LESSON - 7

LEARNING

CONTENTS

7.0 Aims and Objectives

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nature of Learning
7.3 Classical Conditioning
7.3.1 Pavlov’s Experiment
7.3.2 Extinction
7.3.3 Spontaneous recovery
7.3.4 Stimulus generalization
7.3.5 Stimulus discrimination
7.3.6 Higher-order conditioning
7.4 Operant Conditioning
7.4.1 Thorndike’s Law of Effect
7.4.2 Skinner’s Experiment
7.4.3 Types of Reinforcement
7.4.3.1 Primary Reinforcer & Secondary Reinforcer
7.4.3.2 Positive Reinforcement
7.4.3.3 Negative Reinforcement
7.4.3.4 Punishment
7.4.4 Schedules of Reinforcement
7.4.4.1 Fixed-ratio schedule
7.4.4.2 Variable-ratio schedule
7.4.4.3 Fixed-Interval schedule
7.4.4.4 Variable-Interval schedule
7.5 Observational Learning
7.5.1 Principles of Observational Learning

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 7.5.2 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
7.5.3 Steps in Observational Learning
7.6 Cognitive Learning
7.6.1 Insight Learning
7.6.1.1 Kohler’s Experiment with Sultan
7.6.1.2 Critical aspects of Insight Learning
7.6.1.3 Cognition in Animals
7.6.2 Tolman’s Sign Learning
7.6.2.1 Tolman’s classic experiment
7.7 Let us sum up
7.8 Lesson-End activities
7.9 Points for Discussion
7.10 Check your progress
7.11 References

7.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The previous lessons focused on elementary phenomena like sensation
and perception. This lesson covers issues concerned with the phenomena
learning. At the end of this lesson you will be able to:
(i) appreciate how we learn various behaviors by forming associations
between different stimuli
(ii) understand how reinforcements shape our behavior
(iii) learn how observing others’ experience can cause change in our
behavior potential
(iv) understand how our cognitive processes aid in learning

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning is a process that depends on one’s experience. It is something
that results in long term changes in behavior potential. Many theories are
available that provide a varied explanation on learning process. Major traditional
behavioristic theories are classical conditioning, operant conditioning,
observational learning and cognitive learning. These theories provide important
insights into learning, even though some of them use much simpler organisms
than humans to draw emperical evidences supporting their stand. Pavlov’s
experiment with dogs, Skinner’s experiment with rats and pigeons, Tolman’s
experiment with rats, and Kohler’s experiments with chimps are few

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examples.This lesson will cover the basic theories of learning, specifically
the behavioral and cognitive theories.

7.2 NATURE OF LEARNING

Learning is often referred to as a relatively permanent change in behavior
(or behavior potential) that results from experience or practice. Changes in
behavior due to maturation process or that occurs as a result of temporary
conditions like effect of drug, adaptation, disease, and fatigue.

The phrase ‘relatively permanent’ in the definition above implies that

changes in behavior that are transient or spontaneously reversible cannot be
considered as learned behavior. For instance, adaptation to dim illumination
can be easily reversed on exposure to bright light. Even repeated exposure to
this process does not affect the nature of change. On the contrary, a behavior
that is learned is long lasting and repeated exposure affects the nature of
change. The change is accumulative.

For ‘learning’ to be inferred the change has to observable. It should be

either directly observable from the way in which an individual behaves, or it
should be indirectly observed by comparing those exposed to certain conditions
with those who are denied the exposure.

The term ‘due to practice’ denotes exposure to specific experiences. Now

consider the example of an experimental condition that studies verbal learning.
Practice, here, would refer to successive presentation of list of words at a
rate determined by the experimenter.

Imprinting and habituation may be eliminated from what it means by

learning since neither of these phenomena involves practice. Similarly, short
term memory would be excluded from what is considered as ‘learning’ because
it is not a ‘relatively permanent’ change.

Though literally a number of different problems have been investigated

by learning studies only a small number of paradigms are needed to describe
the experimental procedures. Paradigms refer to the basic arrangements
used by an experimenter to produce the phenomenon that is of interest to
him. The few paradigms that have been used in experiments on learning are
listed below:
* Classical Conditioning
* Operant Conditioning
* Observational Learning
* Cognitive Learning

7.3 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Russian Physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, is famous for his theory of classical
conditioning. Conditioning is a process by which a natural response to a

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stimulus begins to follow another stimulus that remained neutral to it earlier.
Pavlovian Classical Conditioning was considered as the prototype of all learning
by most psychologists of the 1920s.

7.3.1 PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT

Pavlov, while experimenting with dogs to study his physiological research,
noticed that the dog salivated not only to the sight of food but also to the
sound of footsteps of the attendant who brought food. The dogs were responding
to both the biological need (hunger). In addition to this natural response they
also displayed a learned response of salivating to a neutral stimulus ‘footstep
of the attendant’. This kind of learning is termed as ‘Classical Conditioning’.

Picture courtesy: animalbehaviour.net/ClassicalConditioning.htm

Classical conditioning is one in which an organism learns a response to

a neutral stimulus that had not brought that response earlier. To demonstrate
classical conditioning Pavlov conducted a series of experiments. For instance,
in one of his experiments he attached a tube to the salivary gland of the dog
that helped him to measure precisely the amount of salivation that occurred.
Then, he sounded the bell few minutes after which he presented the dog
with meat powder. While pairing the sound of bell and the presentation of
meat powder Pavlov made sure that exactly the same amount of time lapsed
between the presentation of sound and the meat. During the initial trials of
the experiment the dog would salivated only to the meat powder. However,
after few pairings of the sound and the meat the dog started salivating just
on hearing the sound, even when there was no meat presented.

