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INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURES, 2"d Edition

"Talking of education, people have now a-days" (said he) "got a strange opinion that every
thing should be taught by lectures. Now, I cannot see that lectures can do so much good as
reading the books from which the lectures are taken. I know nothing that can be best
taught by lectures, except where experiments are to be shewn. You may teach chymestry
by lectures - You might teach making of shoes by lectures!"
James Boswell: Life of Samuel Johnson, 1766 (1709-1784)

Dedicated to

Frank DiMaggio
Professor Emeritus, Columbia University
 ABOUT OUR AUTHOR

William R Spillers, formerly Professor of Civil Engineering in

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New Yorlc, is now
Professor of Civil Engineering at The New Jersey Institute of
Technology, Newark, NJ where he was Departmental Chairman
1990 - 1998. He is a structural engineer with an international
reputation in areas of computer applications to structures, design
theory, and fabric structures. He has written extensively in these
areas, with well over 120 published articles and 9 books,
including the first edition of Introduction to Structures (Ellis
Horwood Limited 1985). He holds engineering degrees from the
University of California at Berkeley (BS 1955, MS 1956) and
Colwnbia University (PhD 1961 ), and was a Guggenheim Fellow
in 1968 and an NSF Fellow in 1975.

He has combined a strong academic career as a consultant

structural engineer on major projects around the world. This
duality has given a unique flavour to his work particularly on
computer applications in structures when his Automated
Structural Analysis (Pergamon Press 1972) was one of the first
texts to introduce computer applications into the undergraduate
curriculwn. His text on structural optimisation, Iterative
Structural Design (North Holland 1975), was one of the first texts
on this subject; and his Basic Questions of Design Theory (North
Holland 1975) describes a National Science Foundation
symposiwn he organised, which turned out to be the origin of
present day design theory. Introduction to Structures continues
this tradition of combining a strong academic approach with
industrial engineering practice.
Introduction to Structures, 2nd Edition

William R. Spillers
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Newark USA

Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi

Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited,
80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ
www.woodheadpublishing.com

Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia,

PA 19102-3406, USA

Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road,
Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India
www.woodheadpublishingindia.com

First published by Horwood Publishing Limited, 2002

Reprinted by Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

© W. R. Spillers, 2002
The author has asserted his moral rights

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted
material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the author nor the publisher, nor anyone
else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or
indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead
Publishing Limited.
The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general
distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be
obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-898563-94-5

Printed by Lightning Source

Contents

Foreword

1. Introduction and Review I

I.I Modeling 1
1.2 Notation 6
1.3 Rigid body mechanics 9
1.3.l The tripod 14
1.3.2 The two-bar truss 15
1.4 The concept of stress resultants 15
1.5 Exercises 20

2. Statically Determinate Stnictures 24

2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Statically determinate trusses 26
2.2.1 Plane trusses 28
2.2.1.1 The method of joints 32
2.2.1.2 The method of sections 35
2.2.1.3 Geometric instability 37
2.2.2 Space tmsses 40
2.2.2.1 The method of joints 42
2.2.2.2 The method of sections 45
2 2.2.3 The Schwedler dome 45
2.3 Frames 46
2.3.l Equilibrium equations of straight plane beams 47
2.3.2 Plane frames and arches 50
2.3.2.1 The three-hinged arch 53
2.3.3 Space frames 56
2.3.3.1 Ditf. equations for cwved beams 61
2.4 Membrane shells 63
2.4.1 A symmetric spherical shell under its own weight 63
2.5 Exercises 66

3. Deflections of Stl1ldures 73
3.1 Vutual work for trusses 74
3.1.l Member stiffness 74
3.1.2 Member/joint displacement relationships 75
3.1.3 Virtual work for a truss element 76
3.1.4 Virtual worli:: for truss structures 77
3.1.5 Some truss examples 78
 3.1.6 Williot geomeby 81
3.2 VJrtual work for plane frames 83
3.2.1 The moment-:anvature relationship 84
3.2.2 The virtual work equation 88
3,2.3 A note on the integral of the product of two functions 90
3.2.4 Virtualworkforplaneframes 91
3.2.4.1 Applications 95
3.3 More general applications 95
3.4 Computation of discontinuities 96
3.5 Real structures versus virtual structures 96
3.6 Exercises 98

4. Statically Indeterminate Structures 103

4.1 The force method 106
4.1.1 A single degree of freedom system 106
4.1.2 A tw<Hlegree of freedom system 107
4.1.3 The general case 109
4.2 The displacement method 113
4.2.l A structure with a single degree of freedom 113
4.2.2 A structure with two degrees of freedom 115
4.2.3 A three-degree of freedom system 118
4.2.4 A pile problem 120
4.3 Exercises 122

5. Plastic Analysis 131

5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 The concept of a plastic hinge 135
5.3 Proportional loading 138
5.4 Moment redistribution 138
5.5 Analysis theorems 138
5.5.1 The~ work equation 139
5.5.2 The work energy equation 139
5.5.3 The lower bound theorem 141
5.5.4 The upper bound theorem 142
5.6 Computing plastic collapse loads 144
5.7 Extensions 148
5.7.l Interaction formulas 148
5.7.2 Repeated loading 150
5.7.3 Shakedown 151
5.7.4 Common sense 153
5.8 Exercises 154

6. Uses of Cables 162

6.1 Plane cables 164
6.1.l Particular solutions 166
6.1.2 Some examples: The parabola versus the catenary 168
6.1.3 A cable loaded by concentrated forces 170
6.2 Beams with cables 171
6.3 A statically determinate suspension bridge 176
 6.4 A simple example of an air-supported structure 177
6.4.l The grid methodofshape1inding 179
6.5 Cables in three dimensions 181
6.6 Exercises 182

7. Moment Distribution 185

7 .1 Member sttll'ne§ and joint distribution 185
7 .2 Frame problems and sidesway 190
7.3 Generalizations and extensions 193
7.3.l A Vierendeel 'truss' example 197
7.3.2 Temperature and settlement 199
7.3.3 Variable moment of inertia. 199
7 .4 Exercises 201

8. Influence Lines and their Application 204

8.1 The Mueller-BresJau principle 206
8.2 An example from building design 207
8.3 Moving loads 209
8.4 Placing moving loads for maximum moment 210
8.5 Exercises 211

9. References 213

Appendix 1. The Rotation Matrix 217

Appendix2. Geometric Instability 221
Appendixl. Discontinuous Functions 222
Appendix4. The Frenet Formulas 225
AppendixS. Kinematics of Curved Beams 228
Appendix(;. The Degree of Statical Indeterminacy 230
Appendix7. .some Beam Solutions 233
Appendix I. A Transcendental Equation 234
Appendix9. The Effect of Prestn& 235

Index 239
Foreword

Over the past 20 years massive changes have occurred in the practice of structural
analysis. Those of us who graduated from an engineering school in the 1950s were
taught relatively simple skills and hoped that we would never he asked to analyze
structures with more than three redundants. Today a structure with 300 redundants
is not considered large or thought to present any particular problem for analysis. In
fact, a highly reliable solution for such a structure is usually available at a modest
price. We have thus gone from a situation in which the analysis of a highly
indeterminate structure posed considerable difficulty to one in which analysis
capabilities are readily available and cheap.

Educational institutions have for the most part been slow to respond to these
changes. While we did institute computer programming courses quickly and in
some cases graduate courses in computer-aided structural analysis, surveys have
shown that the undergraduate curriculum - the backbone of professional engineering
- is roughly the same as it was 20 to 30 years ago. To the extent that we teach
engineering, not computer programming, this lack of response to the advent of the
computer may have been appropriate. But in the long run the computer will surely
have its impact upon the way we teach structures. While not presuming to know
how matters will eventually turn out, it is the thesis of this text that because of the
computer (if for no other reason) structural engineers must know more today.

The question is, of course, how to know more. As far as this text is concerned that
question is answered in two ways. In terms of depth, an attempt has been made to
discuss three-dimensional problems more than has been common in the past. In
terms of scope, the text moves through statically indeterminate structures and on
some plastic analysis. In order to do this it has been necessary to omit some (in this
context) redundant topics such as the conjugate beam and the three-moment
equations.

Otherwise, the outline of this text is straightforward. It moves logically from

statically determinate structures to the computation of displacements to the analysis
of statistically indeterminate structures. Then follow four supplementary chapters
dealing with plastic analysis, cables, moment distribution, and influence lines. In
terms of style, there is a tendency to include more material than the reader might
want on first reading. That is done in the hope that he or she will return for a second
look and even try the references which are indicated.

There is a 200-year tradition in structures. As a result, those of us who call

ourselves structural engineers spend much time learning -really taking - from others.
In my own case this includes not only teachers and colleagues but also long-
suffering students at both Columbia University and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
to whom I am grateful. What we have shared is a common interest in how structures
work.
Finally a word about Ellis Horwood and his publishing house. At a time of harsh
economic realities, Ellis Horwood turns out to be a creative man of great energy and
enthusiasm. He is not simply a man of his word; he returns publishing to what we
commonly think of as better times.

William R. Spillers

Foreword to Second Edition

For the most part, the revisions to the first edition have been concerned with the
utility of this text to the student. They include some format changes and on occasion
some minor broadening of material.

WRS
1

Introduction and Review

1.1 MODELING

Structural analysis, the subject of this text, is for the most part concerned with
finding the structural response (the lateral deflection of a builihng under wind load,
the reaction of a bridge to a moving train, ...) given the external loads. In all but
the most trivial cases, real structures, that is structures without the simplifications
commonly associated with analysis, turn out to be imposs11>ly complex. And what
is finally aoa1y7.ed - the structural model - may appear at first glance to be quite
different than the real structure
Constructing a structural model of a given physical situation involves
discarding certain features and emphasizing others in an attempt to develop a
•reasonable' representation. In doing so the engineer must exercise judgment in
knowing what to discard and when he bas reached a wo:rkable model. This brings
up the difference benveen engineering and analysis.
This text is concerned with analysis, not engineering. Given the structural
model and the type of analysis to be performed, actually performing the analysis
should be a matter of routine and not involve engineeringjudgment. However, even
with analysis, engineering judgment is required at two points. It is first of all
necessaiy to use engineering judgment to construct the model, given the real
structure. At some later point in time, given the analysis, the engineer must use
judgment to decide - for whatever reasons - whether or not his or her results make
sense.
It is not posmble to over-emphasize the importance of these two steps
Eventually the engineer must accept the analysis and move forward with the
process of design and construction. If an error of analysis leads to a design failure,
he or she cannot simply shmg their shoulders and walk off. The engineer is legally
and ethically responsible .for producing a design which functions adequately. In
practical terms the only way this can be done is through developing an
2 [Ch.I

understanding of the stmcture to the extent that he or she knows bow the analysis
will turn out before it is actually done. The curious part is that this undelslaocting is
developed through performing analyses and thus one of the fiK:ets of this text
Modeling may proceed on many levels:

(1) Structural modeling. Elementary structural analysis is concerned with skeletal,

Slrllcnrres or sttuetures which can be represented by lines and properties associated
with lines. For example,

