Block diagram Description of DC power supply

The block diagram of a DC power supply mainly includes a step-down transformer, a

rectifier, a DC filter, and a regulator.

A DC power supply, also known as a bench power supply, is a type of power supply that gives
direct current (DC) voltage to power a device.A power supply can be used for providing the
necessary amount of power at the precise voltage from the main source like a battery.

A transformer alters the AC mains voltage toward a necessary value and the main function of
this is to step up and step down the voltage.

A rectifier is an electrical device used to convert alternating current into direct current. It can be
a full wave rectifier as well as half wave rectifier with the help of a transformer by a bridge
rectifier otherwise center tapped secondary winding. However, the rectifier’s o/p can be variable.

A filter in the regulated power supply is mainly used for leveling the ac differences from the
corrected voltage. Rectifiers are classified into four types namely capacitor filter, Inductor filter,
LC filter & RC filter.

A voltage regulator in the regulated power supply is essential for keeping a steady DC output
voltage by supplying load regulation as well as line regulation.

DC Regulated Power Supply Characteristics

The quality of the power supply can be decided by the several factors namely load current,
voltage, source and voltage regulation, ripple rejection, o/p impedance, etc

Applications of DC Power Supply

• Testing Circuits
• Testing mobile phone chargers
• Regulated power supplies in different appliances
• Various oscillators & amplifiers
• Audio visual applications
 Full wave bridge rectifier

Bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a bridge
circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC) current

Construction
• The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge rectifier
circuit is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are
connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC)
into Direct Current (DC)

• The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is obtained
across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D.
• The four diodes are arranged in such a way that only two diodes conduct electricity during
each half cycle. D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct electric current during the positive half
cycle/.
• Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct electric current during a negative half cycle.

Working
• When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive
during the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative.
• This results in diodes D1 and D3 becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming
reverse biased.
• During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes
negative.
 • This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to be reverse
biased.
• the current flow across load resistor RL is the same during the positive and negative half-
cycles.
• The output DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or negative. In our case,
it is completely positive. If the diodes’ direction is reversed, we get a complete negative
DC voltage.
• Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half cycles
of the input AC signal.

Characteristics of Bridge Rectifier

Ripple Factor
The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as the ripple factor. The
output DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a smooth DC signal while the output with high
ripples is considered a high pulsating DC signal.
Mathematically, the ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to pure DC voltage.
For bridge rectifiers, the ripple factor is 0.48.

Peak Inverse Voltage

The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is known as a peak
inverse voltage.

Efficiency
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power. The
maximum efficiency of a bridge rectifier is 81.2%.

Advantages

• The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is higher than the efficiency of a half-wave rectifier.
However, the rectifier efficiency of the bridge rectifier and the centre-tapped full-wave
rectifier is the same.
• The DC output signal of the bridge rectifier is smoother than the output DC signal of a
half-wave rectifier.
• In a half-wave rectifier, only half of the input AC signal is used, and the other half is
blocked. Half of the input signal is wasted in a half-wave rectifier. However, in a bridge
rectifier, the electric current is allowed during both positive and negative half cycles of the
input AC signal. Hence, the output DC signal is almost equal to the input AC signal.
Disadvantages

• The circuit of a bridge rectifier is complex when compared to a half-wave rectifier and
centre-tapped full-wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers use 4 diodes while half-wave rectifiers
and centre-tapped full wave rectifiers use only two diodes.
• When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier,
only one diode conducts during each half cycle. But in a bridge rectifier, two diodes
connected in series conduct during each half cycle. Hence, the voltage drop is higher in a
bridge rectifier.

Capacitor Filter Circuit

• The designing of this circuit can be done with a capacitor (C) as well as load resistor
(RL). The rectifier’s exciting voltage is given across the terminals of a capacitor.
• Whenever the voltage of the rectifier enhances then the capacitor will be charged as well
as supplies the current to the load.
• The circuit diagram of the filter capacitor is shown below.

• The capacitor filter circuit is very famous due to its features like low cost, less weight,
small size, & good characteristics. The capacitor filter circuit is applicable for small load
currents.

• A capacitor gives an infinite reactance to DC .For DC, f=0

• Xc = 1/ 2пfc = 1/2п x 0 x C = infinite

• Therefore, a capacitor doesn’t permit DC to flow through it.

 Simple Zener Voltage regulator

A Zener regulator is constructed by placing a Zener diode in series with a resistor, with the Zener
diode having a reverse-biased configuration. This is similar to a voltage divider, with the second
resistor being replaced by the Zener diode.

The voltage output is taken across the Zener diode, i.e. V out = VZ:

When the Zener diode is reverse biased, it features a a Zener voltage V Z. The Zener voltage
VZ stays relatively constant even if the current fluctuates. Zener diodes can be manufactured with
different values of the Zener voltage VZ by changing the material properties of the PN junction.

