In this presentation we will begin to look at the muscular phenomenon called

postactivation potentiation. We will examine what it is and the potential

mechanisms by which it occurs. We will also begin to examine complex
training, which is a form of training that aims to harness the beneficial effects
of post activation potentiation for performance gains. Complex training has
many variables to consider when utilising this and we will discuss these
variables in detail over the course of lectures this week.

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 Postactivation potentiation or PAP for short is a very interesting muscular
effect that has received a lot of attention in the research and in the sporting
world. Basically following contraction of a muscle, there is both a potentiation
effect and a fatigue after-effect present. If we think back to the fitness fatigue
model of adaptation as shown above, we see this illustrated. In this diagram
the fitness curve can be seen as the potentiation effect. So following muscular
contraction, which could be a set of squats for example, both a fatigue and a
potentiation after-effect exist in the muscles used. If the fatigue after-effect is
dominant, then any subsequent muscular contractions would not be as
effective due to the reduced effectiveness of the muscular contraction under
fatigue. However if we can perform the subsequent muscular contractions
when the potentiation effect is dominant, as highlighted by the preparedness
curve in the diagram, then the muscles are in a potentiated state and have the
capacity to perform more effectively. A simple definition is that PAP is an
effect by which muscular performance characteristics are acutely enhanced as
a result of their contractile history.

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 So the contractile history of a muscle will determine if subsequent muscular
contractions using the same musculature have enhanced or reduced
effectiveness. So in a training and sporting setting what does this mean?
Basically we are looking to potentiate or excite the neuromuscular system, by
performing some form of muscular contraction like a resistance exercise. With
this potentiation effect, we can then enhance force production or rate of force
development in a subsequent activity, which could be very useful in training
and in sporting actions. The primary way in which PAP is used in a training or
sporting setting is to perform a heavy resistance exercise followed by a lighter
explosive resistance exercise or movement with the aim of potentiating the
lighter explosive exercise or movement. So what causes the PAP effect? A
simple example of the cause of PAP is that when you perform a heavy set
followed by a light explosive action, to the neuromuscular system this is like
lifting an empty box when you think it is full and heavy. You will lift the box a lot
quicker and more explosively. There are however 3 proposed physiological
mechanisms and we will look at each in the coming slides.

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 The first proposed mechanism by which PAP has an effect is that heavy
muscular contraction leads to alterations in the structure of the myosin heads
in the muscle. This alteration in structure leads to an increased sensitivity of
the actin and myosin interactions to calcium ions. As we know from previous
lectures calcium is extremely important to muscular contractions. So increased
sensitivity of the actin and myosin to calcium could increase the rate at which
actin and myosin produce force generating cross bridges in the muscle fiber.
Faster actin and myosin cross bridge cycling could result in faster force
generation or the generation of more force at higher contraction speeds. Both
of which would have a beneficial effect on muscular performance.

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 There are a number of neural factors that are proposed to be enhanced
following a muscular contraction stimulus. One of the most likely for the effect
of PAP is something called H-reflex potentiation. The H-reflex is a reflexive
neural signal, which when superimposed on voluntary muscle activation,
increases the strength of the electrical impulse, thus activating more motor
units. The activation of more motor units is beneficial for force production.
Given sufficient recovery, PAP could increase this H-reflex amplitude, which
could result in faster and more forceful muscular contractions.

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 A pennate is a muscle with muscle fibers that attach obliquely to its tendon.
These types of muscles generally allow higher force production but smaller
range of motion. The angle of pennation therefore is the angle at which the
muscle fibers attach to the tendon as illustrated in the diagram above. Without
going too much into muscle architecture, basically the smaller the angle of
pennation, the better it is for transmission of muscular force to the tendon to
create movement. More muscular force production is very beneficial for all
sporting and training actions. Pennation angle may have a relationship with
PAP and its performance enhancing effect. The theory goes that a heavy
macular contraction will reduce the angle of pennation in the muscle, which
means that subsequent muscular effort will have the ability to produce more
force. This is a theory with not much research evidence behind it and it needs
further investigating but it is often suggested as a mechanism for PAP.
Whatever the main mechanism is or even if it is a combination of multiple
mechanisms, PAP can have a beneficial effect and so how to train and utilise
its effects are an interesting area of resistance training.

