependency in women psyche. It is important
to conduct researches on women dependency, as the review found on this dimension is more than 15years
old. As a part of targeted research, this concept should be thoroughly researched on Indian population,
researches on this syndrome has not been conducted in India as of yet.
Empowerment in its emancipatory meaning is a serious word one which brings up the question of
personal agency, one that links action to needs, and one that results in making significant collective
change. It is also a concept that does not merely concern personal identity but brings out a broader
analysis of human rights and social justice. Applied to gender issues, the discussion of empowerment
brings women into the political sphere, both private and public. In this context, empowerment is a process
to change the distribution of power between men and women, both in interpersonal relations and in
institutions throughout society. The concept of women’s empowerment emerged from several important
critiques and debates generated by the women’s movement throughout the world during the 1980s, when
feminists, particularly in the Third World, were increasingly discontent with the largely apolitical and
economist ‘WID’, ‘WAD’, and ‘GAD’ models in prevailing development interventions .
Women Empowerment in Indian Culture: A Review
© The International Journal of Indian Psychology, ISSN 2348-5396 (e)| ISSN: 2349-3429 (p) | 172
CONCLUSIONS
The empowerment of women would result in overall development of society both at micro and macro
level. Active participation of women in economic activities and decisions, would contribute towards
overall economic development. • Challenges
The challenges/ barriers of women empowerment are the following:
1. Because of the inherent superiority complex among the males, they often doesn’t allow their female
counter-part to rise as high as them.
2. High level of domestic responsibilities.
3. Restrictions to participate in social, economic and religious activities.
4. In our society, the boy-child often gets preference for education and healthy diet over the girl child.
5. Preference for male-child still exist among many families in the society.
• Solution
The solutions for empowerment of women includes the following:
1. Education through mass communication is very important. Both women and men should be made
aware of their responsibilities to promote and practice gender-equality.
2. Gather national data and identify the areas where instances of violence and gender-inequality is the
most. This data can be used by the Government, NGOs and field workers to raise the status of women.
3. The society should be made aware that both boy-child and girl-child are equal, and they
both should have equal access to resources.

2.6
The Social Status of Indian Women of
Different Periods in the Patriarchal Society
H. Patil, Dr. Ramesh
The Social Status of Indian Women of Different Periods in the Patriarchal Society
Research Ambition: An International Multidisciplinary e-Journal, vol. 5, núm. 4, 2021
Welfare Universe, India
Disponible en: https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=703973410005 DOI:
https://doi.org/10.53724/ambition/v5

Abstract: is study seeks to study the social status of women in India
om ancient times to the present day. It mainly studies the social status
of women in each era. e findings of this study show that in every age,
the status of women has always been secondary to that of men and in
patriarchal societies. At the same time, the social, economic,
educational, marital, cultural and religious status of women in our
society is inferior to that of men. Even today, in the 21st century Indian
patriarchal society, women do not have the same status as men. e
findings of this study attempt to analyze the social status of women in all
areas of a patriarchal society. In Indian society, the role of women is
secondary in all aspects of society, such as family, religion, law and
media. Everything like reproduction, labor force, sexuality, means of
production are under the control of culture. is is why in all these cases
woman is le behind in the social position as a man. Considering the
social relations between men and women at diff erent levels of social
life, it is seen that women do not get equal status with men in all aspects
of social life like family, religion, caste and culture. She thinks of men
as slaves, possessions, and possessions. In social life, women have been
deprived of political, religious, cultural and family rights. “Chool and
Mool”,”Muki Bichari- Kunihi Haka” is the attitude towards women
which is found to be sexually motivated.
Keywords: matriarchal, patrimony, gratification, worshiped, personality,
revolutionary.
Introduction
Today, in the 21st century, the attitude of men who call themselves
modern is exceptionally modern in the case of women. e majority of
men look at women from a traditional point of view. His attitude
towards women is at the root of many of his problems. Not only that, but
in the masculine society, men are really superior to us, we are inferior,
so we feel like we need the protection of men. erefore, this gender
based attitude created in the society is causing problems in the lives of
women. Women and men are members of society and society looks at
them from diff erent perspectives without looking at them equally. It also
treats them differently without treating them the same way. at is,
society discriminates between men and women. E.g. Women should
behave like this, men should behave like this, and society discriminates
in many aspects like women#s dress, women#s standard of living,
men#s standard of living. e term gender is used to denote the
diff erences between men and women in society.