Picture courtesy: www.northern.ac.uk/.../Learningtheories.htm

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 We would perhaps have a startle reaction when we hear a bell and would
not salivate. It is obvious that salivation was not a natural response to the
sounding of bell. Hence the sound of the bell in the experiment mentioned
above is a neutral stimulus.

Salivating to the meat is a natural response. When meat is placed on the

mouth of the dog it would salivate because of the biological makeup of the
dog. Hence the meat in the above experiment is called the unconditioned
stimulus (US) and the salivation produced in response to presentation of
meat is an unconditioned response (UR). Unconditioned responses are innate
responses that are natural and that do not involve any training. They are
always a response to the unconditioned stimulus.

For conditioning to take place the neutral stimulus (ringing of bell) is

repeatedly paired with unconditioned stimulus (meat powder). During the
process of conditioning the bell gradually gets associated with the meat. Now
the bell brings in the same kind of response like that of the meat. During
this phase the salivation gradually increases each time the bell is sounded,
until the bell alone in the absence of meat powder causes the dog to salivate.

By the time the conditioning is complete the bell has evolved from a
neutral stimulus to a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). The bell, now, can bring in
salivation on its own. Salivating to the bell is called as Conditioned Response
(CR).

7.3.2 EXTINCTION
The property of the conditioned stimulus to bring in a conditioned brought
out by conditioned response is not permanent. It gradually loses its property
is it is presented alone without the unconditioned stimulus over a number of
trails. This phenomenon is called as extinction. Extinction occurs when a
previously conditioned response gradually decreases in frequency and
disappears eventually in time.

7.3.3 SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

One interesting fact about conditioning is that once a conditioned response
is extinguished it is not vanished forever. The extinguished response may
reappear after time has elapsed without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
This is called spontaneous recovery. Nevertheless, the response that occurs
after the extinction is much weaker that the original conditioned response
and they would get extinguished more readily than before.

7.3.4 STIMULUS GENERALIZATION

Pavlov noticed that his dogs that were used in conditioning were not only
responding to the sound of the bell but also to stimulus that were similar to
bell, like the sound of the buzzer, or the tuning fork. This phenomenon he

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termed as stimulus generalization. It occurs when a conditioned response
follows a stimulus that is similar in characteristics to the original conditioned
stimulus. The more the two stimuli are similar the greater would be the
generalization.

7.3.5 STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION

On the other hand, if the stimuli are sufficiently different from one
another that they both are perceived as different then only the conditioned
stimulus would evoke a conditioned response and the other would not. This
is called stimulus discrimination. It is the process by which an organism
learns to differentiate among stimuli and restricts its response to one stimulus
in particular.

7.3.6 HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING

One conditioned stimulus can act as a natural stimulus when paired
with a neutral stimulus. Such frequent pairing would get the organism respond
to the neutral stimulus as it would to the conditioned stimulus. This is called
higher-order conditioning. It is a form of conditioning that occurs when an
already conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus over a number
of trials till such time the neutral stimulus evokes the same response as
that of the conditioned stimulus.

The classical conditioning explains how we learn responses like fear for
darkness and how one gets back to drinking at the sight of alcohol after a
period of abstinence. Much of our behavior in daily life can be explained
using classical conditioning.

7.4 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Not all learning is involuntary. Operant conditioning explains how voluntary
responses are strengthened or weakened depending on positive or negative
consequences. In classical conditioning the original behavior is a natural
biological response. On the contrary, operant conditioning is applied on the
behaviors that are voluntary. In operant conditioning the organism performs
a behavior deliberately in order to produce a desirable outcome. Here the
organism operates on its environment to produce a result that it desires.

7.4.1 THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT

E.L.Thorndike observed that when cats were put in a cage with a fish
dangling outside the cats would learn, by trial and error, to press the paddle
and get out of the cage. He explained this formulating the Law of effects. He
theorized that responses that satisfy are more likely to be repeated while
those that are not satisfying are less likely to be repeated. Here, in his
experiment, pressing the paddle resulted in satisfaction since the cat could
get out of the cage by this behavior. Hence the cat learnt the response of

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pressing the paddle that it tends to repeat every time it was put in the cage.

Picture courtesy: http://www.animalbehaviour.net/OperantConditioning.htm

7.4.2 SKINNER’S EXPERIMENT

Thorndike’s research served as the foundation for the work of B.F.Skinner
who is considered to be one among the most popular behaviorists of his times.
Skinner devised a Skinner box that he used to study operant conditioning.
The animals in the Skinner box learn to press the lever so as to obtain food
that would be delivered on the tray placed inside the box.

Picture courtesy: http://peace.saumag.edu/faculty/Kardas/Images

Suppose a pigeon is placed inside the Skinner box. It would just move
around exploring the place in a relatively random fashion. By chance, at
some point of time, it would peck the key that in turn would result in delivery
of food pellet. The pigeon does not learn the connection between the pecking
at the hole key and getting the food pellet right after the first trial. It would
still continue exploring the box. Again by chance, sooner or later, the pigeon
pecks the key and gets the food pellet delivered. In time the frequency of the
pecking behavior will increase. Eventually the pigeon would simple go pecking
the key to get the food pellets until its hunger is satisfied. This demonstrates

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that the pigeon has learnt that receipt of food pellet is contingent on the
pecking behavior.

The pigeons in a variation of this experiment were taught to discriminate

between two stimuli using the same principle of reinforcement. As seen in
the picture above the Skinner Box was provided with two lights (red and
green). If the pigeons pecked the key when green light was on then it was
provided with a food pellet. On the other hand if it pecked the key when red
light was on the pigeon will not get any food pellet. The red and green lights
were randomly flashed for brief periods in the experiment. The pigeons
gradually learned to discriminate between red light and green light. They
pecked the key only when the green light was on and not when the red light
was on!