FIGURE 1.1 IHlrn1n'lr or -..-r ofatnws llrMae

the primaty analysis of the Rio-Nrteroi Bridge (see the frontispiece) was probably
petformed on a stmctma1 model which was a beam, rqucsented by a single line.
Jn Older to learn to model structures properly. it is imponant fur the
engineer to observe structures and tly to understand bow each structure func:tioos.
(This is eqoivalent to makjng a structural model in your mind as you pass a
structure.) When the functioning ofa structure is obrious, so is its sttuctural model.
The truss bridge schematic of Figure 1.1 is a case in point. Hele the primary
sttuctun1 elements are the pamllel trusses that transfer the loads from the bridge
itself to the abutments. The typical load path involves a load on the bridge deck
which is transrerred to the stringers which are SllJJP9lted by the floor beams which
fuune into the truss joints. The upper and lower latera1 systems are concemccl with
lateral load (e.g. wind) transfer and bracing against buckling.
A similar analysis can be made of the industrial building of Figure 1.2.
Schematically, the roof loads are transfem:d by the porlins to the roof trusses that
are supported by columns. The bracing systems again are primarily concerned with
lateral load and buckling
There is a foll spectrum of stroctural complexity. While the two structures
just mentioned function in rather ob\ious manners. a point load applied to a
spherical shell or even a cable net (see Chapter 6) can produce a complex set of
reactions which can be difficult to anticipate. In these latter cases it is even more
important that the engineer develop some way in which he or she can understand
the structure for which he or she is responstl>le.
Sec. 1.1] Modeling 3

FIGURE 1.2 Schematic or 'model' of an Industrial building

(2 ) Environmental modeling. The term environmental modeling is first of all used

here in connection with loads. While the dead load or weight of a structure should
by definition be known accurately to its designer, most other load cases turn out to
be less clearly defined. The engineer frequently does not know precisely the uses to
which his building will be put during its lifetime, he cannot anticipate all possible
combinations of cars and trucks which will use a bridge, some loads such as wind,
show, and earthquakes possess a high degree of randomness. From a pracucal
point of view, many of these questions have been studied carefully over the years
and in many cases the engineer must use loads specified in various codes of
practice. For example, the Uniform Buildmg Code (UBC) specifies various uniform
live loads (loads associated with type of usage) for buildings as indicated in Table
1.1. Similarly, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASIITO) code specifies standard trucks (see Figure 1.3) to be used in
the design of highway bridges, and the American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA) specifies standard trains for railway
bridges (see Figure 1.4).
By definition, the design of a conventional structure must follow some
given building code. In the interesting case of a new type of structure or a structure
with monumental proportions, the engineer will go to great lengths to ensure that
his or her design is adequate. For example, wind loading on a fabric structure of
unusual shape and certainly wind loading on a building of record height commonly
require model studies in \\ind tunnels (at considerable expense). Finally there are
common problems such as foundation settlement which routinely require soil
samples taken in the field to be tested in the laboratory. Less common are special
problems of a corrosive environment (certain types of manufacturing, sanitary
sewers, ...},dynamic effects (heavy manufacturing, crane loads, ... ),wave action
on ocean platforms, etc. The list is endless but the point to be made is clear. The
engineer must first understand the structural environment and then design for it.
(3) Material modeling. The treatment of structural materials is another area in
which it is common to make engineering approximations w1thm a structural
analysis. So far as this text is concerned, two types of material assumptions will be
4 Introduction and Review [Ch.l

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........ .. .......... ....,..., ......t!:"..., ...- . .... _ ... _,.,,.....,._.. .....
(ZAtMe2).

Table 1.1 Floor loads for buildings

(Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Unifonn Building Code™, copynght©l 997,with the
permission of the publisher, the International Conference of Building Officials)

made. A material will be assumed to be either elastic or elastic-plastic (sometimes

rigid-plastic). Chapter 5 will return briefly to the question of real material
properties; only some simple points will be noted here:
(a) No real structural material is perfectly elastic.
(b) Materials such as wood, concrete, and steel (at high temperatures) have
significant time-dependent material responses.
(c) Some materials such as concrete and aluminum exhibit nonlinear behavior
under 'working' loads.
Sec. I.I) s

-m:Jl:Jl]--~~-t0-4W1-~~~--1~

W = OOMB1NED M!IGHY'ON1HEARSr1WOAICLSSWHICH IS lHESAME

V =NJFOR"IMWi&oc..GHM'IRUCk
VARIAl!l£S'WllNB-14Ff10 IOFrtf.187tDl.144PlntlNCWSNE
SPACING1CIEUSB>~~PIQlUCE8MQJMIJMSTAB!ISES

SfMIWE HSp.4SlmucKS

li'IGUREt.J ...........
(Rqlrinted wilh pamiaion of1hc Amarbn Amodalicia. ofsaate Highway mil T1wporbdion
Ofticials)

(cl) Some sttuaural materials such as some types of plastics~ with time
and exposure to sunlight independent of their load level This can be impo11ant in
the design of fabric roofs.
(e) Problems of corrosion and &tigue can be significant in struc:tma1 design
situations.
(t) While it is normally assumed that unloaded stroctul3I elements are stress
free, mau11racturing pmoesses can in some cases be quite detrimeldaL Typical
examples of this include stn:sses induced through the 'rolling' of wide flange
sections, punching for rivets and bolts, and welding which is known to crack thick
steel plates when not done properly.

(4). Linear ve1'8US non-linear analysis. Without CX)IDment beyond this section, this
text is concemecl with linear analysis in which the equilibrium equations of an
element are written in its undefonned configumtion. (A compatable
approximation is made when length change is computed from member
displacements.) Put more simply, while in real lite stmctures are in
6 Introduction and Review [Ch.1

FIGURE 1.4 Example of a Standard RR Bridge Loading

(Reprinted with permission of the American Radway Bngmeering and Mamtenance of Way
Association;

equilibrium in their deformed positions, it is certainly easier and in many cases

adequate to neglect these deformations. Doing so results in linear equations which
must be solved (hnear analysis). Including member deformations generally leads
to nonlinear analysis which is of course more complex to perform. While linear
analysis is adequate in the most commonly encountered situations, there are two
situations where tt does not work: buckling and some problems of cable nets.
The point of this discussion of modeling is to raise issues rather than solve
them. This book is not, in fact, concerned directly with questions of modeling. As
a rule in this text, certain classes of structures and their loads will be given for
analysis. If a given structure can be approximated by one which contains bars
which have only axial stiffness (springs in classical mechanics) then the structure
is called a truss; if there is bending present within structural members, the
structure is called a frame; if the structure is composed of flat, sheet-hke elements
rather than line elements, it is called a plate; if these sheet-like elements are
curved rather than flat, then the structure is called a shell. There can of course be
hybrid structures but these can at worse be subsumed within the more complex
class of structures involved.

1.2 NOTATION

This section is concerned with vector notation and the rules of vector algebra. It is
assumed that the reader is already famihar with the concept of force, moment,
displacement, and (small) rotation as vector quantities from elementary physics
and mechanics courses. For that reason a fairly rapid pace will be maintained;
applications will he stressed.
From the point of view of this text vector notation is simply a short hand
and a vector equation, a simple means of representing two scalar equations when
dealing with plane problems or three scalar equations when dealing with space
problems. The following discussion will center on the three-dimensional case; the
plane case will be relegated to examples.
A vector A is descnbed by listing its three components. That is commonly
done in three different ways:
(a) ijk notation

(1.1)

Here i, j, k are the usual coordinate unit vectors or base vectors and Ax , Ay , Az are
called the components of A.
Sec. 1.2] Notation 7
r

FIGURE 1.5 Construction of a unit vector n along a line from point C to point A

(b) Ordered triplet notation A = (Ax , A1 , Az) (1.2)

(b) Matrix notation

A=[~] (1.3)

These notations all have therr uses but for the most part the ijk notation is regarded
in this text to be unnecessarily cumbersome.
Some of the common vector definitions and operations are:

Zero vector. A vector is said to be zero when each of its components is

zero. That is

A=O =>
Vector equality. Two vectors are said to be equal when their components are equal.
That is
Ax= Bx
A=B => A1 = B1 (1.4)
Az =By

Multiplication by a scalar. When a vector is multiplied by a scalar each of its

components is multiplied by the scalar. That is, when a is a scalar

Magnitude of a vector. In ge.ometric terms, if a vector A is represented by a line .

segment from the origin to a pomt whose coordinates are the vector components,
8 Introduction and Review [Ch.I

the magnitude of A, written IA I. is simply the length of the line from the origin
to the point. That is

(1.5)

Unit vector. A unit vector n is defined to have unit magnitude. That is

lnl = 1 (1.6)

Note that any vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector. That is if n =Al IA I
then In I = 1.
Vector addition

Ax+ Bx = Cx
A+B=C Ay + By = Cy (1.7)
A,, + B2 = Cz
Scalar product.

A·B = C (1.8)

I I = (A ·A )112
Note that A or (A ·A)= A I I2.
Vector product

Cx = Ay Bz - A,, By
AxB=C Cy = Az Bx - Ax B. (l.9)
c. = Ax By - Ay Bx

Projection or component. The projection An of vector A in a drrect10n defined by

a unit vector n is defined to be

An= A· n (l.10)

In mechanics it is common to use a unit vector to represent the slope (or direction)
of a line. For example, given two points A and C and their position vectors RA and
Re , a unit vector pointing in the direction from C to A can be wntten as

(l.11)
Sec. 1.2] Notation 9

Eumple 1.1 Given points A and C, consttuct a unit vector D alona a liDe from
C to A. Given:

RA• (4,4, 1)
Re: • (5, 2, 2)
Step I. Compute the components of RA - Re
RA - Re .. (-1, 2, -1)

Step 2. Compute the magnitude of RA - Re

f R,. - Ref• ../6

Step 3. Divide RA - Re by its magnitude to obtain the unit vector n

D • (-1, 2, -1)/,/6 • (-0.408, 0.816, -0.408)

This expression follows directly from Figure 1.5 since the vector RA - Re
has the desired direction and dividing a vector by its magnitude produces a
unit vector. Example 1.1 shows the calculations that are required to
compute a typical unit vector.