• To limit the current flowing in a diode, a series resistor is connected to the circuit.
• The resistor is connected to the positive terminal of the DC.
• The resistor works in a way that the reverse-biased can also work in the breakdown
conditions.
• An ordinary junction diode is not used as a low power rating diode can easily get
damaged when a reverse bias is applied above the breakdown voltage.
• The Zener diode current should always be minimum when the maximum load current and
the minimum input voltage are applied.
• To limit the current into the diode, a parallel resistor is attached to the circuit. It is
connected to the Direct current.
• It is designed in a way that it can work in breaking situations as well.

The value of the series resistor is RS = (VL − VZ)IL.

The current through the diode increases when the voltage across the diode increases resulting in
a voltage drop across the resistor.

In the same way, the current through the diode decreases when the voltage across it tends to
decrease.

Therefore, the voltage drop across the resistor is less, and the output voltage results normally
.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator Formula

The maximum current that can flow through a Zener diode can be calculated using the formula,

Where,

• IzM → Maximum Current that can flow through the Zener diode
• PzM → Maximum power the Zener diode can handle
• Vz → Zener voltage

Imax= Pmax/ VZ

Public address system block diagram

Public address system is an electronic amplification system used as a communication system in
public areas a simple PA (public address) system consists of a microphone, an amplifier and one
or more speakers.

These components, when put together, send sound from one place to another. The set is ideal for
broadcasting speech or music, particularly in large venues.

Applications

• Speeches or concerts
• Broadcasting audible alerts within offices, factories, and other workplaces
• Playing background music in stores and other public places
• Broadcasting sports commentary at sporting events
• Playing prerecorded messages at educational institutions
• Communicating emergency warnings within communities
Components of public address system
Microphone
The microphone is an essential part of PA systems. It is a transducer that converts acoustic or
sound energy into electrical energy. There are various types of microphones used: handheld and
lapel, wired and wireless.
Mixer
A mixer allows for multiple input of audio signals and equalizes them for broadcast at different
levels. This is the piece of equipment which enables you to control various settings such as the
volume of individual microphones/instruments.
Amplifier
An amplifier’s role in your PA system is to take a weak signal from your audio source. This can
be the microphone, smartphone or laptop, and then boost it to a level loud enough for people to
hear.
The signal then travels through cables connected to your speaker.
Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers are the core component of a PA system. They are responsible for transforming audio
signals into audible sound waves.
One converts electrical energy into acoustic or sound energy. It connects to the amplifier, and it
generates sound according to the audio signal.
There are different types of loudspeakers available according to their operating frequency:

• Woofer. It operates at the lower frequency audio signal, such as bass.

• Subwoofer. Works the same as the woofer but with deep vocals.
• Squawker. It works with medium-frequency audio signals like vocals.
• Tweeter. Manages high-frequency audio signals such as tone.
Common Emitter RC coupled amplifier with its frequency response

. What is a RC Coupled Amplifier?

A Resistance Capacitance (RC) Coupled Amplifier is basically a multi-stage amplifier circuit
extensively used in electronic circuits. Here the individual stages of the amplifier are connected
together using a resistor–capacitor combination

A two-stage amplifier whose individual stages are nothing but the common emitter amplifiers.
• Hence the design of individual stages of the RC coupled amplifiers is similar to that in
the case of common emitter amplifiers in which the resistors R1 and R2 form the biasing
network while the emitter resistor RE form the stabilization network.
• Here the CE is also called bypass capacitor which passes only AC while restricting DC,
which causes only DC voltage to drop across RE while the entire AC voltage will be
coupled to the next stage.
• Further, the coupling capacitor CC also increases the stability of the network as it blocks
the DC while offers a low resistance path to the AC signals, thereby preventing the DC
bias conditions of one stage affecting the other.
• In addition, in this circuit, the voltage drop across the collector-emitter terminal is chosen
to be 50% of the supply voltage VCC inorder to ensure appropriate biasing point.

The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier (a curve of amplifier’s gain v/s frequency),
indicates that the gain of the amplifier is constant over a wide range of mid-frequencies while it
decreases considerably both at low and high frequencies.

This is because, at low frequencies, the reactance of coupling capacitor C C is high which causes a
small part of the signal to couple from one stage to the other.

Moreover for the same case, even the reactance of the emitter capacitor C E will be high due to
which it fails to shunt the emitter resistor RE effectively which inturn reduces the voltage gain.
Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier
1. RF Communications.
2. Optical Fiber Communications.
3. Public address systems as pre-amplifiers.
4. Controllers.
5. Radio or TV Receivers as small signal amplifiers.

Concept of Voltage Divider Biasing

Circuit Operation – Voltage Divider Bias Circuit, also known as emitter current bias, is the most
stable of the three basic transistor bias circuits.

• A voltage divider bias circuit is shown and the current and voltage conditions throughout
the circuit

• The collector resistor (RC), there is an emitter resistor (RE) connected in series with the
transistor.

• The total dc load in series with the transistor is (RC + RE), and this total resistance must
be used when drawing the dc load line for the circuit. Resistors R1 and R2 constitute a
voltage divider that divides the supply voltage to produce the base bias voltage (V B).