7.4.3 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

In this situation, the food pellet serves as a reinforcer that increases the
probability that the pecking behavior will be repeated. Any stimulus that
increases the probability of occurrence of a preceding behavior is termed as a
reinforcer. There are two types of rein forcers: the primary reinforcer and
the secondary reinforcer.

7.4.3.1 Primary reinforcer and Secondary reinforcer. A primary

reinforcer is that stimulus that satisfies biological needs like hunger and
thirst. Food to satisfy hunger, water to satisfy thirst, and woolen clothes to
keep oneself warm can be seen as primary reinforcers. In contrast, a
secondary reinforcer becomes reinforcing not by itself, but because of its
association with the primary reinforcer. Money is a reinforcer because it can
get us food, or a bottle of biseleri water. What makes a stimulus a reinforcer
is highly individualistic. If on presentation of the stimulus the rate of response
of previously occurring behavior increases then that stimulus can be identified
as a reinforcer.

7.4.3.2 Positive reinforcer. Another way in which reinforcers are

classified is based on their effect on behavior. If a reinforcer increases the
probability of occurrence of a behavior then it is termed as positive reinforcer.
Food, water, praise, and money, for example, when presented following a
response are likely to increase the likelihood of occurrence of the response
in future. These are examples of positive reinforcers.

7.4.3.3 Negative reinforcer. On the contrary, if removal of a stimulus

following a response results in increased probability of occurrence of the
behavior then it is a negative reinforcer. A typical example is going to a movie
when you are worked out to relieve your tension. In this example getting rid
of your tensions and getting refreshed after a movie reinforces movie-going
behavior. Removal of the negative state increases the occurrence of the
behavior, and this acts as negative reinforcer.

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 7.4.3.4 Punishment. Punishment is presenting a negative stimulus that
would decrease the occurrence of the behavior. The distinction between
negative reinforcement and punishment is very important. While negative
reinforcement involves removing of negative stimulus punishment involves
presenting a negative stimulus. Negative reinforcement increases the
occurrence of the behavior while punishment decreases the occurrence of
the behavior.

7.4.4 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

Equally important as the type of reinforcement is the schedule of
reinforcement. The frequency and the timing of reinforcement following the
behavior are varied in different schedules of reinforcement. Continuous
reinforcement is one where every time the organism exhibits the desired
behavior it is reinforced. For example, a pigeon on continuous reinforcement
schedule would get a food pellet every time it pecks the key. The other type of
reinforcement schedule is called the partial reinforcement schedule. In this
schedule the behavior is reinforced some, and not all, of the times. Gambling
is a typical example of partial reinforcement. In this the behavior may some
times be rewarded and some times not.

Although many different partial reinforcement have been studied four of

them are popularly used. The schedules differ in two ways: one is the number
of responses needed to elicit reinforcement, and the other is the amount of
time that needs to be elapsed before the reinforcement. The first type may be
of either fixed-ratio or variable-ratio schedule. The second type may be of
either fixed-interval or variable-interval schedule.

7.4.4.1 Fixed-Ratio schedule. In the fixed-ratio schedule the

reinforcement is provided only after a certain number of responses made.
Piece-rate pay in industry is a typical example of this. A tailor in an industry
will receive the pay depending on the number of garments she has stitched.
Another example is a pigeon on a FR10 schedule would receive a food pellet
after every 10th peck.

7.4.4.2 Variable-Ratio Schedule. On the contrary, in variable-ratio

schedule reinforcement is provided after an average number of responses
but unpredictably. Gambling devices and systems that arrange occasional
but unpredictable payoffs may be seen as examples of this type of
reinforcement. Another example of this could be a pigeon on VR10 that would
receive food pellet after say 5 th, 10 th, 9 th, 15 th , 11 th over five trails which
averages out to 10 (5+10+9+15+11=50, and average rate of reinforcement
would be 50/5=10).

7.4.4.3 Fixed-Interval schedule. This type of schedule is one in which

the organism is reinforced after an established time interval. For example, a
rat on FI 5 may be reinforced once every five minutes. The major drawback of
this schedule is that the behavior decreases immediately after reinforcement.

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The rat would stop responding immediately after reinforcement but responds
more and more rapidly as the time for the next reinforcement approaches.

7.4.4.4 Variable-interval schedule. In this schedule the reinforcement

is given at various times, and it generally results in more consistent behavior.
If a response has been reinforced on the average every five minutes but
unpredictably, the rat responds at a steady rate. For example, a rat on VI 10
would receive reinforcement after say 7 th , 12th, 10 th , 10 th , 11 th second
(7+12+10+10+11=50, and average rate of reinforcement would be 50/5=10).
The rate is high if the average interval is short, and the rate is low if it is
long.

7.5 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Conditioning principles do not exhaust possible explanations of all
behaviors, especially human learning. Learning need not occur through direct
experience. Observational learning, in which we observe and imitate others
behaviors, also play a big part. The process of observing and imitating specific
behavior is often called modeling. By observing and imitating models we learn
all kinds of social behaviors. Bandura and others (1961) have developed their
social learning based on social modeling.

7.5.1 PRINCIPLES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

This type of learning was first explained by Albert Bandura (1977) in his
popular social learning theory. He says we learn by watching others. People
whose behavior is observed are called Models. Any one can serve as a model.
Examples of models can be parents, politician, movie stars, friends or even
the boy next door. If the model’s behavior is rewarded then the observer may
imitate that behavior. On the other hand, if the model’s behavior is not
rewarded one may not imitate that behavior.