1.3 RIGID BODY MECHANICS

This section will be used to review some of the fundamental concepts of

mechanics and indicate some immediate applications to structures. First of
all there is the concept of the (vector) moment of a force F about any point
o. (See Figure 1.6). Given F and the position vector r which describes its
location with respect to point o, the moment of F about point o is denned
to be

Mo=rx:F (1.12)

The (scalar) moment M0 of F about a line n (whose direct10n 1s defined by

the umt vector n) through point o appears as the derived quantity

(1.13)
10 Introduction and Review [Ch.1

FIGURE 1.6 Vector moment offorce F about point 0

Equations (1.12) and (l.13) are simply compact descriptions of

familiar physical quantities. For example, the components of Mo are
simply the quantities ordinanly associated with the scalar moments of the
force F about lines through point o parallel to coordinate axes. This can be
seen by writing out these components

<Molw: = ry Fz
- rz Fy
{Mo)7 = rz Fx
- rx Fz (l.14)
(Mo)z = rx Py - ry Fx

The x component of M 0 (see Figure 1.7) is clearly the moment of F about a

line through o parallel to the x-axis. (Similar comments are valid for the
other components.)

r,

'z
E+-----'--Y
FIGURE 1.7 x-Component of M. shown using the right-hand rule

The scalar moment Mn describes the tendency of F to twist a shaft

along the line defined by n (see Figure 1.8). That fact can be seen by
writing

Mn= n · (r x F) = <n x r) · F <l.15)

Sec 1.4] Rigid Body Mechanics 11

FIGURE 1.8 Scalar Moment of force F about Line n

and noting that the term (n x r) is perpenchcular to both n and r and has
the magnitude R of the shaft in Figure 1.8. The scalar product of the force
F with this term then becomes the product of the component of F tangent
to the circle times the radius R as suggested above.
Given a rigid body under a small rotation about an axis (see
Figure 1.9) the displacement 8 is given by

(1.16)

Here 8 is the displacement or change in position of a point located by the

position vector r, co 1s the (small) rotation vector, and r is the position
vector of any point in the body with respect to a point on the axis of
rotation.

d,_,..,

FIGURE 1.9 Small rigid body rotation about an axis

Somewhat heunstically, let the body rotate about an axis (whose

I I
direction is defined by the vector co ) through some small angle d0 = co
The motion of any point is then normal to both oo and r and has the
magnitude R d0. That is precisely the motion described by Eq. (l.16). It
a
follows that an arbitrary (small) rigid body displacement can be wntten
as the sum of a (constant) translation 80 plus a rotation term given by Eq.
(1.16) or

(1.17)
12 Introduction and Review [Ch 1

FIGURE 1.10 Typical Rigid Body Acted on by Forces F1 and Moments Mi

In terms of this notation, it is now possible to write the equations

of equd1bnum for any rigid body (see Figure 1.10). In thts case the ng1d
body 1s acted upon by n forces F, and m moments M 1• The equat10ns of
equilibrium are simply:

(1) The forces must sum to zero

(2) The moments must sum to zero about any point 0

n m
l°,r, xF, + l°,M 1 =0
1=1 J=l

It follows directly that:

TREOREM I.I If the forces sum to zero and the moments sum to zero about some
point 0, then the moments about any point O' must also sum to zero.

Proof Let p; represent the position vectors which locate the forces F1 with respect
to the new O' and r', the translation of the origin (see Figure 1.10). It follows that r,
=p, - r'. Using this transformation the theorem follows directly as
f r,xF,+ f M •0
.
1
••• 1•J
.
L (p, - r'} x r, + L M
,.. ..
, 1 ... o

...L p, x F, - r' x
,..L F, + ,L.. M, • 0
Sec. 1.4] Rigid Body Medlania 13
Equations (1.18) and (1.19) are the very basic equations of equilibrium of a
rigid body. They state that the fortes must sum to 7.el'O in three dilections (the x, y,
z coonlinate directions) for three-dimension problems and in two directions in
plane problems. The moment equations are somewhat mote diffiadt. They imply
that the moments must sum to 7ao about the three OOOldinate axes in space and
about a single axis (oot of the plane) in two dimensional problems. Theorem 1.1 is
conceptually useful. It argues that once the three equations of moment equilibrium
have been used, it is not possible to obtain additional information (indepeadeot
'equations) by taking moments about another point of the same rigid body.

...._.. L2 Gi\rea die tnllS lbowll lldaw, find die RllCdcm F., F,. F,.
.,, 1. Compote aait ..... COlll(>'Jlllild
Sap z.
Wlife equilibtillln eqaadoas
Sap J. Solve for Fi. F,_ F,

Uait vec:ran:

•a - (-1(./i. -1/.Jl. -lfffl

Iii - (1/.J3. -11Jl. - lfJJ)
,,, - (0, 0, -1)
Bqailbium eqaatiom:

-FJ./3 + F,J.[3 • 0
-FJ{i - F,J{l + 10 • 0
-FJ./3 - FJ{i - F1 • 0

Add 6m two equtioas Fa•-

to/3'
2

Subtract first twoeqaadoas =t> 7J F2 - 10 • 0

Third equarion F,• -10•

Nute 1bal lllOlllenlS about the .f-IW5 gives F 3 directly.
F1 x10 + 10 x 10 • 0 ,. F 3 • -10-
14 Introduction and Review [Ch.I

In terms of these variables, the pnnciple of virtual work for a rigid body
follows directly·

THEOREM 1.2 The virtual work of a rigid body in equilibrium under a small rigid
body motion is zero.

Proof:
n "' " ,,.
L F,. 6, + L M1 • m = L F,. (60 + m x r,) + L m. M1
1•1 1•1 t•I 1•1

= 611 • (i F,) + ro • (f
·-· •1
M1 + i
•••
r, x F,) = 0
In this theorem, the left-hand side is simply the sum of the work done by the forces
moving through their respective displacements and the moments under the constant
rotation; the right-hand side is shown to be zero, using the equilibrium equations,
Eqs (1.18) and (1.19).

1.3.1 The Tripod

Example 1.2 shows an apphcation of the equations of statics to the classic problem
of computing the reactions of a three-bar truss, given the load. It is necessary, first

l!quibbM!m eqaatkmJ.

~Fi• !p,. 4
" J
s '
nF1+5F2•3
.. so•
l":1""jj"
AllttP91ivt: Qlmpuu F1 diNG!Qi by laluac 11111111'1111 illOV.t Ille llJll*' $llJIPGft.

5F:1 x 1:1 + ; Fi>< 12 • 3 x u • t r - • 1< -u- n

S 4 ( 17 K 12) (J6 I( 11 )

80'
Fl• 13 (IPJll)
Sec. 1.4] Riaid Body Medlanla 15

of all, to assume that these rra::tions are paralld to the bars themselves and can be
written using unit vecton as indicated in the example. This point will be argued
more carefully later.
The most obvious way to proceed is the write the equations of force
equilibrium as

or
F1(•1lr + F21•J,. + FJ(a,j,. + (P). - 0
F~•J, + F1.•J, + F.J.a~, + (P), =0 (scalar form)
F .(a,), + Fl.•2), + F.J.,a,), + (P), • 0

Example 1.2 shows in detail how these equations can be solved in a specific case.
Jncidemally, this example also shows that the moment equation about the x-exis
can be used dUect1y to oompute F3. This example will be tetumed to in the next
chapter.

1.3.2 The Two Bar (Plane) T111S1

Example 1.3 shows the plane analog of the tJm:e.bar ttuss just discussed. Again
note that l3ther than solving the simultaneous equations of equilibrium, a moment
equation can be used to compute each taeti.on dim:tly.

1.4 THE CONCEPT 01' STRESS JlES1JLTANTS

As indicated abo\le., one of the primaly goals of this text is the

computation of internal member forces given the external loads. This is
done by cutting a structure at the point of inteRst (see Figure 1.11) and
then attempting to find the right combination of free body diagrams to
allow the internal member forces to be computed using the equations of
equihl>rium. These internal member forces which appear when a
structure is cut are called stress resultants because they are statically
equivalent to the sm:aes distributed over the cross-section which bas
been cut.

JllGURE 1.11 sn,. Rtrfhllls

16 [Ch.I

If the fCllCe9 Ille to . . . to zero.

F,,•4", Fy • -3"
If the lllOllllllds me to - to imo llbout paint A. thell
4 x S + 3 x L34 + S - II• O~ Al• 29.(12 t'
Using die,...,. iaatm.

~~-[-::::I!:]·[:-:]-[_::: ::.1-:1
-r-0.6' 1
-4.96•J

Abana1i'fe: ea.aputc Tad V tlliag projec:lionl

f•2-l.6•-0.6t
v - +3.46 )( 1.5 - 4.96'

There are two points to be made in connection smss resultmts here in this
section. The first bas to do with the number and fype of smss resultants associated
with any cut:

Space beams. When a space beam is cot an internal member force vector and an
internal moment vector are both generated (six scalar quantities).
Sec 1-4) The Concept of Stre11 Re!lultant!I 17

Plane beams. When a plane beam is cut, an internal member force vector and a
scalar moment are both generated (three scalar quantlties).
Both of these statements can be argued from the equations of statics for a
cantilever beam For example, since the cut space beam must be in force
equilibrium, the possibility of arbitrary loads requires the exJ.Stence of an arbitrary
internal force vector associated with the cut Sunilarly, moment equilibrium
requires the eXIStence of an internal moment vector associated with the cut. For
plane beams this argument degenerates to the existence of two scalar force
components and one scalar moment component at any cut.
There is one final point to be made here which gives rise to the concept of
a local coordinate system. It is not enough to simply compute the internal forces
and momems under discussion, they must be computed in a proper coordinate
system if they are to be useful when member stresses are to be computed. For
example, it is common to divide the axial force by the member amt to obtain the
'axial stress'. In this case, strength of materials requires that this axial force be the
component of the internal force vector which is parallel to the member centerline.
Just any component will not do!
Figure 1.12 attempts to make this point graphically. The straight beam
first of all tends to blur the issues since it is so simple. but the cwved beam makes
the point clearly. With respect to statics alone it would be adequate to simply
compute the global components Fx, Fy. and M but from the structures point ofview
that is simply not adequate. To be useful it is necessary to compute the components
T, V, and M of the local coordinate system. The figure attempts to generaliz.e this
discussion to the case of space beams.
The idea of a rotation matrix comes about naturally through the necessity
of computing stress resultants in special coordinate systems. That is the point of
Example 1.4. Given the reactions, it is a relatively simple matter to compute a set
of stress resultants at the upper point (say the cut). Force equilibrium requires
horizontal and vertical force components of 4k and 3k respectively. The moment
at A can be computed by writing the moment equilibrium equations about point A
as indicated in the figure.
The point is that it is necessary to make one additional step and compute
the shear and thrust. Since the shear and thrust are statically equivalent to the
components in the global coordinate system, both sets of forces must simply be
different components of the same force vector at A. It follows that the rotation
matrix (see Appendix 1) can be used to compute these force components as
indicated in this example The a1temative of computing the shear and the thrust
using projections is also indicated.
Example 1.5 shows the d.iffi.culttes which arise when working in three
dimensions. Given, for example, the reactions at point A, the equations of statics
can be used to compute the forces and moments required at B for equihorium. It is
then again necessacy to compute the internal stress resultants at thil! point in the
local coordinate system. That is done using the rotation matrix.
~ensional problems are sufficiently complex to make a
more organized approach using a rotation matrix a necessity. Attempting to use
scalar projections (which is of course identlcal to using a rotation matrix) tends to
18 [Ch.1

be confusing in three dhnensions largely doe to difficulties in visrudizing three-

dimensional quantities.

Plue beam (stnfPt) / I I -

-I.__:_ _ ___,l+.--
f , __

Plaae beam (cuned)

~ ->~­
\ Lad'>~..
components

\
·1 • .

/llOI* - la lbc local coonlimle .,.._:

(ll 11ae.r' ail Is plllllel to ille beem ecatatillc
(2) Tiie y' llldt' . . .,....._. widl * pdadpll axes mtlae.,.... au lldioao
ftGUREl.12 hdermlMemllerr.-(SbwReZT!t_..) .. Loal_.GloW
Coorllate~
Sec. 1.4] The Concept of Stress Resultants 19

iumple 1.5 Helical beam (11a1r girder lllab J.