Voltage Divider Bias Circuit are normally designed to have the voltage divider current (I 2) very
much larger than the transistor base current (IB). In this circumstance, VB is largely unaffected by
IB, so VB can be assumed to remain constant.
With VB constant, the voltage across the emitter resistor is also a constant quantity,

This means that the emitter current is constant,

The collector current is approximately equal to the emitter current, so IC is held at a constant
level.

Again referring to Fig. 5-22(b), the transistor collector voltage is,

The collector-emitter voltage is,

VCE can also be determined as,

Clearly, with IC and IB constant, the transistor collector-emitter voltage remains at a constant
level.

Block diagram of Electronic Instrumentation system

The block diagram shown above is of basic instrumentation system. It consist of primary sensing
element, variable manipulation element, data transmission element and data presentation
element.

Primary sensing element

The primary sensing element is also known as sensor. Basically transducers are used as a
primary sensing element. Here, the physical quantity (such as temperature, pressure etc.) are
sensed and then converted into analogues signal.

Variable conversion element

It converts the output of primary sensing element into suitable form without changing
information. Basically these are secondary transducers.

Variable manipulation element

The output of transducer may be electrical signal i.e. voltage, current or other electrical
parameter. Here, manipulation means change in numerical value of signal. This element is used
to convert the signal into suitable range.

Data transmission element

Sometimes it is not possible to give direct read out of the quality at a particular place (Example –
Measurement of temperature in the furnace).

In such a case, the data should transfer from one place to another place through channel which is
known as data transmission element. T

Typically transmission path are pneumatic pipe, electrical cable and radio links. When radio link
is used, the electronic instrumentation system is called as telemetry system.

Data presentation or controlling element

Finally the output is recorded or given to the controller to perform action. It performs different
functions like indicating, recording or controlling.

What Is Half Wave Rectifier?

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified.

When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversed
biased it provides high resistance.

During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is applied and in the
opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased.

During alternate half-cycles, the optimum result can be obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles.

During the positive half of the input, the current will flow from positive to negative which will
generate only a positive half cycle of the a.c supply.

When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be decreasing at the secondary
winding of the diode.

All the variations in the a.c supply will reduce, and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to the
load resistor.

In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive and the diode will be
reverse biased.

Thus, at the output side, there will be no current generated, and we cannot get power at the load
resistance.

A small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse bias due to minority carriers.

Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of half-wave rectifier:

Ripple Factor

Ripples are the oscillations that are obtained in DC which are corrected by using filters such as
inductors and capacitors.

These ripples are measured with the help of the ripple factor and are denoted by γ.
Ripple factor tells us the number of ripples presents in the output DC.

Higher the ripple factor, more is the oscillation at the output DC and lower is the ripple factor,
less is the oscillation at the output DC.

Ripple factor is the ratio of RMS value of the AC component of the output voltage to the DC
component of the output voltage.

DC Current

DC current is given as:

Where,

• Imax is the maximum DC load current

DC Output Voltage

The output DC voltage appears at the load resistor R L which is obtained by multiplying output
DC voltage with the load resistor RL.

Form Factor

The form factor is the ratio of RMS value to the DC value. For a half-wave rectifier, the form
factor is 1.57.

Rectifier Efficiency

Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power. For a half-wave
rectifier, rectifier efficiency is 40.6%.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

• Affordable
• Simple connections
• Easy to use as the connections are simple
• Number of components used are less
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

• Ripple production is more

• Harmonics are generated
• Utilization of the transformer is very low
• The efficiency of rectification is low

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:

• Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for power
rectification as powering equipment.
• Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM signals.
• Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the incoming
waveform.

What Is Full Wave Rectifier?

Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output current which is
purely DC.

The main advantage of a full-wave rectifier over half-wave rectifier is that such as the average
output voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier, there is less ripple produced in full-wave rectifier
when compared to the half-wave rectifier.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input.

When the p-n junction is forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and when it is reverse
biased it gives high resistance.

The circuit is designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is forward biased
then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so on.
 Characteristics of Full Wave Rectifier

Ripple Factor

DC Current

Currents from both the diodes D1 and D2 are in the same direction when they flow towards load
resistor RL.

DC Output Voltage

Form Factor

The form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the output DC voltage. The form factor of
a full-wave rectifier is given as 1.11

Rectifier Efficiency

Rectifier efficiency is used as a parameter to determine the efficiency of the rectifier to convert
AC into DC. It is the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power. The rectifier efficiency of
a full-wave rectifier is 81.2%.

Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers, and they are:

• Two diodes full-wave rectifier circuit (requires a center-tapped transformer and is used
in vacuum tubes)
• Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require a centre-tapped transformer and is used along
with transformers for efficient usage)

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high

• The power loss is very low
• Number of ripples generated are less
Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• Very expensive

Applications of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:

• Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding and for this
bridge rectifiers are used.
• Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated radio signals.

Difference between Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier

Parameter Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier is a rectifier

The half-wave rectifier is a rectifier which is used
which is used for converting both the
Definition for converting the one-half cycle of AC input to DC
half cycles of AC input into DC
output
output

No. of diodes 2 or 4 depending on the type of

1
used circuit

Form factor 1.57 1.11

Rectifier
40.6% 81.2%
efficiency

Ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier

Ripple factor Ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier is more
is less