Biological and physical characteristics of men and women are diff erent.
Society also determines some of the diff erent characteristics of men and
women at the social and cultural level. It is mainly about women being
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cowardly, men being brave, women being weak, men being strong,
women being tolerant, men being aggressive, women being emotional,
men being capable, women being submissive, men being dominant and
ambitious. Societies are not created by nature. is gives rise to the term
gender. Society expects men and women to behave diff erently. In
general, the society has stated certain things about what a woman should
do, how she should behave, mainly housework, cooking, child rearing
are related to women, while men are expected to do hard work outside
the family.
Objectives of the study:
1. To study the social status of women.
2. To study the secondary position of women as compared to men
Research method:
e presented research essay is based on secondary tools. All the data
required for this study has been obtained through various book, internet
and newspapers. e purpose of this study the social status of women in
India, so the study has been completed by collecting the relevant data.
Discussion:
Ancient Period:
It is possible to review the status of women in the three periods of
ancient times, namely, the Matriarchy period, the Vedic period, and the
post-Vedic period.
Matriarchy period
In ancient times, the attitude towards women was similar to that of
women. Because men did not know that men are involved in disaster
creation .Everyone felt that there is a potential for innovation between
earth and women and that there must be some divine basis for it. Apart
from this, women also invented agriculture. Due to this very important
achievement of women, the nomadic society became stable to some
extent. So the problem of water was solved, the society became stable
and only aer that the matriarchal system came into existence in the
society.
In a matriarchal society, men and women were equal. Women were at
the forefront of martial arts, Ayurveda and statistical philosophy. Anarya
culture was feminist. And Aryan culture was patriarchal. References to
Shurpanakha, Tratika and other non-Aryan women Ganadhipatis appear
in the Ramayana. ese women were the head of the family. He
Dr. Ramesh H. Patil. e Social Status of Indian Women of Different
Periods in the Patriarchal Society
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was treated with respect in the society and family. Anarya women had
freedom of decision 1 .
ey had a system of self-determination. In the primitive Gana society,
women not only did the work of building the framework of Yajna,
laying bricks, etc., but also had the right to distribute the role of Gana.
What women have made important for human life is the invention of
geometry. Fortunately, the status of women remained high in the
matriarchal society 2 . later in agriculture technology; traditional
farming ideas were overtaken by the use of plows and livestock for
agriculture. At the same time, the place of man in childbirth became
clear. As a result, the idea of feminine mahatma came to an end and
motherhood was replaced by patriarchal culture in the society 3 .
Vedic period
e Aryans arrived in India between 3,000 BC and 2500 BC. e Aryans
defeated the matriarchal non- Aryan culture that existed in Indian
society. And established discrimination in the Indian system by
establishing caste. In the Vedic period, women had the right to
education. erefore Brahmavad in iremained, unmarried throughout
their lives and practiced enlightenment. However, there were no
oppressive practices such as child marriage and sati till the time of
marriage, but women did not have the right to property. ere are two
streams of thought regarding women in India. One stream considers
gender equality, while the other stream considers women only inferior. It
is called „Apastambhthat# when a woman is walking down the street,
everyone should wait for her 4 . this shows his liberal outlook, and the
„Pre-Manusmriti# period is influenced by the cultural matriarchal family
system of the „Anaryas, which gives women a degree of equal status
with men. According to „Prof. Ram Ahuja#, during this period, women
were not earning money but were seen working in the field of
agriculture. e woman used to get her share of patrimony. e mother#s
wealth was shared equally among the sons and daughters.. there was
constant conflict between Arya and Anarya. erefore, women were
responsible for the home. Women were involved in housework, textile
making, food preparation, hunting, fruit picking and other such
production processes. Because in some „Upanishads#, there are stories
of „Gargi and Maitreyi#. It is said that she was a Vidushi woman of the
Vedic period. e greatness of that time is also mentioned. So there is
exceptional reality.