Otvcn the forcea at end A,
Fz • (0, 10&, 0)
MA. (1-0l, 0, 0)
Find the 1trea1 rc1ult1n11 at point B
z

S1e11 1 Fmd the ructions at pomt B m the 11lohal coordinate svstem

Sum forces. FA,.. Fa= 0 F 8 •-FA• iO, -10,0)
Sum moments about point B:
MA+ Ma+ r x F,. • 0 =>Ma = -MA - r x FA

Componenu of r.
r, • -10, SID 20°'" -3 41'
r, • -10. (1- cos 20") • -0.61' => Ma .. (-1615, O, 341)
20
r, • -10. iiO ir. ran 10• • -o 615'

Slep 2. Find the rotation matnx (see Appendtll 1)

Method 1 Compound rotations
Rotate the alobal coorcbnatc system tnto the local cootdmate system at point B
Ftnt rotate 20• about the i-axl5 then rotate -10• about they-11us. The composite
rotation matrix R is then

R • [
cos(-10°) 0 -sin(-10")] [ cos 20•
0 1 0 SID 20°
-11n 20• cos 20• ~1
11n(-10") 0 cos(-10°) O 0
0925 0336 0174]
- [ -0341 0937 0
-o 163 -0.059 0 985
20 [Ch.I

EXAMPLE 1.5 Cal' r•

Metbod 2..... ftClall
The uait 9ecton oldie loml COOldiale IJllem form tbe-ol tbe IOCaboll . .uix.
1 • (-sia 209. cas 20•. 0) • (-0.342. 0.939. 0)
1· ba die 4'lrttdon (-cos 20•. lkl 20•. wa toi
llOllllltis I' for r • (0.926, 0.337, 0.17•)
k' • I' x f • (-0.163, -0.0$9, 0.985) chec11

SteJ1 J.1._:l M• aml Fa by die ro1adan •lriL

1brult
•Fj,•BFa•[-0.341
0.92$ 0.336 0.17'
0.937 0 ~[-101
0

-.:I -0.163 -0.059 0.985 J 0]

[-3.35']
. . .=
.. -9.39'
0.59211

~beadlaa-,
belldin&
•M'a•RMa• S.llk'
r-9k~
36..1 k'

1.5 EXERCISES

I Show that A >< B • -B ><A.

2 Show that A >< 81 A, 8 or that A • (A x 8) • B • (A x B) = O.
3 Show that A x (B x C) • 1t(A • C) - C(A. B).
4 Show tbat A. (B x C) •(A x B). C • -A. (C x B).
5 Show tbat (A >< B) x C = B(C • A) - A(C • B).
' Show that A x [A x (A x B)] • (A • A)(B x A).
7 ShOtr that the ICllar product tl two vectors is equal to the cosine ol the
angle ~ the nro vec:ton multiplied by the product of their
ablolutc Yllaes.
I Given a force which is allowed to move along a pen line. Show that
the moment mthis force about a pen point is independmt tl tis
motion.
Sec.1.5) 21

9 Find tbe reactions for the plane 1l'tlll shown.

~·
,. 1'
;.r...r;:
11 Find die reacriodl for die lpllCe truss shown.
p
u

11 Find tbe reaclions for the dmdar ucb.,.... (Fiad diem ill 1er1111 of
*-addlnllL)

.....
U For die lldix of Bamplc 1.5 under its own wdlfd. ...aane poiat A to
be free 81 apin compare the Illas zaaUaa1I aa B. (Use a 4' x 8"
..,.)
Saladoa Bun:Jso 12.
Slep I. Compute the weight of the beam sepient.
Let , be the wagllt per foot o( . . . . . . . . . . . . lllllle - 10·.

Weicht ano• ....- -J,"ctr -J. ,. . df ieu

111'

• ,.. sec. 20e/180.

c-ete we;ps 14.5 II/ft' ~
, .. )( 4' ..,_,,.ix 4 x 14! - J87 IJ/ft
Tol&l lllb ~ • m x 10: x I.OU x 20 x e/180
- .!!!!.•-w
s.p z. Compale die ceatnlid f1I. die Wiml .......

*' •• J!'""x-7,----Y
l;,....;.....,

!Y'
22 Introduction and Review [Ch.I

8olatlon of ProW- 1l COllfflnled.

EquatlOfts of a helix•
1' ... , sin ' y c t(l - mt I) z "' ,, taa «
,.. Jlf
W xr•J. x pdtl ·J, prdhecor.r.linf
211"
"" pr1 sec « J sin 9 df • pr1 sec «(1 - cos 20j
0

.. 387 x 101 )( 1.015 )( 0.063 - 2369 ft lb

W XI' 2369 ,

Wxy•t
r""w-·mi·~
..
..pdsy•t prdhecu(l-cosl}
• ,r IC'""' - 1111 •> Ir'"
'"' 387 X 101 )( 1.01$ X (~S: -m 20•) m '1:16.1

1- ~ ... 0..2019'
1371 -
Step 3. Compute the reactions of B in the global coordinate system.

·"<~-
e~~
Forces sum to zero: W.,. Fa= 0
'· .. -w - {0, 0, +1371)

Moments sum to zero about point B

M• + r x W "" 0 M• • -r x W
r = (-(r sin 8 -r) 1 - (r(l - cos 9) - y, 0)
= (-1.692, -0.4012, 0)
=
M1 ,.. -r x w (0.4012 x 1371, 1.692 x 1371, 0)
.,. (-SSO, 23701 O) ft lb

Step 4. Compute stress resultants in the local coordinate ~tem (See

Example 1.5 for unit vectors)
thrust •I'. F• • 238 lb
shear, =f. F1 = O
shear, • k' • F • • 13SO lb
twisting moment = I' . M 8 .,. 272 lb'
beoding moment, ... j' .... 2 2368 lb'
beadina ~ =k'. Me - -48 lb'
Sec. 1.5) 23

U The c:anrilever beam shown has a parabolic shape with .enicll ta1lpnt
atpoiat A rather tbml the eirmlarshapeofBample 1.4. Fiad T, V, M.
,,,,.f._r
-.,!

T 1.34'

l.
14 Compale 1be lactioal F 1 ml F 2 far 1llc .,._ uu. tllown. (See
~1..3.)

. I . Fe

z
---·O"
y
2

Statically Determinate Structures

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This relatively long chapter 1s concerned with a topic which is basic to any
introductory text on structures: the analysis of statically determinate structures. A
statically determinate structure is, first of all. a structure for which the internal
member forces can be computed uruquely using only the given external loads and
the equations of statics. These computed internal member forces are then
mdependent of the materials of which the structure has been constructed, the effects
of temperature and settlement, ...
In order to develop a perspective for statically determmate structures, a
parallel with the equations of linear algebra is useful. Frrst note that the equations of
statics as they are used m this book, no matter how they are constructed, are hnear
equations in the unknown forces and moments. (This 1s due to the fact that these
equations are always written in terms of the given initial configuration rather than
the deformed configuration which would be more correct) Now, given a set of
linear equations, Ax= b, there are three alternatives with regard to solution type as
indicated in Figure 2.1. For each of these alternatives there 1s a structural
classification:

1. Statically determiriate structures. When the equations of statics imply a unique

set of mternal member forces and moments for an arbitrary set of external
loads, a structure is said to be statically determmate. The word arbitrary is
imponant here. A structure may perform well under one set of loads but snll be
techrucally unstable. For example, the unstable truss of Figure 2.1 performs
well under an upward vertical load but cannot carry a honzontal load
component and for that reason is regarded to be (geometrically) unstable.

2. Sratically mdetenninare srrucrures. The case of the statically indeterminate

structure of Figure 2.1 1s equally mteresting and is m fact central to this book.
It was implied in Chapter l <Example 1.3) that the two-bar truss 1s generally
statically determinate. When a bar is added as was done m Figure 2.1, the
 Sec. 2.1) Introduction 25

resulting structure is statically indeterminate and the equations of statics no

longer provide a unique solution for the member forces. In fact, the force m the
bar which has been added may be selected arbitrarily and the equations of
statics still satisfied since the added bar, with respect to the remaining twt'
bars, has the effect of an external load.

3. Geometrically unstable structures. The case of an unstable structure is

somewhat pathological and will not he dealt with m much detad m this book.
One example has

Linear algebra Structural analysis

A ~ystem of linear equations may The equations pf statics for a given
have; structure are;
(1) A unique solution (l) Stat1caJly determinate.
(2) Many soluuons. (2) Stalically indeterminate.
(3) No solution (3) GeometricaJly ull6table.

Examples.

/ / /

l$tatlcaHy_ determinate
plane truss
71 l
s,1at1callv lndeterrmnate
panelnlss ~
FIGURE 2.1 Classification or Structures

already been cited in Figure 2.1 and another will be discussed later m this
chapter- Unstable structures are, as a class, somewhat counter-productive since
they are neither designed nor built.

One additional comment on the non-uniqueness of the equilibrium equations is

m order. In general, it can he expected that within linear theory a given set of
external loads will produce a unique set of mternal member forces. The fact that the
equilibrium equations can possess non-unique solutions simply implies that the
structure is not completely described by them. The remedy, which wtll be discussed
at length m Chapter 4, will be to introduce member stiffness properties into the
description of the structure. The additional reqwrement that the pieces of the
deformed structure must fit together will then supply sufficient additional conditions
to guarantee the umque solution which might have been argued on physical
grounds.
By way of summary then, statically determinate structures are introduced at
this point for several reasons:
26 Statically Determinate Structures [Ch- 2

• Simplicity. Statically determmate structures form a simple subclass of

structures.
• A step toward the general case. In Chapter 4 it will be shown how statically
indeterminate structures can be reduced to statically determinate structures
which then require certain corrections which depend upon member stiffness
properties.
• Construction. For many practical reasons, statically determinate structures are
easy to build and have for that reason alone become quite common.
• Thermal stresses. They of course have the convenience of a lack of thermal
stresses.

This chapter moves slowly with mcreasing complexity through the analysis of
statically determinate trusses, frames, and some simple cases of shells. A
subsequent chapter will present methods for the computation of displacements in
statically determinate structures which then form a basis for the analysis of statically
indeterminate structures.

""ourvecl.
FIGURE 2.2 Pin-ended Member
pon-encled member

2.2 STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSSES

Technically. a truss is a structure made up of pin-connected members which ts

loaded only at its Joints. The result of this defimtton is that, with regard to statics,
each member can be described by a smgle scalar quantity known as the bar force.
That is the point of Figure 2.2.

Since the bar in Figure 2.2 ts pm-ended, no moments are shown at Its ends.
The bar is then acted upon by two force vectors. The equations of equilibrium will
now be used to show that (a) these forces are equal and opposite and (b) they must
he parallel to a line passing through the pinned ends of the member. Since the forces
must sum to zero for any rigid body in equilibrium, it follows that

(the reactions are equal and opposite) ( 2.1)

Wnting moment eqmhbrium about the left end of the bar requires that

(this imphes that r 11 F) (2.2)

 Sec 22] Statically Determinate Trusses 27

Since I r x F I = I r I .x I F I. sm 0, it follows that m the non-trivial case, sm 0= 0

or that the force F, must he along a hne between the two hmges. This gives rise to
the concept of a bar force. (See Figure 2.3.)

Curved, pin-ended bar Straight, pin-ended bar

FIGURE 2.3 Concept of a Bar Force

Since the force on the end of a pm-ended bar must he along the line between the
pins, on any free body diagram of a bar which has been cut, the internal force must
also lie along this line and can therefore be represented by a scalar ti.mes a umt
vector. This scalar is called the bar force and is taken to be positive when the
member is m tension.
For trusses there is a simple, necessary test for statical determmancy. The
node equihbrium equations first provide a set of independent equations; there are 3j
of these for space trusses and 2j for plane trusses, where j is the number of jomts.
The number of unknowns in either case is equal to the sum of the number of
reactions r and the number of bar forces b.