7.5.2 BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT

The observational learning was dramatically demonstrated by Bandura
and his co-workers. In the classic experiment by Bandura young children
watched a film of an adult wildly hitting a 5-foot-tall inflated bobo doll
(Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963a, 1963b). Later the children were brought to
another room where attractive toys were kept but were denied the chance to
play with the attractive toys. This was done to frustrate the children since
the experimenters were interested to see the children’s reaction to frustration.
The children were now given the bobo dolls similar to the one shown on the
movie, and sure enough the children displayed the same kind of behavior as
it was done by adult models in the movies. Amazingly some of the children
mimicked the aggressive behavior almost identically. The complete sequence
of Bandura’s experiment is shown in the picture below.

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 Picture Courtesy: http://www.education.umd.edu/Depts/EDHD/geron/
lifespan/5-1.html

Not only negative behaviors but also positive behaviors are learned through
observational learning. When children were exposed to a model playing with
a dog in ‘Fearless Peer’ they were more likely to approach a strange dog than
those children who had not watches the Fearless Peer.

7.5.3 STEPS IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

According to Bandura, observational learning takes place through four
steps. The first step involves paying attention to the model’s behavior. Attention
is drawn towards a modeled behavior and most critical feature of the model’s
behavior is noted. After doing so the mental image of the model’s behavior is
stored in memory so that it can be retrieved later. The third step involves
reproducing the action. Any specific situation similar to the one stored in
memory may trigger us to convert remembered behavior into action. The
fourth step involves remaining motivated to learn and carry out the behavior.
If the action performed by us is reinforced we add it to our behavior repertoire
or else it may be gradually wither away.

7.6 COGNITIVE LEARNING

The cognitive learning theorists argue that learning cannot be reduced
to mere forming of ‘association’ as contented by Pavlovian and Skinnerian
psychologists. They hold that cognitive process like perception, thinking and
memory play key role in learning. Insight Learning by Kohler and Latent
Learning by Tolman may be seen as examples of cognitive learning theories.
In fact even Bandura’s observational learning may be seen as an instance of
cognitive learning since it also explains learning as one that involves attention,
imagery, and memory. In sum, the cognitive learning theorists try to study
the cognitive processes that underlie learning. Cognitive learning connotes

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higher-level learning involving knowing, understanding, and anticipation.

7.6.1 INSIGHT LEARNING.

Wolfgang Kohler, German psychologist, proposed that sudden recognition
of relationships lead to solution of complex problem. He experimented with
chimpanzees. Kohler’s work with chimpanzees, carried out in 1920’s, remains
particularly important to understand cognitive learning. The problems that
Kohler set for his chimpanzees left enough scope for insight, because no
parts of the problem were hidden from view(in contrast to Skinnerian
experiments where the food dispenser in skinner box are hidden from the
animal’s view). Typically Kohler placed a chimpanzee in an enclosed area
with a desirable piece of fruit, often banana, out of reach. To obtain the fruit
the animal had to use the near by object as a tool. Usually the chimpanzee
solved the problem, and did it in a way that suggested he had some insight.

7.6.1.1 Kohler’s Experiment with Sultan. Kohler’s typical experiment

can be described as follows: Sultan [Kohler’s most intelligent chimpanzee] is
squatting at the bars but cannot reach the fruit which lies outside by means
of his only available short stick. A longer stick is placed outside the bars
about two meters on one side of the object and parallel with the grating. It
cannot be grasped with the hand, but it can be pulled within reach by means
of small stick. Sultan tries to reach the fruit with the smaller of two sticks.
Not succeeding, he tears at a piece of wire that projects from the netted
cage, but that is too in vain. Then he gazes about him (there are always in
the course of these tests some long pauses, during which the animal
scrutinizes the whole visible area). He suddenly picks up the little stick once
again, goes upto the bars directly opposite to the long stick, pulls it towards
him with the “auxiliary”, seizes it, and goes with it to the point opposite to
the objective (the fruit), which he secures.

Picture Courtesy: http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/kohler.htm

Several aspects of the performance of those chimpanzees are unlike those

of Thorndike’s cat on skinner’s rats and pigeons. The solution here is sudden
rather than being the result of a gradual trial and error process. Another
point is that once a chimpanzee solved a problem with few irrelevant moves.
This is most unlike a rat, which continues to make irrelevant responses in
Skinner box for many trials. Kohler’s chimpanzees could readily transfer
what they have learned to a novel situation. For example in one problem,
sultan was not put in a cage, but some bananas were placed too high for him

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reach. To solve the problem, sultan stacked some boxes thrown around him,
claimed the “platform”, and grabbed the bananas. In subsequent problems, if
the fruit was again too high to reach, sultan found other objects to construct
a platform. In some cases sultan used table and a small ladder, and in one
case sultan pulled Kohler himself over and used the experimenter as a
platform.

7.6.1.2 Critical aspects of Insight Learning. There are three critical

aspects of the chimpanzee’s solution: its suddenness, its availability once
discovered and its transferability. These aspects are at odds with the
behaviorist notion of trial and error behaviors like the one observed by
Thorndike, Skinner, and others. Instead the chimpanzee’s solution may reflect
a mental trial and error. The animal forms a mental representation until it
hits on a solution, and then enacts the solution in the real world. The solution,
therefore, appears sudden because the representation persists over time,
and the solution is transferable because the representation is either abstract
enough to cover more than the original situation or malleable enough to be
extended to a novel situation.

7.6.1.3 Cognitions in Animals. More recent studies done on primates

provide even stronger evidence for cognition in animal learning. Particularly
fascinating are studies showing that chimpanzees can acquire abstract
concepts that were once believed to be the sole province of humans. In the
typical study, chimpanzees learn to use plastic tokens of different shapes
size and colors as words. For example, they might learn one token refers to
apple and another to papers, where there is no physical resemblance between
the token and the object. The fact that chimpanzees can learn these
references means they understand concrete concept like “apple” and “paper”.
More impressively they also have abstract concept like “same”, “different”
and “cause”. Thus chimpanzees can learn to use their “same” token when
presented either two “apple” tokens or two “orange” ones and their “different”
token when presented one “apple” and one “orange” token. Likewise
chimpanzees seem to understand casual relations: they will apply token for
“cause” when someone cut paper and scissors, but not when shown some
intact paper and scissors (premack, 1985a; premack&premack, 1983).