In this context too, ”Dr. A.H.Salunkhe” says, but at the same time a
strange sadness remains in the mind and that is that the picture of Gargi
and Maitreyi is not a representative picture of the Indian women of that
time but an exceptional reality 6 .
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Post Vedic period
e period from 1500 BC to 500 AD is known as the North Vedic period.
During this period Ramayana and Mahabharata were created as epics.
is period was a period of transition towards the status of women. In the
post-Vedic period, the status of women began to decline. „Manuvachan
clarifies#, the status of women in the society, in which they should not
live in the country where they are leading.. e defeat of the Aryans and
Anaryas during this period helped them to stabilize their lives. With no
Aryan opponents le, women#s economic and political participation in
such a stable life diminished. As a result, the status and position of
women began to decline. e level of female education in the Vedic
period became very narrow in the post-Vedic period. e participation of
women in public life became very narrow. Due to the defeat of the
Aryans in the struggle of the Aryans, the non- Aryans joined the service
of the Aryans just like the non-Aryans. As a result, marriages between
Aryan men and non- Aryan women also began to take place.
Dr. „Aaltekar# says, that; Aryan men established unnatural marriages
with non-Aryan women, but Aryan theologians opposed the
participation of non-Aryan women in religious activities.. erefore,
women were barred from entering the religious life. Due to the strong
caste system, child marriage was sanctioned due to fear of cross-
breeding. Many restrictions were imposed on women during this period
to keep the patriarchy intact. e Arya Samaj tried to destroy the
matriarchal system with the help of many cruel practices. In this regard,
“Dr. Gadgil” says that the patriarchal Vedic Arya Samaj tried to destroy
the matriarchal system with the many help of much cruel practices..
Child marriage, polygamy, inhuman treatment of widows and the
practice of sati are all enlightening in this regard. Men are superior to
women. On ese tricks were perpetuated by the thinkers who grew up in
India.
During this period, scriptures were composed to add religion to the
inferior and secondary status of women. „Manusmriti# was also
composed during this period. Due to the addition of religion to the
secondary status of women, the status of women was degraded. Overall,
the system of women was degraded due to the influence of
„Manusmriti# and other similar scriptures. e age of marriage of women
decreased. Child marriage system came into existence. She was expected
to give birth to male off spring. And the child was determined as the field
of work.
erefore, the woman became ignorant, childish, and ignorant of religious
practices, only a means of procreation and sexual gratification. Diff erent
rules were made about the character of men and women. Marriage
became mandatory for her. Some of the ladies of kings and palaces
enjoyed exceptional freedom. Epics, Puranas and other scriptures were
considered ideal for „Manusmriti#. is means that the condition of
women in this period was the most difficult. roughout the Puranic
period, the status of women was deplorable due to Brahmin culture,
rigidity of caste system, joint family, lack of female education, entry of
non- Aryan woman as wife in Arya family and invasion by foreigners.10
Dr. Ramesh H. Patil. e Social Status of Indian Women of Different
Periods in the Patriarchal Society
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Medieval period:
Generally, the period from 1200 to 1818 AD is considered as the
medieval period. During this period, Indian life was a life dominated by
inequality, injustice, ignorance and based on scriptures. Epics based on
scriptures were the basis of society. Ramayana and Mahabharata are all
full of such ideals. For example, in the Mahabharata, if the son of a
Brahmin is a Brahmin, then if his mother is a Kshatriya and a Vaishya, it
does not matter.11 Due to the transformation of caste system into caste
system in the medieval period, this period of women#s life is considered
to be a dark period. e biggest victims of this caste system were women.
Because women have a great responsibility to maintain the purity of the
caste. For this, many restrictions were imposed on women. For this,
women#s right to education was taken away and women were enslaved
in intellectual slavery. By associating the chastity of woman with
religion, God-religion, vrat-vaikalya was engaged. e practice of child
marriage came into existence so that a girl should not have inter-caste
marriage. Widow Remarriage was banned so that widows should not
have interracial marriages. At the same time, the practice of sati came
into existence. Women were glorified and imprisoned by things like
ideal mothers, ideal wives.