For a truss to be statically determinate, the number of equations must equal

the number of unknowns:

Space truss Plane truss

Number of equations 3J 2j
Number of unknowns b+r b+r
Statical determmancy 3j =b + r =
2J b + r

Figure 2.4 shows how these relationships apply to two specific examples. What this
analysis does not show is whether or not a structure is geometrically unstable. In
fact, an example below shows a case m which these relationships are satisfied, but
the structure is unstable ma rather unpredictable manner. But this is not common.
One final comment concerrung real trusses. Whtie it is uncommon today to
find a structure which actually contams hinges, trusses remam ~ common model for
many classes of structures. Figure 2.5 is a case in point. This bridge has heavy
riveted joints which are probably closer to fixed joints than they are to hinges, but
the structure itself has been analyzed and designed as if its members were pin-
connected. The fact that structures hke this can be modeled as trusses has a lot to do
with member stiffness and less to do with member connections. If the members
themselves are sufficiently flexible (think of a strmg) then it does not matter how
28 Statically Determinate Structures [Ch 2

Number ol JoiDll • J • 5
Number of membtrs • I> • 5
Number ot reacdOGI • r • 4

Spacetrua

(Three~support

Numborof j - • 1 • 8 3J•b+r
Num'* of memben • b • 12 3 x8 • 12+ 12
Number of nacdanl • r • 3 x 4

FIGURE 2.4 Counting equations and unknowns for a statically determinate truss

they are connected: the moments that develop will be small. In other cases such as
wooden domes, it 1s the connections themselves that are flexible while the members
themselves may be quite stiff. In either case members can not to be subjected to
significant bending if a truss model is to be valid.
Finally there are practical reasons for not usmg actual hinges in structures
such as the fact that (a) they are expensive to make and (b) they do not work well
(unless they are carefully maintained).

2.2.1 Plane Trusses

Figure 2.6 shows some of the common configurations of plane trusses that have
developed over the years with specific apphcations and specific materials m mmd.
In some respects, the engineer is a prisoner of hts design requirements. For example,
a parallel chord truss under gravity load acts much like a beam with the upper chord
in compression (like the upper flange of a beam) and the lower in tension and little
can be done about it. On the other hand, by changing their direction, the diagonals
they can be forced to act either like tension members (common m steel roof trusses)
 Sec. 2.2) Statically Determinate Trusses 29

FIGURE 2.S - Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge (Kirkwood-Mt Pleasant, Delaware, USA)
(Courtesy Gerard Fox, HNTB, New York City)
30 Statically Determinate Structures [Ch. 2

/1\IZl\IZl\l/f\
Warran truss
~
K truss

VVV0\NSlsJ
Howe
Scissors

~
Pratt truss
FtnK

FIGURE 2.6 Some Common Types of Plane Trusses

or like compression members. Plane trusses can in fact be found in many possible
configuration depending on the functional requirements of buildtng shape
and bridge span and upon material considerations. The discussion is
endless and not especially relevant to this text.
This section is concerned with developing methods of analysis for
plane trusses that can be performed by hand and that add to the
understanding of how trusses function. It is noted in passing that the
most systematic way to approach a truss is to write the joint equilibrium
equations as simultaneous linear equations in the unknown bar forces
and react10ns. These equations can then be solved at low cost usmg a dtgital
computer. While elegant and systematic, this is not a frwtful way to proceed when
working by hand since humans do not perform this type of task well. The approach
taken in this section will be to explain some basic principles of truss behavior and
then show how these pnnciples can be used to solve trUsses without solving large
systems of equations.

Example 2. l A plane truss wuh three unknown reacuons

~~: I· 10· ·I· 12· ·I

M•_•menrs mu•t sum 10 zer~ about the left 1upport

lOP - 22R;J{i. • 0 • R1 • {2 jP

Forces must sum to zero m the honzontal and vertical d1rec11ons

 Sec. 2.2] Statically Determinate Trusses 31

Exuiple 2.2 Find b•r lur<.e• F., F., F., F•

-~-·· A 1"06F,

'
08F, F,

Free body diagram of 1omt B

Vcnical forces sum to zero P + 0.8 F, • 0 => F, • -iP

Honwntal forcH sum to zero. F, + 0 6 F• • 0 => F, • JP

F, • F4 • O(unloadcd twa-bar J01nt)

( 1) Trusses with three reactions. Smee there are three equilibrium equations for a
plane rigid body, when a plane truss has three reactions it is always possible to
compute these directly. As a practical matter, if these reactions are to be
computed it is generally a good idea to compute them first.
Example 2.1 indicates a typical structure in which it is require to
compute three reaction components R 1 , ~ , Ra . If a moment equation is
written about the left support, Ra can be computed directly; then
horizontal and vertical equilibrium can he used to compute R 1 and R 2 •

(2) The two-bar truss. It should by now be clear that the plane two-bar truss
ts statically determinate unless the bars are collmear. (It 1s then geometncally
unstable.) This imphes that: (a) Any two-bar Joint in a plane trUSs may be analyzed
directly and that (b) the two bar'forces of an unloaded two-bar joint must be zero.
<This is true smce the equtlibrmm equattons become homogeneous. That is. tf the
system Ax = b possess a uruque mverse matnx A.1 , then b =0 and x =0.)
Both of these points are illustrated in Example 2.2. As indicated, joint B
can be solved directly as a two-bar truss for bar forces Fa and Fb smce joint c is
unloaded it can be argued without further analysis that Fe= Fd =0 .

___ __ __......L__
____.,/ Unloaded Joint
!p
Loaded 101nt
(f:.Jy•P

FIGURE 2.7 Collinear Bars

32 Statically Determinate Structures [Ch.2

(3) Collinear bars at a three-bar joint. If two bars at a three-bar joint are collinear,
the force in the remaining bar may be computed directly. If the joint is unloaded the
remaining bar force must he zero. (See Figure 2.7 and Example 2.3.)

n,n, .. unn veclors

F (bar torce)

~F.
n,
lbwtorcacomponanl)

By defirution· F. • 1t1. (h) ,. F • F./(•1 • •)

FIGURE :!.8 Bar force component

(4) Bar force components. If any component of a bar force is known, the bar force
itself may be computed drrectly. (See Figure 2.8 and Example 2.3.)
Example 2.4 discusses a final two-bar truss. Note the two approaches used:
either the straightforward application 0f force equdibrium or a c0mbined approach
using both moment and force equilibrium may be used.

2.2.1.1 The Method of Joints

The method of jomts makes systematic use of the equauons of force eqwhbnum in
moving from jomt to joint throughout a truss computing bar forces. The idea 1s that
(like the two-bar truss) any truss joint which contains only two unknown bar forces
can be solved for these bar forces using the equations of force equilibrium. As a
practical matter note again that: (a) When possible, reacuons should be computed
frrst (b) When any component of a bar force is known, the bar force itself can be
computed. Example 2.5 shows how the method of joints can be applied to a truss of
modest size.
From a practical standpomt, 1t 1s someumes convenient to make a
relatively large-scale drawing of the truss to be analyzed and write force
components directly upon it as if the joints themselves were free body diagrams.
That approach is indicated in Example 2.6 and is highly recommended in general.

Example 2.3 Find F•• F.

(F,), • F, "n 60' • 10 => F. • 11 54 lb

Fh • 0 (unloaded 1om1)

~ 60' -
Sec 2 2] Statically Determinate Trusses 33

tumple 2.4 Find F,, Fi

Force equations

n, ,. (-I/Ji, l/J°2) F, I/Ji + F2 x 0.8 = 2

n2•(-08,-0.6) F 1 1/J2-F2 x06•7 .. 14Fz•-S ->F2 •-3.S8
Fi
2, .fi • 2 - 0.8F2 -> F 1 • 6 8S

I· 4'
·I
Alternative method of soluuon·
Moment equation (about lower suppon)

h S + Jt
F x " x 2 • 7 x 4 + 2 x 3 • 34-> F1 =6 BS

Summing venacal forces

6 SS
06xF2 •-7+ .fi =-21s .. F2 =-358

Example 2.5 u~e of 1he me1hod of io1nts

Step 1 Compute member lengths (required for projections)

~1ep 2 Symmelry Reactions = 14 + 9 ,. 2Jk
Only need to solve half lhc lruss
Jomt l.
14 205
G.,. -23-> G • - 23 x ""'i'f""
= -3979
12
G 11 =Gv x - = -3247->F= 3247
SS
34 Statically Determinate Structures [Ch. 2

Example 2.5 Continued

Jomt 2
+1.
_ _J__H L = 14 H • 32.47
3247 ~
14

~~
--M
Jomt4
13 '14 ......... N

1-2 -
.\#,.+Nu"' -J 2 47 -12.816 M + _;_:___
14.10S N .. -3247

Mv- Nv'" -9

M N
--+ --= -2206 ~N=-010
12 816 14 705 14 705
lt,f I 8R8
i2ii6 - 14 705 N"' -Z
M • 31.547 x (-1) N • 3 595' x (-1)

Jomt5
4.5
p = 2 x 31 54 x 12.816
• 22 ISk

Bar force wmmary

Example 2.6 Method of iomts Find the bar forces

 Sec. 2.2] 35

Sum lllOllleJllS llloul die left support

JJr, - I. I'• 0 • It,• P/J
Sumfolcel 111 •fr R, • 0

S.,2. SllMjoial .... ..., . . . . _

TJPical jclilll '-llodf diqrlm

'""" l

Z.Z.1.2 De MdluNI of Sediom

When you wish to find all the bar forces in a truss, the method of joists
provides a systematic way of doing so. There me other cases in which it may only
be necessary to find some individual bar forces. When this can be done dnu8h the
clewer DIC of free bocly diagams it is called the method of sections. BDmple 2.7
incficates w uses of this method. In this case moment equatioB aR writtmabout
the intencction points of some bar foroes allowing the other bar forces to be
computed directly.
Anodler application of. the method of sections oc:cms in parallel chord
tmsses where a vertical section aJtting the diagonal• can be used with vertical force
equilibrium to compute directly the forces in the~ (Figure 2.9). RetumiDg
to Example 2.6. the vertical force c:omponeat in the center diagonal - - dlaefore
equal the right ieaction which is 113. The method of sectiom is another one of these
caaes in which an experienced engiBeer can be exttemely effective by kaowing the
proper use of the proper free body diagram. It is at the same time impassible to do
jusdce to the method with a few simple examples. The reader will in any case see
the method used iepeatedly tbrougbout this text.
36 [Ch.2

~rr
I I 14• 1r ,,..
• 2..,a: '' •• •

Momenll lhollt point A . . pc die Im fonle H

dlrecdy: 8.J x ff • 23 x 12 « H • 32.47'
Mimeat1 . . . . ~ B wll ai¥e die ber fllRie FdiRcdy:

~die loadaa al pm B !;:!

r
•~
12
r • 22.67'

Mamads llllolll 8: Fv x (22.67 + 12) + 14 x 22.67 - 13 x 10.67 • 0

14.705
Fv• -2.07 • F• -2.111 xsr-• ~

Mom111t1 lbaut pmt C wil IJl.tt• die blr fcne G dinc:dy:

G" x 13 + 23 x 2A - 14 x 12 • O G,. • -29.5'1
12.82
G • -29.54 x - • -31.J5'
12
 Sec. 2.2) 37

2.2.U Geometric lllltabllitJ

This section contains the fiaa1 example in this 1at of a struc:an wldch is
geometrictlly uastable. As ....,wed eadicr, in the case of a pomettical1y UJISfah1e
suuctme 1be equilibrium equadons hawe no ao1ution. (Tbat is obvious in the cae of
Fig. 2.10. Siace the bar forces have no 'VCl1ical mnponallS it is impossible to
S8lisl}r Wdical equilibrium.) On the other band, it is more COIDlllOll to thillk of an
unsaable stmctore kiDematically in terms of collapse. That is, an

Tnm
mJDJ.tl ACea•...... ~T..-

unstable stmctore possesses the possjbllity of a rigid body lllOlioa which implies
polmtial collapse. While not quite in the spirit of the material of this text, there is a
beautiful tlleorem. of linear algebra (see Appendix 2) that clmcribes this
fon:e/dMplacement duality of geometric insaabllity. Tnms•amct into suuctma1 terms
it slates that

Either the equilibrium eq11ations have a solution for arbitrary load or

thet'e exists a collapse mechanism.