7.6.2 TOLMAN’S SIGN LEARNING

Operant Conditioning principle emphasis that the reinforcement in
essential to ‘stamp in’ new behavior. In contrast, latent learning principle
suggests that learning occurs even in the absence of reinforcement. However,
for the behavior to occur overtly reinforcement is requirement. It is for
demonstration and not for learning per se that reinforcement is required.
This is demonstrated by Edward Tolman. His experiments are said to
demonstrate what is called Sign learning or latent learning.

The Pavlovian conditioning theorists believe that the rat learns specific
units of S-R connections. The Skinnerian conditioning theorists believe that

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the rat learns the situation through successive approximations that is shaping,
and perhaps, chaining. However Tolman believes that the exact thing that
happens in the learning is signs and not the learning of specific units either
alone or in combination and summation. The rat rather learns a cognitive
map of learning task. Sign learning connotes an acquired expectation that
one stimulus will be followed by another in a particular context. Thus, what
is learned is expectations rather than sequence of responses. Tolman allowed
his rats to learn a maze and later interrupted their path with barriers. The
rats immediately shifted to the nearest straight path to their goal as if they
already knew the entire path. Even when the maze has been suddenly rotated
to 90Ú, the rats were able to follow their learned path. These experiments,
Tolman holds show that the learning occurring in these cases are sign learning
not mere bonding of unitary S-Rs.

7.6.2.1 Tolman’s classic experiment. Tolman’s classic experiment

demonstrating latent learning consisted of three groups of rats that were
made to run in complex maze for 16 consecutive days. Rats in Group 1 i.e.,
‘Reward group’ were rewarded every time they reached goal box on all the 16
days. Rats in Group 2 i.e., in ‘Non-reward group’ were not given any reward
on any of 16 days when they it reached goal box. The rats in the Group 3 i.e.,
‘Latent Learning group’ were not given any reward for the first 10 days, but
were given reward for the remaining 6 days. Results of Tolman’s experiment
were interesting. For the first 10 days the rats in the Reward groups did
better than those in the Non-reward and Latent Learning groups. On the 11th
day when the reward was introduced for the first time to the rats in the
Latent Learning group they performed as well as the ones in the Reward
group. This demonstrates the distinction between learning and performance.

Cognitive maps are internal images or mental representations of an area

like maze, city, campus, and the like that underlie an ability to choose
alternative paths to the same goals. The rats seemed to develop a ‘Cognitive
Map’ of maze even when no reward was given. When reward was administered
to them this cognitive map allowed them to reach high level of performance
immediately.

Discovery learning is a type of cognitive learning in which skills are

gained by insight and understanding and not by rote (de Jong & Van Joolingen,
1998). Although rote learning is efficient most psychologists agree that when
people discover facts and principles on their own then it is more lasting and
flexible than rote learning. Discovery seems to offer better understanding of
new and unusual problems. Two groups of students, for instance, were asked
to calculate the area of a parallelogram by multiplying the height by the
length of the base. One group was encouraged to see how a piece of
parallelogram could be moved to create a rectangle. Later both the groups of
students were made to work on problems where height times base formula
didn’t seem to work. Those students who simply memorized the formula got
confused. Those who were encouraged to discover had better understanding

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of this new problem. Thus the best teaching strategies are based on guided
discovery where in the students are given adequate freedom to actively think
about problems and adequate guidance to gain useful knowledge by themselves.

7.7 LET US SUM UP

(i) Learning is referred to as a relatively permanent change in behavior
(or behavior potential) that results from experience or practice.
(ii) Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov states that learning involves
forming association between two stimuli. The learner associates
previously neutral stimulus (CS) with a stimulus (UCS) that elicits a
natural response (UCR). After conditioning the CS acquires the
capacity to elicit a response similar to the UCR.
(iii) Thorndike in his law of effect theorized that responses that satisfy
are more likely to be repeated while those that are not satisfying are
less likely to be repeated.
(iv) Operant conditioning explains how voluntary responses are
strengthened or weakened depending on positive or negative
consequences. In operant conditioning the organism performs a
behavior deliberately in order to produce a desirable outcome.
(v) Consequences of behavior are termed as reinforcements. The types
of Reinforcement and the schedules of reinforcement will decide
how quickly a behavior is learnt and how long it would stay.
(vi) Albert Bandura who put forth the observational learning theory says
we learn by watching others. Those whose behavior is observed are
called Models. If the model’s behavior is rewarded then the observer
may imitate that behavior. On the other hand, if the model’s behavior
is not rewarded one may not imitate that behavior.
(vii) The cognitive learning theorists argue that learning cannot be reduced
to mere forming of ‘association’ as contented by Pavlovian and
Skinnerian psychologists. They hold that cognitive process like
perception, thinking and memory play key role in learning.
(viii) Insight Learning and Sign learning can be seen as instance of
cognitive theory in addition to Bandura’s theory.
(ix) Wolfgang Kohler observed that animal forms a mental representation
of the problem until it hits on a solution, and then enacts the solution
in the real world. The solution will appear sudden because the
representation persists over time. The solution is transferable because
the representation is abstract enough to cover more than the original
situation.
(x) Tolman’s Sign Learning is also known as latent learning. It suggests
that learning occurs even in the absence of reinforcement. However,
for the behavior to occur overtly reinforcement is requirement.