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 PAP has been present in some of the resistance training methods that we have
looked at previously we just haven’t detailed it until now. If we take wave loading
for example. We have looked at this loading scheme in our strength presentations
but it may benefit from some form of PAP effect. If we think about it, wave loading
is often a heavy load lifted and then a lighter load lifted in the next set. That heavy
load could provide some form of potentiation to the light load. Mixed methods
training that we looked at at the start of this module could be benefiting from some
form of postactivation potentiation effect as we often perform high loaded exercises
and then lower load more explosive variations with mixed methods training.
However the method of resistance training that is primarily designed to harness the
benefits of PAP is complex training. Complex training generally involves
performing a high intensity resistance exercise, which is termed the preload or
conditioning activity. This is then followed with a biomechanically similar plyometric
or explosive dynamic exercise and this is repeated for sets and reps. The pairing of
2 biomechanically similar exercises, for example a back squat and counter
movement jump is termed a “complex pair,” whereas performing 3 similar
movement patterns in a complex is known as a complex triad. Some complex pairs
are highlighted in the table above. Complex training can be performed for both the
upper and lower body. The theory behind complex training is based on post
activation potentiation. If the trainer can get their client to perform the subsequent
lighter exercise at the right time when fatigue has dissipated and potentiation is
elevated, then performance can be enhanced.

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When looking at introducing complex training and aiming to get a training benefit
from PAP, there are a number of important factors that must be considered. In fact
complex training is one of the more difficult methods of training to get right as
there are a lot of factors to consider that could have an effect on the training
response. We will look at the following factors that can influence complex training
in detail in the coming slides and in the next presentation;

>>The intracomplex recovery period

>>Volume of contractions in the preload activity
>>Intensity of contractions in the preload activity
>>The type of contractions
>>Exercise choice and
>>Subject characteristics

One of the main things that present as an issue when trying to implement complex
training is the individuality of the response to these training factors. This will be
clear when we discuss these factors in detail. Due to complex training specifically
aiming to harness the effects of PAP, if PAP is not occurring then the training is
not having the desired effect. The coach must try and find the optimal interaction
of these factors to allow the athlete to get the best training effect from complex
training. 8
The rest period in between the preload activity and the subsequent explosive activity is
key for trying to begin the subsequent explosive exercise when the muscle is
potentiated. If the trainer starts the explosive exercise too soon or too late,
performance may not be enhanced and could possibly be diminished if the fatigue
response is still strong. Studies performed in this area have used a range of intra-
complex rest times from 10 seconds all the way up to 24 minutes. For example in a
study by Kilduff and colleagues, the subjects performed a countermovement jump as a
baseline measure. Then 15 minutes later a preload of 3 sets of 3 reps of the back
squat at 87% of the subjects predicted 1 rep max were performed. Following the
squatting, the subjects performed countermovement jumps at 8 time points; 15
seconds after, 4 minutes, 8 minutes, 12 minutes, 16 minutes, 20 minutes and 24
minutes after. It was found that the jump performed at 8 minutes showed a significant
increase in power output, peak rate of force development and jump height compared
with all other times and as such the authors identified 8 minutes as the recovery time to
maximise post activation potentiation. Bevan and colleagues looked at the optimal
recovery time for upper body complex training. Using a similar protocol as Kilduff and
colleagues, they used the bench press and ballistic bench throws as the complex pair.
They again concluded that 8 minutes recovery is required to observe an increase in
peak power output in the upper body. The figure above shows the throw height and
peak power output at the different time points for this study.
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 While the 2 studies discussed in the previous slide suggested that 8 minutes is
an optimal recovery time for PAP, this is only a tiny snippet of the available
research. In fact PAP benefits have been seen over a range of recovery times
from 0-12 minutes and sometimes even longer. To make matters more
confusing for prescribing a rest time, the other factors that we have mentioned
can also have an effect on how much rest time is needed. For example it has
been suggested that there are windows of opportunity to harness the power of
PAP following the preload activity. If the volume of the preload activity is high
then longer rest times are needed and if the volume is low then PAP can be
realised almost immediately after the preload stimulus. These theoretical
windows of opportunity are highlighted in the diagram above. The highly
individual PAP response presents a challenge when trying to prescribe enough
recovery for fatigue to dissipate and for potentiation to be realised.