Fig. 2.11 attempts to show the aeaml coafiguation of the W'JCbert ttuss
which uses a rather P""'futr 1oaking c:enml panel with mudanl ttusses oa eitber
side. While the W-Jdlat tnlSI is statically determinate, beamse ofits configmadoo it
behaves like an indeterminate SllUClUR to the exrent that the load P on one span
produces a n:aaion R.. on the odD' span. In any case the analysis of the Wichert
truss is intaating. First, note that the 1nlSS of Fig. 2.11 satis&oa the aeccswy
condition for Slati<:al determinacy siacc thcre are 36 bars, four Jmetions, and 20
joints and therefore
38 Statically Determinate Structures [Ch. 2

2 J =b +r or 2 x 2 0 =3 6 +4

Still there is no obvious starting point for the analysis since there are four reactions
and no two-bar joints to be solved. A common procedure in situations like this is to
begin to take the structure apart in order to use internal structural conditions. (This
will be done again later for the case of the three-hinged arch.) That is done in Fig.
2.11 and it appears that the decomposed structure may be manageable. It contains
two rigid bodies which supply 2 x 3 = 6 equilibrium equations and there are six
unknowns, Ri. Rt, H, V , R, S
Two specific cases will be presented here in detail. First, Example 2.8
describes a Wichert truss which will now be shown to be unstable. Rather than
using the six equations mentioned above, this example uses four equations in the
four unknowns R , S, Ri. R 4 , which are obtained by simply avoiding the terms H
and V That can be done by writing the moment

Eumplt 2.1 An umuible W1cltcn IJUM.

R1 ;:_ "' JO T R1 ... JU - HIP "' 0 (mumc:ms .iboul ff, t' oo llae left)
20

I'
s1,;1. )(JO+ R. IC JCI ... u (moments about H, v Oii the nsltt)
R, - P + R/."! + S/~'i + R. - 0 (\'tt11cal forces wm to 1ero)
R!vl -~/vi -u (111.oru:unuil lor- IUm 10 zerv)
In malnlt form

[:::: :;~: ~ :) :.]- '~]

l -I 0 0 It, 0
 Sec. 2.2) 39

ltc111mmal ....,_.,. R • S

Vertical eqwlibrium .. RI,..*+ R - 1

\.tume111 \'qUllibrium for the left piece • 40R 1 + fi .

30 • 25

Moment equilibrium far ........ pleae. . , +~.JO •I

J5 1-
SolvinJ: R • lO. v2 • 1.0607
1
Ri•-•00625
16 9
a.• - -l6 - -o.5625

equations about their point of application and by putting the two pieces tosetber
before writing the equatiolls of horimntal and vertical equilibrium. The fact that the
suuetme is unstable can best be seen from the matrix form of the equilibrium
equations in this example. Since row three in the matrix is a lintar combination of
rows 1 and 2 these equations me clearly singular, In kinematic terms, the pntiadar
dimeDsioas of this problem allow a kind of 'squashing' rigid body motion in the
suucture which is not obvious.
A more fypical Wichert ttuss is described in Example 2.9. The analysis
begins with the computation of the four unknowns R, S, lt1, a.,· as described in
Example 2.9 except that horizontal equiJibrinm is immediately used to set R = S.
Having these reactions, the method ofjoints is used to compote the bar tomes.
Other documents randomly have
different content
of her (since to weary of one so true, intelligent and
tender was even more of a punishment than a
misfortune) but most particularly, with regard to his
craving for "gowd and gear." He reminds me of a
similar piece of humanity described in three short
stanzas which were found by Mr. Macmath written on
the fly-leaf of a little volume printed at Edinburgh
about 1670, and which I found in Child's Ballads:
"He steps full statly on the street,
He hads the charters of him sell,
In to his cloathing he is complete,
In Craford's mure he bears the bell....

"I wish I had died my own fair death,

In tender age, when I was young;
I would never [then] have broke my heart
For the love of any churl's son.

"Wo be to my parents all,

That lives so farr beyond the sea!
I might have lived a noble life,
And wedded in my own countrée."

425. "But think na' ye my Heart was sair?" (line 21)

Down in yon garden sweet and gay
Where bonnie grows the lily,
I heard a fair maid sighing say,
"My wish be wi' sweet Willie!"

"Willie's rare, and Willie's fair,

And Willie's wondrous bonny;
And Willie hecht to marry me
Gin e'er he married ony.

"O gentle wind, that bloweth south

From where my Love repaireth,
Convey a kiss frae his dear mouth
And tell me how he fareth!

"O tell sweet Willie to come doun

And hear the mavis singing,
And see the birds on ilka bush
And leaves around them hinging.

"The lav'rock there, wi' her white breast

And gentle throat sae narrow;
There's sport eneuch for gentlemen
On Leader haughs and Yarrow.

"O Leader haughs are wide and braid

And Yarrow haughs are bonny;
There Willie hecht to marry me
If e'er he married ony.

"But Willie's gone, whom I thought on,

And does not hear the weeping
Draws many a tear frae's true love's e'e,
When other maids are sleeping.

"Yestreen I made my bed fu' braid,

The night I'll mak' it narrow,
 For a' the lee-lang winter night
I lie twined o' my marrow.

"O came ye by yon water-side?

Pu'd you the rose or lily?
Or came you by yon meadow green,
Or saw you my sweet Willie?"

She sought him up, she sought him down,

She sought him braid and narrow;
Syne, in the cleaving of a crag,
She found him drowned in Yarrow!

Hecht (line 6) means vowed; haughs are water-

meadows; and to be twined o' one's marrow, is to be
separated from one's loved one.

427. The Twa Sisters.

Here is another ballad—"The Water o Wearie's

Well,"—of a similar pattern. But in this the drowner
of the King's daughters himself finds a "watery
grave":
There came a bird out o a bush,
On water for to dine,
An sighing sair, says the king's daughter,
"O wae's this heart o mine!"

He's taen a harp into his hand,

He's harped them all asleep,
Except it was the king's daughter,
Who one wink couldna get.

He's luppen on his berry-brown steed,

Taen 'er on behind himsell,
Then baith rede down to that water
That they ca Wearie's Well.

"Wide in, wide in, my lady fair,

No harm shall thee befall;
Oft times I've watered my steed
Wi the water o Wearie's Well."

The first step that she steppèd in,

She stepped to the knee;
And sighend says this lady fair,
"This water's nae for me."

"Wide in, wide in, my lady fair,

No harm shall thee befall;
Oft times I've watered my steed
Wi the water o Wearie's Well."

The next step that she stepped in,

She stepped to the middle;
"O," sighend says this lady fair,
"I've wat my gowden girdle."

"Wide in, wide in, my lady fair,

No harm shall thee befall;
Oft times have I watered my steed
Wi the water o Wearie's Well."

The next step that she steppèd in,

She stepped to the chin;
"O," sighend says this lady fair,
"They sud gar twa loves twin!"

"Seven king's daughters I've drownd there,

In the water o Wearie's Well,
And I'll make you the eight o them,
And ring the common bell."

"Since I am standing here," she says,

"This dowie death to die,
One kiss o your comely mouth
I'm sure wad comfort me."

He louted him oer his saddle bow,

To kiss her cheek and chin;
She's taen him in her arms twa,
And thrown him headlong in.

"Since seven king's daughters ye've drowned there,

In the water o Wearie's Well,
I'll make you bridegroom to them a',
An ring the bell mysell."

And aye she warsled, and aye she swam,

And she swam to dry lan;
She thankèd God most cheerfully
The dangers she oercame.

428. "Sweet William and May Margaret."

 Hermione. Come Sir, now I am for you againe:
Pray you sit by us, and tell's a Tale.

Mamillius (her son). Merry, or sad, shal't bee?

Hermione. As merry as you will.

Mamillius. A sad Tale's best for Winter:

I have one of Sprights, and Goblins.

Hermione. Let's have that, good Sir.

Come-on, sit downe, come-on, and doe your best
To fright me with your Sprights: you're powrefull at it.

Mamillius. There was a man....

Hermione. Nay, come sit downe: then on.

Mamillius. Dwelt by a Churchyard:

I will tell it softly,
Yond Crickets shall not heare it.

Hermione. Come on then, and giv't me in mine eare....

The Winter's Tale

429. "That birk Grew fair eneugh." (stanza 6)

The strangest feature of these ballads is that the

stories they tell, the customs, beliefs, lore they refer
to, may be found scattered up and down all over the
world. In Russia, for one small instance, the birk or
birch tree is honoured in this fashion: A little before
Whitsuntide, says Sir James Fraser in The Golden
Bough, the young women, with dancing and
feasting, cut down a living birch-tree, deck it with
bright clothes or hang it with ribbons; then set it up
as an honoured guest in one of the village houses.
On Whit Sunday itself they fling it, finery and all, into
a stream for a charm.
And now for England: "Thirty years ago," says
Mrs. Wright, "it was still customary in some west-
Midland districts to decorate village churches on Whit
Sunday with sprigs of birch stuck in holes bored in
the tops of the pews. I can remember this being
done by an old village clerk in Herefordshire, but
when he was gathered to his fathers in the same
profession, the custom died with him." How happy
must he have been then—as happy as for that one
evening was the Wife of Usher's Well herself—to lift
his eyes upon a silver birch brushing with its green
tresses the very gates of Paradise!

433. "A spangle here."

 Dew sate on Julia's haire,
And spangled too,
Like leaves that laden are
With trembling dew:
Or glittered to my sight,
As when the Beames
Have their reflected light,
Daunc't by the Streames.
Robert Herrick

If the daisies are not to shut their eyes until Julia

shut hers, should they not most assuredly wait also
until "dear love Isabella," shut hers? She was the
bosom friend and aunt of Marjorie Fleming, Sir
Walter Scott's little friend, who was born in 1803,
and who, having written her few tim-tam-tot little
rhymes, died in 1811. And here is Isabel:
Here lies sweet Isabell in bed,
With a night-cap on her head;
Her skin is soft, her face is fair,
And she has very pretty hair;
She and I in bed lies nice,
And undisturbed by rats or mice;
She is disgusted with Mr. Worgan,
Though he plays upon the organ.
Her nails are neat, her teeth are white,
Her eyes are very, very bright;
In a conspicuous town she lives,
And to the poor her money gives;
Here ends sweet Isabella's story,
And may it be much to her glory.
 434.

Bunyan's "Comparison" for this poem runs thus:

Our Gospel has had here a Summers day;
But in its Sun-shine we, like Fools, did play,
Or else fall out, and with each other wrangle,
And did instead of work not much but jangle.
And if our Sun seems angry, hides his face,
Shall it go down, shall Night possess this place?
Let not the voice of night-Birds us afflict,
And of our mis-spent Summer us convict.