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7.8 LESSON-END ACTIVITIES
(i) Reflecting back on your personal experience which type of
reinforcement has been effective in getting you learn better?
(ii) If you find your sister spanking your niece what would be your advice
(apply principles of operant conditioning)?
(iii) Apply principles of observational learning act as a model and try
helping a kid in your neighborhood some specific behavior.

7.9 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

(i) Critically compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning
theories.
(ii) Bandura’s theory is a cognitive theory. Substantiate.
(iii) Evaluate the validity of cognitive learning theories.

7.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

(i) What are the essential features of learning?
(ii) What is higher order conditioning?
(iii) Which is the most effective schedule of reinforcement?
(iii) Describe Tolman’s experiment in the study of sign learning?
(iv)

7.11 REFERENCES
Coon, D. and Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology. First Indian
Reprint. Delhi. Akash Press.

Cormier, S.M. (1986) Basic Processes of Learning, Cognition and

Motivation. NJ. : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Mowrer, R.R. (2001). Handbook of Contemporary Learning Theories. NJ :

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Passer, M.W. and Smith, R.E. (2007). Psychology The Science of Mind and
Behavior. Third Edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

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 LESSON - 8

MEMORY AND FORGETTING

CONTENTS

8.0 Aims and Objectives

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Historical Approach to Memory
8.3 Theoretical Model of the Memory System
8.3.1 Sensory Memory
8.3.2 Short-term Memory (STM)
8.3.3 Long-term Memory (LTM)
8.3.3.1 Procedural Memory
8.3.3.2 Declarative Memory
8.4 Kinds of Memory Process
8.4.1 Encoding
8.4.1.1 Automatic Processing
8.4.1.2 Effortful Processing
8.4.2 Storage (Retaining Memory)
8.4.3 Retrieval (Getting information out)
8.4.4 Interaction between Encoding and Retrieval
8.4.4.1 Organization of Semantic memory
8.4.4.2 Context of encoding
8.5 Forgetting
8.5.1 Causes of Forgetting
8.5.1.1 Decay of memory trace
8.5.1.2 Interference mechanism
8.5.1.3 Retrieval failure
8.5.1.4 Motivated forgetting
8.5.1.5 Organic causes of forgetting

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 8.5.1.5.1 Amnesia caused by disease
8.5.1.5.2 Retrograde Amnesia
8.5.1.5.3 Anterograde Amnesia
8.6 Let us sum up
8.7 Lesson-End activities
8.8 Points for Discussion
8.9 Check your progress
8.10 References

8.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, the faculties of memory and forgetting will be discussed in
detail. After going through this lesson, you will be aware of the following
items.
1. Model of memory system
2. Different types of memory
3. Forgetting and
4. Various causes of memory

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Memory connotes the capacity of an individual to record, retain and
reproduce the same information. Memory may be seen as referring dual aspect.
In one way memory may be seen as a process by which we store newly
acquired information for later recall. Another way in which memory is defined
is the recall for specific experience or the complete recollection of all the
remembered experiences that are stored in the brain Crooks & Stein, 1991).

8.2 HISTORICAL APPROACHES TO MEMORY

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 – 1909) is recognized as the first researcher
who used scientific techniques to study memory. He prepared a list of ‘non-
sense syllables’ that consisted of consonant-vowel-consonant trigrams. In
order to test his memory he used relearning. He quantified his memory
performance using a saving score. To identify the relationship between savings
and the time between learning and relearning he used a forgetting curve.

Frederic Bartlett (1886-1969) tested memory using everyday stimulus

materials such as objects, birds and stories. He used the method of serial
reproduction to demonstrate effects of social factors on the recalling capacity
of an individual.

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8.3 THEORETICAL MODEL OF MEMORY SYSTEM
The three-stage information-processing model of memory has been guiding
psychologists’ thinking on memory since 1960s. Three distinct stages of memory
have been identified namely sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-
term memory. These three distinct systems of memory help is to process,
store and recall information (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968, 1971).
Information coming via sensory input

SENSORY MEMORY

Brief impressions from senses:

Forgetting due to decay
Visual (Iconic), Auditory (Echoic),
and so on.

Forgetting due to improper coding

and lack of rehearsal.
SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Acoustic, Visual and semantic

coding Forgetting due to interference,
retrieval failure, and possible decay.

LONG-TERM MEMORY

Encoding of procedural and

declarative memories

Adapted from Crooks & Stein (1991)

During early years of research in psychology of remembering it was believed

that we use the same kinds of memory to store all kinds of information. For
instance, it was believed that varied type of information like the recollection
of your first school and the skills needed to drive a car are stored in the
same LTM. However, recent researches suggest that we use different long-
term memories to remember incidents and a different one to retain a skill.
Similarly, we may also use a different memory to remember general facts
and a different one to store personal facts relating to an experience.

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8.3.1 SENSORY MEMORY
Information entering through the sensory system is stored in the sensory
memory as brief impressions, approximately to the initial 200 - 500
milliseconds after an item is perceived. This sensory memory is highly
transitory and hence we may not even be consciously aware of the memory.
This type of memory is also referred to as sensory registers. The stimuli that
we first receive are momentarily retained in sensory memory. These fleeting
impressions appear to be accurate reproductions of original sensory inputs.
The coding process that takes place in the sensory memory is in the form of
physiological process of our sensory system. No organization or categorization
of information take place in this stage, and it is regarded as the most primitive
memory storage. The basic purpose of this memory is to hold sensory
impressions just long enough for important features of this information to be
transferred to the next system, the short term memory. If we do not attend to
these impressions then they may just be forgotten within a second or two. If
we attend to these sensory impressions then they get transferred to the
STM.

There are as many sensory memories as there are sensory modalities.