Islamic rule over India began in the medieval period. erefore, the
interaction between Hindus and Muslims influenced the tradition. Due to
the diff erent cultures between Islam and Hinduism, eff orts were made to
protect Hinduism and women from Islam. is resulted in the already
degraded status of the woman and the status of the woman who was
already inferior became even more secondary.12 As a result, Hindu
women were confined within four walls. e condition of Muslim women
was also very dire. She was not given any rights; she had to live her life
under a burkha. As a result, their quality of life was extremely poor.
Modern period:
India#s history to this day is dominated by patriarchal systems. Today#s
21st century is no exception. at is why the social, economic, political,
cultural and educational status of women has been degraded even in
modern times. According to Mr. Bhide Patil, the missionaries work
helped to create a generation to social reformers in India and
Maharashtra.13 Apart from a few things in the history of India from the
Matriarchal period, during the British period, mainly Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, Mahatma Phule did a lot of work on the question of women in the
nineteenth century. Even if their work is not enough, change seems to
have begun. e modern epoch of women#s development can be divided
into two periods, one pre-independence and the other post-
independence. e role of women in society can be understood in both
these periods.
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Pre-independence period
In Indian society, women were worshiped as mothers and gods; while on
the other hand, women were treated as secondary. In the nineteenth
century, women had a secondary place in society and at home. No scope
was given to her activism. From the beginning of the British rule in
India in the early nineteenth century, a new system of colonialism and
capitalism came to the Indians. During this period, the British tried to
prove their moral supremacy by assuming that there was an oppressed
group called Indian women. Indian social reformer Raja ram Mohan Roy
first enacted the Prohibition of Sati Act in 1829 with the help of Lord
Betting. Recognizing that the main reason for the backwardness of
Indians was the confinement of women, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule started
the first school for girls in Pune in 1848. is highly revolutionary
decision began to change the lives of Indian women.14 Widow
Remarriage was later enacted in 1856 but was not adopted by the then
society. Later, Mahatma Phule set up a child murder prevention home.
Mahatma Phule and Savitribai Phule were of the view that widows,
abandoned, destitute women in a society victimized by male injustice
should not end their lives, and they should give birth to their children in
a child prevention home and take the child home if they want or with
child murder prevention.
Initially, women were educated in the British education system. Pandita
Ramabai and Tarabai Shinde shared their thoughts on the truth-seeking
rebellious legacy. A small number of women participated in the freedom
struggle. Also, the participation of women in the political, social,
economic and educational spheres began to increase. But in the male-
dominated system, the status of women has not changed much.
Post-independence period
Democracy was adopted aer independence. India adopted an
independent constitution. e Constitution gave women equal status with
men. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar was elected as the Law Minister in the
Indian Legislative Council. He introduced the Hindu Code Bill in
Parliament to achieve equality for women, but it was not accepted by the
male-dominated leaders of the time. For this, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
had the courage to resign from his post. Aer that, many women#s
liberation organizations were formed to give scope to women#s intellect,
deeds and work force. ese organizations strive for the holistic
development of women by creating awareness, self-esteem and self-
respect.15 Today, women have proved their mettle in the fields of
education, literature, art, politics and sociology.
e 20th and 21st centuries are very important for Indian society .is
period has literally brought about many radical changes in the lives of
Indian women. During this period, the personality of the woman
changed, the social, cultural and familial existence of the woman
became meaningful. Society#s attitude towards women is being formed
anew.
Dr. Ramesh H. Patil. e Social Status of Indian Women of Different
Periods in the Patriarchal Society
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e main thing is that as a woman realizes her self- esteem, a new way of
looking at her and many things in life is being created. e ability to
make decisions about your personality development has been acquired in
modern times. As a result, one#s own identity is evolving as one is able
to recognize many latent, suppressed abilities and experiences in one#s
own personality.
Today, women have made their debut in various fields like literature,
music, art, politics, administration, drama-film, education. Today no area
is excluded from woman. We have tried to ensure our existence by
proving our ability to work in various fields of society. Today, the social
and cultural environment around women is changing. In every
opportunity that arises from it, women have proved their existence.