437.

From the "Songs of Innocence"; and this is from

the "Songs of Experience":
When the voices of children are heard on the green
And whisp'rings are in the dale.
The days of my youth rise fresh in my mind,
My face turns green and pale.

Then come home, my children, the sun is gone down,

And the dews of night arise;
Your spring and your day are wasted in play,
And your winter and night in disguise.

For to grow old and look back on one's childhood,

though in much it is a happy thing, may be also a
thing full of dread and regret. The old poets never
wearied of bidding youth gather its roses, seize its
fleeting moments. But not all roses are fresh and
fragrant in the keeping, and "lilies that fester smell
far worse than weeds."

440. "Afterwards."

Every fine poem says much in little. It packs into

the fewest possible words—by means of their sound,
their sense, and their companionship—a wide or rare
experience. So, in particular, with such a poem as
this. It tells of a man thinking of the day when he
shall have bidden goodbye to a world whose every
live and lovely thing—Spring, hawk, evening, wintry
skies—he has dearly loved. And if what it tells of is to
be seen as clearly and truly as if it were before one's
very eyes, it must be read intently—all one's
imagination alert to gather up the full virtue of the
words, and to picture in the mind each fleeting and
living object in turn.
As I write these lines I cannot refrain from
suggesting how thankful we should be to be living in
a day when three great poets, who have been long
in the world, are adding to the riches of English
poetry—Thomas Hardy, Charles Doughty, and the
Poet Laureate, Robert Bridges. It is but a little while,
too, since the death of that exquisite writer, and
lover of all things true and beautiful, Alice Meynell,
and of W. H. Hudson, who was no less a poet
because he wrote not in verse but in prose.
To compare the great things of one age with the
great things of another is an exceedingly difficult
task (and to pit poet against poet, or imagination
against imagination, an exceedingly stupid one). But
that in Elizabeth's day England was indeed a "nest of
singing birds" may be realised by the fact that when
Shakespeare was finishing his last play, The Tempest,
in the Spring, apparently, of 1611—when, that is, he
himself was aged 47 (and his Queen had been eight
years dead), Sir Walter Raleigh was 59, Anthony
Munday 58, Samuel Daniel 49, Michael Drayton 48,
Thomas Campion 44, Thomas Dekker (?) 41, John
Donne and Ben Jonson were 38, John Fletcher was
32, Francis Beaumont 27, William Drummond 26,
John Ford 25, William Browne and Robert Herrick 20,
Francis Quarles 19, George Herbert 18, Thomas
Carew (?) 16, James Shirley 15, and John Milton
(and Sir John Suckling) were 2. It was seven years
before the birth of Richard Lovelace and Abraham
Cowley, ten before Marvell's, and eleven before
Vaughan's. Edmund Spenser had been twelve years
dead, Sir Philip Sidney twenty-five—and Chaucer
211.
 Two hundred and fifty years afterwards—in 1861
—another great queen was on the Throne, Victoria.
It was the year in which the Prince Consort died, and
Edward, Prince of Wales, came of age. Nor was
England's garden silent then: for in that year William
Barnes and Cardinal Newman were 60, Edward
Fitzgerald and Tennyson were 52, Robert Browning
49, Charles Kingsley 42, Matthew Arnold 39,
Coventry Patmore 38, William Allingham 37, Dante
Gabriel Rossetti and George Meredith were 33,
Christina Rossetti was 31, William Morris 27,
Algernon Swinburne 24, Mr. Thomas Hardy was 21,
Mr. Robert Bridges 17, Robert Louis Stevenson 11,
and Francis Thompson was 2. Other great writers, in
English, then alive were Carlyle, Thackeray, Dickens,
Ruskin, Darwin and Huxley; Emerson, Hawthorne,
Longfellow and Walt Whitman. So the strange flame
of genius fitfully burns in this world. And 1611 knew
as little of 1861 as 1861 knew of 2111. (But would
that 1923 could leave to the future one-tenth part of
such a legacy as did 1611—the English Bible!)
But to return to Shakespeare. He was born in
April 1564. About 1591 he wrote the first of his
plays, Love's Labour's Lost. By 1611 he had finished
the last of them; 34 in all as they appear in the first
Folio, 37 as they now appear in the Canon. And apart
from these, his Poems. There followed a strange
silence. On the 25th of March, 1616, "in perfect
health and memory (God be praised!)," he made his
will. On St. George's Day, 1616, he died. To reflect
for a moment on that brief lifetime, on that twenty
years' work which is now a perennial fountain of
happiness, light and wisdom to the whole world, is to
marvel indeed. The life-giving secret of this supreme
genius none can tell. We know not even our own.
But there is a story told by Thomas Campbell: "It
was predicted of a young man lately belonging to
one of our universities, that he would certainly
become a prodigy because he read sixteen hours a
day. 'Ah, but,' said somebody, 'how many hours a
day does he think?' It might have been added, 'How
many hours does he feel?'" So of Shakespeare. As,
then, said his old friends and fellow-players, John
Heminge and Henry Condell in their Preface to the
Folio: "Reade him, therefore; and againe, and
againe: And if then you doe not like him, surely you
are in some manifest danger...."

441. "With such a Sky."

 It is a beauteous Evening, calm and free,
The holy time is quiet as a Nun
Breathless with adoration; the broad sun
Is sinking down in its tranquillity;
The gentleness of heaven broods o'er the Sea:
Listen! the mighty Being is awake,
And doth with his eternal motion make
A sound like thunder—everlastingly....
William Wordsworth

442. "Shepherds all, and Maidens fair, Fold your Flocks."

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,

And all the air a solemn stillness holds,
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight.
And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds:...

These lines and the stanzas that follow them in

the Elegy in a Country Churchyard are as familiar as
any in English, and may be found in almost every
collection of poems. Here, "a figure on paper"—from
a letter to a friend written by the author of them,
Thomas Gray, on November 19, 1764, is a
description—not of evening after the setting of the
sun— but of a sun-rise as vivid as if one's own naked
eye had watched its "Levee":
 I must not close my letter without giving you one
principal event of my history; which was, that (in the
course of my late tour) I set out one morning before
five o'clock, the moon shining through a dark and
misty autumnal air, and got to the sea-coast time
enough to be at the Sun's Levee. I saw the clouds
and dark vapours open gradually to right and left,
rolling over one another in great smoky wreathes,
and the tide (as it flowed gently in upon the sands)
first whitening, then slightly tinged with gold and
blue; and all at once a little line of unsufferable
brightness that (before I can write these five words)
was grown to half an orb, and now to a whole one,
too glorious to be distinctly seen. It is very odd it
makes no figure on paper; yet I shall remember it, as
long as the sun, or at least as long as I endure. I
wonder whether anybody ever saw it before? I
hardly believe it."
So each day, one remembers, the sun rises,
indeed is rising always above some watchful eye's
horizon, and we come so to expect its rising, and so
to be assured of it, as though it were no less certain
than that twice two are four. But, in fact, it is only
just certain enough to prevent night from being a
dreadful apprehension, and life from becoming a
mere routine. As Coleridge says in his Table Talk:
 "Suppose Adam watching the sun sinking under
the western horizon for the first time; he is seized
with gloom and terror, relieved by scarce a ray of
hope that he shall ever see the glorious light again.
The next evening, when it declines, his hopes are
stronger, but still mixed with fear; and even at the
end of a thousand years, all that a man can feel is a
hope and an expectation so strong as to preclude
anxiety."
... High among the lonely hills,
While I lay beside my sheep,
Rest came down and filled my soul,
From the everlasting deep.

Changeless march the stars above,

Changeless morn succeeds to even;
Still the everlasting hills
Changeless watch the changeless heaven....
Charles Kingsley

444. "The children are going to bed."

 Hush-a-ba, birdie, croon, croon,
Hush-a-ba, birdie, croon.
The Sheep are gane to the siller wood,
And the cows are gane to the broom, broom.

And it's braw milking the kye, kye,

It's braw milking the kye,
The birds are singing, the bells are ringing,
And the wild deer come galloping by, by.

And hush-a-ba, birdie, croon, croon,

Hush-a-ba, birdie, croon.
The Gaits are gane to the mountain hie,
And they'll no be hame till noon, noon.

This for the littlest ones, the cradle-creatures. But

for the rest:
Boys and Girls, come out to play,
The Moon doth shine as bright as day;
Come with a whoop, come with a call,
Come with a goodwill or don't come at all;
Lose your supper and lose your sleep—
So come to your playmates in the street.

And if you should want actually to bring that

Moon to earth, this is how Quince managed it in A
Midsummer Night's Dream:
 The Rehearsal.
Snout. Doth the Moone shine that night wee play our play?

Bottom. A Calender, a Calender, looke in the Almanack, finde out

Moone-shine, finde out Moone-shine.

Quince. Yes, it doth shine that night.

Bottom. Why then may you leave a casement of the great chamber
window (where we play) open, and the Moone may shine
in at the casement.

Quince. Ay, or else one must come in with a bush of thorns and a
lanthorne, and say he comes to disfigure, or to present
the person of Moone-shine....

The Play.
Lysander. Proceed, Moone.

Moone. All that I have to say, is to tell you, that the Lanthorne is
the Moone; I, the man in the Moone; this thorne bush,
my thorne bush; and this dog, my dog....

And here is a stanza from a very old poem about

that same "man in the Moone":
Mon, in the mone, stond ant streit,
On is bot-forke is burthen he bereth:
Hit is muche wonder that he na down slyt,
For doute leste he valle he shoddreth ant shereth:
When the frost freseth muche chele he byd,
The thornes beth kene is hattren to-tereth;
Nis no wytht in the world that wot wen he syt,
Ne, bote hit bue the hegge, whet wedes he wereth.
which means, I gather, that
the Man in the Moon stands up there stark and
still in her silver, carrying his thornbush on his
pitchfork. It's a marvel he doesn't slide down; he's
shuddering and shaking at the thought of it. When
the frost sharpens, he'll be frozen to his marrow. The
prickles stick out to tear his clothes; but nobody in
the world has seen him sit down, or knows apart
from his thornbush what he has on.
I see the Moon,
The Moon sees me;
God bless the sailors,
And bless me.

449. "That busy Archer." (line 4)

Though I am young and cannot tell

Either what Love or Death is well,
Yet I have heard they both bear darts
And both do aim at human hearts....
Ben Jonson

"Are Beauties there as proud as here they be." (line 11)

... The palace of her father the King, was on that

side the Moon no mortal sees, and of such an
enchantment was her cold beauty that on earth none
resembles it. Yet all her flattery and pride was but to
win the idolatrous love of far-travelling Princes, or
even of wanderers of common blood; for the sake of
that love and admiration only. And many perished in
those rock-bound deserts and parched and icy lunar
wildernesses on account of this proud damsel; before
a strange fate befell her....
Here, too, is a fragment (from a thirteenth
century MS.), to be found in A Medieval Garner:
"What shall we say of the ladies when they come
to feasts? Each marks well the other's head; they
wear bosses like horned beasts, and if any have no
horns, she is a laughing stock for the rest. Their
arms go merrily when they come into the room; they
display their kerchiefs of silk and cambric, set on
their buttons of coral and amber, and cease not their
babble so long as they are in the bower.... But
however well their attire be fashioned, when the
feast is come, it pleases them nought; so great is
their envy now and so high grows their pride, that
the bailiff's daughter counterfeits the lady.'"