Most prominent ones among them are the visual and auditory information.
Iconic (visual) memory consists of the images that we see. The impressions
may fade away within 0.3 seconds when not used. The Echoic (Auditory)
memory is the auditory after image or echo that remains after the physical
stimulus ceases. The echoic memory also, like the iconic memory, functions
to retain information temporarily for possible further processing.

8.3.2 SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Information from sensory memory that have been attended to are sent to
the STM. This is an intermediate between sensory memory and long-term
memory. Unless active effort is taken to hold the information in consciousness
the information in the STM fades away within 20 seconds or less. Unless
repeatedly rehearsed the information is likely to fade from this memory quickly.
This can be seen in the case of remembering a phone number. Unless we
rehearse the number it fades and we are no longer able to remember the
number. By active rehearsal, however, we can retain information in the STM
as long as we wish to.

Further the amount of information that can be stored in this system is

less than that of the sensory memory. The STM has limited capacity to hold
information. It can hold about 7 items or chunks of unrelated information on
the basis of how it sounds (acoustic coding). Only about 3 chunks can be
stored when information is stored based on how they look (visual coding) or
what they mean (semantic coding). Chunk simply refers to a meaningful unit
of STM. It should be noted that the STM capacity does not necessarily reflect
7 numbers or letters and they can store about 7 pieces of information that
can be letters, words or even meaningful sentences.

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8.3.3 LONG-TERM MEMORY
The information that we remember for more than 20 seconds moves to
the LTM and get stored in it. Information from the short-term memory, when
repeatedly rehearsed, reaches the long-term memory (LTM). Information may
remain for hours, days, and even a lifetime in this LTM. While we retrieve
information for LTM it passes through the STM. LTM usually lasts longer, or
even indefinitely. However, if the information is encoded poorly it will be
subjected to interference and hence may be quickly forgotten.

The LTM is filled with facts, feelings, images, skills, and attitudes
resembling a giant storehouse. In addition to storing information from past
experiences LTM also helps us to deal with and process new information.
When faced with new problems and situations we could simply pull certain
chunks of information from LTM to STM and use it to handle the situation.

Information in the LTM is organized in the form of network of linked

ideas, as shown in the section 8.4.4. The more two items are separated in
the network the longer the time it would take to answer. Networks of
associated memories may have a common experience. For instance, when
you see a picture of your high-school graduation day celebration you would
remember a plethora of things that are connected to it. You will find that one
memory leads to the other, which again would lead to another, and so on.
Redintegrative memory seems to spread through the various branches of
the memory network. The basic idea in redintegration is that one memory
serves as a clue to another memory.

Information is stored in the LTM in the form of either Procedural memory

or Declarative memory.

8.3.3.1 Procedural Memory. Procedural memory is what helps us to

perform skills. It is primarily employed in learning motor skills. For example:
typing, playing a piano, or participating in sports competition. The information
that we learn from books and from listening to lectures when recalled maybe
termed as declarative memory. Procedural memories are hard to acquire but
remain almost permanently.

8.3.3.2 Declarative Memory. Declarative memory stores factual

information. It is expressed in words or symbols. It is acquired more quickly
but the information is susceptible to forgetting. These two memories are
stored in different parts of the brain and develop at different times. Abilities
develop quite early in life during infancy, but we develop capacity to remember
facts much later.

The Declarative memory can be categorized into episodic memory and

semantic memory. The former refers to autobiographical events and is stored
in a chronological order. Semantic memory, on the other hand, consists of
general non-personal knowledge, like meanings, facts, and concepts.

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8.4 KINDS OF MEMORY PROCESSES
Memory is described in terms of three specific processes namely encoding,
storage and retrieval. Encoding refers to getting information into the brain,
Storage refers to retaining the information and Retrieval refers to getting
back the information.

8.4.1 ENCODING
Some encoding occurs almost automatically. For instance, one’s memory
for the route he walks to class everyday is handled by automatic processing.
On the other hand, learning conceptual material requires conscious and
effortful processing.

8.4.1.1 Automatic processing occurs with little or no effort where

enormous amount of information is encoded. Automatic processing occurring
without the effort of the individual occurs without interfering with thinking.
Some examples are, recalling the entire day’s events when searching for
something misplaced, and understanding a word spoken in the native language
of the person. Some types of automatic processing are learned. For instance,
reading a sentence from the reverse end may be difficult initially. But after
effortful practice it would become almost automatic.

8.4.1.2 Effortful Processing is one where information is remembered

only with effort and attention. Rehearsal or conscious repetition may boost
memory. Repetition, relearning and over-learning lead to better memory in
verbal tasks.

Information is processed in three ways: By encoding its meaning, by

visualizing and by mentally organizing it. This processing is done automatically
but requires different methods to enhance it. Some of the strategies to
enhance coding are given below:
Encoding meaning: Meanings are encoded while processing verbal
material, which we associate with what we already know or imagine.
In memorizing materials deeper semantic encoding is recognized to
be far more superior to shallow visual encoding.
Encoding Imagery: Images help us enhance memory. Mnemonic devices
that aid in improving our memory are based on this principle.
Organizing: Meaning and imagery enhance memory by organizing
information. Chunking demonstrates how we organized information
into meaningful units. Hierarchies also play a role in enhancing
memory. Information that is not encoded effectively is forgotten.

8.4.2 STORAGE (RETAINING MEMORY)

Retaining involves three types of storage namely sensory memory storage,
STM storage and LTM storage. Sensory memory is largely in the form of

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Iconic and Echoic memory. Some of the information from the sensory memory
is given importance that is attended to is transferred to the STM. The STM
has limited storing capacity. If the information is repeatedly rehearsed then
it reaches the LTM. The storage here is limitless. An average adult has about
a billion bits of information in memory.