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 So with all the conflicting research available, how do we determine the
appropriate rest times for our athletes. In general for utilising complex training,
a recovery time of 3-12 minutes can be proposed as a guideline. Although this
3–12 minutes may not lead to potentiation and improve subsequent
performance for everyone, this time frame seems not to decrease performance
when compared with baseline values. This means that the client will still get
the regular beneficial training effect from performing the resistance exercise
even if they do not experience potentiation. To make it even more practical and
suitable for training sessions, a rest time of 3-5 minutes can be advised. As
times above this cannot guarantee potentiation for all athletes but they will still
be given enough time for fatigue to dissipate and as such regular training
benefits can be realised. Also this shorter rest period is more suited to
resistance training sessions. It may not be practical to wait 12 minutes for
potentiation during a resistance training session. The best advice would be to
base your decisions on the time allotted for the session, as well as the training
goals of the client.

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 The volume of contractions in the preload activity can have an effect on the
amount of fatigue the muscle experiences and thus when potentiation will
occur. There is a possibility that PAP develops quicker than fatigue and so a
relatively low volume of preload contractions could allow for PAP to occur
immediately after the preload stimulus. This is the first window of opportunity
that we looked at in previous slides. As would be expected as the volume of
preload contractions increases, more fatigue will be created in the muscle
and thus the state of potentiation will take longer to be realised as it will have
to wait for this fatigue to subside. Preload exercises with multiple sets and
single set protocols have been used with complex training. Sets of greater
than 5 reps are generally not advised due to the higher levels of fatigue that
will accumulate. Again there are no definitive guidelines with complex
training, for example the preload exercise in a complex pair could be 3 sets of
4 reps and then the explosive exercise comes after this. Alternatively there
could only be one set of 3 reps and then the explosive exercises comes after
this. Again some good advice is to see what fits the time constraints of the
training session and what goals the athlete has, and adjust accordingly.

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The intensity of contractions in this case is characterised by the load being used in the
preload exercise. Again the load to be used in the preload exercise is open to some
debate from the available research, however It is generally agreed that the preload
exercise for complex training should use the range of 80 - 95% of a person’s 1RM as
heavier loads seem to produce a better PAP response. For example, a study by
Comyns and colleagues in 2007 looked at the optimal load for complex training. They
used loads of 65%, 80% and 93% of 1RM in the back squat followed by single leg drop
jumps. They found that jump flight time was significantly reduced in all loads but
ground contact time significantly reduced and there was a significant increase in leg
stiffness, both of which are positive responses for plyometric exercises with the 93%
load. This could indicate that the heaviest load enhanced stretch shortening cycle and
could lead to enhanced performance. However research has also shown that complex
training using a moderate load of 65% of a person’s 1RM for the bench press is
beneficial in activating post activation potentiation. Thus it seems possible that trainers
can use complex training on both the heavy and moderate training days if they wish, in
order to enhance strength and power. Research by Rahimi in 2007 demonstrated
increases in sprint performance using back squat loads of 60%, 70% and 85% of 1RM.
Although performance enhancements were seen across all ranges, squatting with an
85% load demonstrated significantly superior results when compared to the other two
loading strategies. While some low load preloading protocols have been shown to have
a potentiating effect, the majority of the evidence suggests that low load will not be as
effective as high load for eliciting a PAP response. This also highlights again the
variability in the potentiation capabilities of individuals.
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 In summary this presentation has looked at postactivation potentiation. We
have discussed what it is and the likely mechanisms behind it. We have also
begun to examine the type of training that aims to harness PAP which is
complex training. We have identified a number of factors that can impact on
the effectiveness of utilising PAP for complex training and we have discussed
in detail intra-complex rest periods and the volume and intensity of reload
contractions. Thank you for your attention.

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