450. "She hath no Air." (line 5)

—and that being so:

 ".... There will be no sounds on the moon.... Even
a meteor shattering itself to a violent end against the
surface of the moon would make no noise. Nor
would it herald its coming by glowing into a 'shooting
star,' as it would on entering the earth's atmosphere.
There will be no floating dust, no scent, no twilight,
no blue sky, no twinkling of the stars. The sky will be
always black and the stars will be clearly visible by
day as by night. The sun's wonderful corona, which
no man on earth, even by seizing every opportunity
during eclipses, can hope to see for more than two
hours in all, in a long lifetime, will be visible all day.
So will the great red flames of the sun.... There will
be no life (since) for fourteen days there is
continuous night, when the temperature must sink
away down towards the absolute cold of space. This
will be followed without an instant of twilight by full
daylight. For another fourteen days the sun's rays
will bear straight down, with no diffusion or
absorption of their heat, or light, on the way...."
This is a matter-of-fact fragment out of "The
Outline of Science," edited by Professor J. Arthur
Thompson; but it would not be easy to say exactly
how in its magical effect on the mind it differs from
poetry. Indeed, there can hardly be a quicker journey
to the comprehension of scientific fact than by way
of the imagination. Moonless mountainous Hesper,
the Evening Star, is an even lovelier thing to watch
shining in the fading rose and green of sunset when
we realise that at her most radiant—a radiance that
casts an earthly shadow even—it is but a slim
crescent of the planet that we see, a planet, too,
almost sister in magnitude to the earth, but whose
briefer year is of an ardour that might be happiness
to fiery sprite and salamander, but would be
unendurable to watery creatures like ourselves. Nor
could language be used more scientifically (concisely,
pregnantly and exactly), than in the words moving,
human, mask, in the following sonnet by John Keats
—a sonnet written in mortal illness and in immortal
sorrowfulness:
Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art—
Not in lone splendour hung aloft the night
And watching, with eternal lids apart,
Like nature's patient, sleepless Eremite,
The moving waters at their priestlike task
Of pure ablution round earth's human shores,
Or gazing on the new soft-fallen mask
Of snow upon the mountains and the moors—

No—yet still stedfast, still unchangeable,

Pillowed upon my fair love's ripening breast,
To feel for ever its soft fall and swell,
Awake for ever in a sweet unrest,
Still, still to hear her tender-taken breath,
And so live ever—or else swoon to death.
John Keats
 455. "Right good is rest."

Come, Sleep, and with thy sweet deceiving

Lock me in delight awhile;
Let some pleasing dreams beguile
All my fancies: that from thence
I may feel an influence
All my powers of care bereaving!

Though but a shadow, but a sliding,

Let me know some little joy!
We that suffer long annoy
Are contented with a thought
Through an idle fancy wrought:
O let my joys have some abiding!
John Fletcher

457. Before Sleeping.

I have pieced this rhyme together from well-

known versions and fragments. But the Angels?—
"And after that, I sawe iiij Angels stande on the
iiij corners of the erth holdynge the foure wyndes of
the erth, that the wyndes shuld not blowe on the
erth, nether on the see, nether on eny tree."
The Revelation of S. John the Divine (1539).
"And I beheld, and I heard the voice of many
angels round about the throne and the beasts and
the elders: and the number of them was ten
thousand times ten thousand, and thousands of
thousands."
The Same (1611).
Of these Angels, having their fitting place among
the hierarchies—Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones;
Dominations, Virtues, Powers; Principalities,
Archangels, Angels—no names are given. But
Michael and Gabriel are archangels named in the
Bible, and in the Apocrypha and elsewhere, Raphael,
Zadkiel, Uriel, Chamuel, Jophiel. These too; steadfast
or fallen: Samael, Semalion, Abdiel and gigantic
Sandalphon, Rahab, Prince of the Sea; Ridia, Prince
of the Rain; Yurkemi, Prince of the Hail; Af of Anger;
Abaddona of Destruction; Lailah of Night. And in
Paradise Lost:
Now had night measured with her shadowy cone
Halfway up-hill this vast sublunar vault;
And from their ivory port the Cherubim
Forth issuing, at the accustomed hour, stood armed....

Then speak together Gabriel, Uzziel, Ithuriel,

Zephon. And last—not the most distant from mortal
love—strangely-angelled Poe's shrill-tongued Israfel:
 In Heaven a spirit doth dwell
Whose heart-strings are a lute;
None sing so wildly well
As the angel Israfel,
And the giddy stars (so legends tell),
Ceasing their hymns, attend the spell
Of his voice, all mute....

Yes, Heaven is thine; but this

Is a world of sweets and sours;
Our flowers are merely—flowers,
And the shadow of thy perfect bliss
Is the sunshine of ours.

If I could dwell
Where Israfel
Hath dwelt, and he where I,
He might not sing so wildly well
A mortal melody,
While a bolder note than this might swell
From my lyre within the sky.

Oh speake againe bright angell, for thou art

As glorious to this night being ore my head,
As is a wingèd messenger of heaven
Unto the white upturned wondring eyes
Of mortalls that fall backe to gaze on him.
Romeo and Juliet

In paint and wood and words and stone Man has

for centuries made pictures and images for symbols
of angelic might and beauty. But what does he know
of these Beings in themselves?—"That there are
distinct orders of Angels, assuredly I believe, but
what they are I cannot tell.... They are creatures that
have not so much of a body as flesh is, as froth is, as
a vapour is, as a sigh is; and yet with a touch they
shall moulder a rock into less atoms than the sand
that it stands upon, and a millstone into smaller flour
than it grinds. They are creatures made, and yet not
a minute older than when they were first made, if
they were made before all measures of time begun;
nor, if they were made in the beginning of time, and
be now six thousand years old, have they one
wrinkle of age in their face, one sob of weariness in
their lungs. They are primogeniti Dei, God's eldest
sons...."
John Donne

459.

This is the Song sung by his guardian Angel to a

young sleeping Prince who has been cheated of his
inheritance. It was printed by Charles Lamb in his
English Dramatic Poets, from a Tragedy entitled The
Conspiracy, written by Henry Killigrew when he was
seventeen.

460. The Legend of St. Mark.

 The relics of this Saint, who for his miracles was
thought to be a sorcerer, and was murdered by a
mob, were interred in Alexandria. Hundreds of years
afterwards these relics were coveted by the
Venetians by reason of the story that the Saint had
once visited their city and had heard speak to him an
angel: Pax tibi, Marce. Hic requiescet corpus tuum.
At length two Venetian merchants, having persuaded
the Alexandrians that the sacred bones lay in danger
of the raiding Saracens, travelled back with them to
their own city, where they were reinterred with
solemn ceremony in St. Mark's. This church was
afterwards burned to the ground, and the relics were
lost. A century passed; a wondrously beautiful
church had arisen from the ashes of the old, and
during the ceremony held in the faith that it would
be revealed where they lay hid, suddenly a light
shone forth from one of the great piers, there was a
sound of falling masonry, and, lo, the body of the
Saint, with arm outstretched, as if at finger's touch
he had revealed his secret resting-place.

"Doves of Siam, Lima mice,

And legless birds of Paradise." (p. 470.)

What particular kinds of doves and mice Keats

had in mind here I cannot yet discover. But,
according to Topsell, mice are of these kinds: the
short, small, fearful, peaceable, ridiculous, rustik, or
country mouse, the urbane or citty mouse, the
greedy, wary, unhappy, harmefull, black, obscene,
little, whiner, biter, and earthly mouse. Mice, too, he
says, are "sometimes blackish, sometimes white,
sometimes yellow, sometimes broune and sometimes
ashe colour. There are white mice amonge the
people of Savoy, and Dolphin in France, called
alaubroges, which the inhabitants of the country do
beleev that they feede upon snow." Then, again,
"the field mouse, the farie, with a long snout; and
the sleeper, that is of a dun colour and will run on
the edge of a sword and sleep on the point."
What Topsell meant by "whiner" I am uncertain,
but it may be he refers to the mouse that sings. That
is a habit quite distinct from the common squeaking,
shrilling and shrieking. It resembles the slow low trill
of a very distant and sleepy canary, but sweeter and
more domestic, and is as pleasant a thing to hear
behind a wainscot, as it is to watch the creatures
gambolling. Why women are apt to fear these tiny
beasts is a mystery. But whatever mischief their
ravagings may cause, may I never live under a roof
wherein (Cat or no Cat) there is no inch of house-
room for Mistress Mouse!
 The fable that the Bird of Paradise is "legless"
was set abroad by travellers who had seen in old
days its exquisite dismembered carcase prepared for
merchandise. It is hard to explain that Man, capable
of imagining a bird "whose fixed abode is the region
of the air," sustaining itself "solely on dew," can also
slaughter it and tie it up in bundles for feminine
finery. But so it is.

"At Venice...." (p. 471)

So Keats left—unfinished—this, one of the

happiest of his poems. There are others in this
volume: but not the Eve of St. Agnes, or Hyperion, or
the odes, to a Nightingale, on a Grecian Urn, or the
strange On Melancholy. Nor are any of his Letters
here—as full a revelation of the powers and
understanding of that rare mind, as the poems are of
his imagination.

466. "Low in the South the 'cross'."

We peoples of the Northern hemisphere, from the

Chinese and Chaldaeans until this last flitting hour
have the joy of so many brilliant and neighbouring
stars in our night sky that for us it is now full of
stories, and thronged with constellations of our own
fantasy and naming. The Chair of Cassiopeia, for
instance, is but a feigned passing picture.
Nevertheless, how pleasant it is to recognise it set
zigzag in the night. For this reason the peoples of the
Southern hemisphere, with their Crown and Net,
their Phoenix and Peacock, hold dear the Southern
Cross. It marks their very home.
And, once more, let me repeat what Miss Taroone
said to me: Learn the common names of every thing
you see, Simon; and especially of those that please
you most to remember: then give them names also
of your own making and choosing—if you can. Mr.
Nahum has thousands upon thousands of words and
names in his mind and yet he often fails to
understand what I say to him. Nor does he always
remember that though every snail is a snail and a
Hoddydoddy, and every toad is a toad and a Joey,
and every centipede is a centipede and a Maggie-
monyfeet, each is just as much only its own self as
you, Simon, are You.

469. "Once a Dream did weave a Shade."

 Full in the passage of the vale, above,
A sable, silent, solemn, forest stood,
Where nought but shadowy forms was seen to move,
As idless fancy'd in her dreaming mood;
And up the hills, on either side, a wood
Of blackening pines, ay waving to and fro,
Sent forth a sleepy horror thro' the blood;
And where this valley winded out, below,
The murmuring main was heard, and scarcely heard, to flow.

A pleasing land of drowsy-head it was,

Of Dreams that wave before the half-shut eye,
And of gay Castles in the clouds that pass,
For ever flushing round a summer sky....
James Thomson

470. "Awake, Awake!"

"I thank God for my happy dreams," wrote Sir

Thomas Browne in the Religio Medici, "as I do for my
good rest.... And surely it is not a melancholy conceit
[or fancy] to think we are all asleep in this world,
and that the conceits of this life are as mere dreams
to those of the next as the phantasms of the night to
the conceits of the day. There is an equal delusion in
both, and the one doth but seem to be the emblem
or picture of the other; we are somewhat more than
ourselves in our sleeps, and the slumber of the body
seems to be but the waking of the soul...."
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