Nevertheless, when considering the social status of women in the society
and the gender factor in the social stratification, the gender status is
considered. From the British era, the status of Indian women began to
improve. In the post-independence period, conscious eff orts were made
through various progressive laws, various projects, and opportunities for
women in various fields, etc. Women also tried to raise their status by
developing their abilities. But does a patriarchal society really treat
women as equal to men? Is it given equal status? It is important to look
at this here. During this period, women have tried to prove their
existence in education, jobs, business, politics, and social activity in the
post- independence period.
Conclusion
In modern times, the place of women in society and the problems of
women are being discussed on a large scale globally. In India, too, the
issue of women is being widely considered. Women#s study centers
have been set up at various colleges, universities, NGOs, etc. to study
the place of women in society, their issues and problems.
Research is being done on women#s issues. Feminist thinkers are
drawing the attention of everyone in the society to the question of
women. But in the twenty-first century, the tendency to write less than
men seems to have persisted, when it comes to intelligence, physical
ability, the threat of creativity, etc. e majority of societies in the world
are patriarchal. In a patriarchal society, the status of women is
considered secondary, in fact it is. Considering the social roles of men,
the role of men is considered superior while the role of women is
considered secondary. Also, the social status of the work done by
women is considered inferior while the quality of work done by men is
considered superior. In a patriarchal society, men have rights in all
spheres of life while women are always deprived of rights. It is viewed
from a masculine point of view. From that point of view, social,
political, cultural, economic, religious, educational, historical, At many
levels of justice, women are being treated unfairly and oppressed.
Although men and women are essential for reproduction and social
development, the birth of a woman at the social level is not welcomed.
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On the whole, women are viewed with the feeling that they are
physically, mentally and ideologically weak. Gender inequality in the
context of marriage is widespread. In traditional society, marriage was
performed at an early age. e marriage of a girl child is decided by the
parents today. In the traditional society, only men had the right to
divorce. Today, even though the law gives women the right to divorce, it
is not used by all women. Today, many women are living a life of
abandonment. In Indian society, women are oppressed in the name of
culture and religion. In the book; „Manusmriti# woman is called
inanimate. Inanimate means a woman who has no limbs, that is, one who
has no control over her own organs, a woman who has the senses of her
husband is called inanimate. It means that a woman should be
completely dependent on her husband#s senses, intellect and way of
thinking. We find that women are given a secondary place in all levels,
be it religious, social, political, economic. Religious and cultural
elements impose various restrictions on each level of living. e cultural
systems of all societies are patriarchal. erefore, men dominate in the
production and presentation of cultural elements like knowledge, art,
song, music, dance etc. Today, stories, novels, movies, television series,
and traditional entertainment are all designed with men at the center. In
most of the plays and films, the role of men is secondary to that of
women. Even in clothes, ornaments, religious life, cultural matters,
women are given a secondary place. Gender is part of the socio-cultural
structure. In a patriarchal society, the superiority of men and the
inferiority of women have been increasing since time immemorial. is is
an injustice done to women from the point of view of gender. Men are
getting family property rights, inheritance rights. Aer marriage,
daughters have to leave their fathers house and move to their husband#s
house. Men control all the transactions that take place in the family.
Even though women are involved in the decision making process of the
family, it is not always a decision based on a woman#s opinion. In a
traditional family, women did not have the right to property, but today
the law allows a girl to give up her father#s property aer her marriage.
In a patriarchal family system, the birth of a son is more welcome than
the birth of a daughter. A girl is a curse, a responsibility, a foreigner#s
mentality. Today, female feticide is a problem. As a result, many states
in India today have a lower proportion of women than men.
In Indian society, the role of women is secondary in all aspects of
society, such as family, religion, law and media. Everything like
reproduction, labor force, sexuality, means of production are under the
control of culture. is is why in all these cases woman is le behind in
the social position as a man. In Indian society, women have been kept
out of politics since time immemorial, with few exceptions. Today, in
most of the countries, there is a democratic political system where
women have the same opportunity to participate in the political process
as men, but even in a democratic system
2.5