8.4.3 RETRIEVAL (GETTING INFORMATION OUT)

Memory connotes the process when something has been learned and is
retained. It may be indicated by recalling, recognizing and relearning. More
the number of information in the STM the more is the time taken to retrieve
information from the STM. During the process of retrieval each and every
item is examined one at a time. This serial search takes place in amazing
speed that we are not aware of (Sternberg, 1966). Difficulty in remembering
information stored in LTM could be due to long time taken to access them
rather than due to loss of information. In other words, poor memory at this
point would reflect retrieval failure and not to problem in storage. If retrieve
information from the LTM can be compared to trying to locate a book in a
huge library, then retrieval failure can be compared to searching for the book
in the wrong rack or searching for the book that is misfiled and hence
inaccessible.

Forgetting or retrieval problems are common with everyone. For instance,

a student who is unable to retrieve a specific term or formula in an exam
may be able to remember the same after he moves out of the exam. Tip of the
tongue phenomena (TOT), also known as tip-pf-tongue aphasia is a typical
example of retrieval failures. In this unusual condition of forgetting we find
that we are unable to reproduce an item like name of a person, or a term at
the first attempt, even though we are quite confident that we know the word,
and also the first letter of the word. It is likely that we know how the word
sounds, the shape of the word, its meaning and perhaps even the first letter
of the word. We may even readily recognize the word among other words
when someone tells it as the word that we have been searching for. TOT
where the person knows everything about that information but is unable to
retrieve it is an example of ‘stage one retrieval error’. This may be due to
some interference with the normal retrieval process. Seeing the TOT we can
understand that the information is organized in the LTM in the form of
associations and linkages (Collins and Quillion, 1969). Sometimes the word
is recovered through spontaneous recovery. Studying things that are related
to the word while they are in the TOT would help us identify the associations
and linkages of items in LTM that form categories and hierarchies.

8.4.4 INTERACTION BETWEEN ENCODING AND RETRIEVAL

The operations carried out during the encoding phase make later retrieval
easier. Organizing the information during the encoding stage and ensuring
that the context of retrieval is the same as the one where encoding has taken
place are two ways by which we can improve the chances of successful retrieval.

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 Retrieval is successful if effort is made to organize the information during
encoding stage. An experiment by Bower, Clark, Wizzenz and Lergold (1969)
beautifully illustrates the beneficial effect of categories in organizing encoding
memory. In this experiment the subjects were asked to memorize lists of
words. Some of the subjects were given the list of words by arranging them
in the form of a hierarchical tree.

Other subjects were given the same list of words that were arranged
randomly. On later testing it was found that the subjects who were presented
the words with the hierarchical organization were able to recall 65% of the
words while those subjects who were presented the same set of words
arranged in random order recalled only 19% of the words.

In addition to the organization of the information the context of encoding

and retrieval also plays an important role in the success of retrieval. Retrieval
is successful when the context in which the information is to be retrieved is
the same as the one where the information was originally encoded. For
instance, we would be able to recollect the names of our classmates in the
first grades better when we walk into the corridors of the elementary school.
Thus, the context in which we encode the information stands as an important
cue for retrieval. Here context can seen as including both external environment
and internal

8.4.4.1 Organization of Semantic memory: Organization of information

makes retrieval easier. Bower, Clark, Wizzenz and Lergold (1969) conducted
an experiment that illustrates the beneficial effect of categories in organizing
encoding memory. The subjects were asked to memorize lists of words. For
some subjects the words in a list were arranged in the form of a hierarchical
tree, much like the example shown in figure. For other subjects, the words
were arranged randomly. When tested later, the subjects presented with
the hierarchical organization recalled 65% of the words; where as the subjects
presented with random order recalled only 19% of the same words. Figure
given below illustrates one way concepts are thought to be arranged in LTM.
It has been concluded that information is filled in categories and subcategories
as a network with several pathways to reach a piece of information. Another
common experience that details the organization of LTM is reintegration,
where a particular event may bring up old emotions and memories. These
thoughts and emotions show that there is a connection in the way in which
LTM stores or categorizes information.

8.4.4.2 Context of encoding: It is easier to retrieve a particular factor

episode if one is in the same context in which he encoded it. This may mean
that we can remember events better when we are in the same situation as of
the event. The context in which an event was encoded is itself one of the most
powerful retrieval cues possible, and a mass of experimental evidence supports
this. Context is not always external to memorizer. What is happening inside of
us when we encode information – our internal state – is also part of context.

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8.5 FORGETTING
Forgetting or retention loss connotes the apparent loss of information
already encoded and stored in an individual’s long term memory. It can be a
spontaneous one or may involve a gradual process in which old memories are
unable to be recalled. There are many reasons why we forget things. Some of
them are briefly discussed below.

8.5.1 CAUSES OF FORGETTING

There are five basic reasons for why forgetting occurs:
1) The decay of memory trace,
2) Problems with interfering materials,
3) A break down in retrieval process,
4) Emotional and motivational conditions, and
5) Organic factors.

8.5.1.1 Decay of memory trace: This decay maybe said to occur due to
neuro-chemical or anatomical changes. Some state that information in the
STM may decay but that information in the LTM are permanent and difficulty
in recalling events maybe due to retrieval problems. Some scientists state
that decay does occur in the LTM and that memorized decay over time and
disappear. If decay theory explained all forgetting, we would expect that the
longer the time between the initial learning of information and our attempt
to recall it, the harder it would be to remember it, since there would be more
time for the memory trace to decay. Yet people who take several consecutive
tests won the same material often recall more of the initial information
when taking later tests than they did on earlier tests. If decay were operating
we would expect the opposite to occur.

8.5.1.2 Interference mechanism: This theory states that our memory

of new information maybe hindered by the events that occur before or after
we learn. There may be two types of interference, Retroactive interference
and Proactive interference.

INTERFERENCE
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
MARATHI IS IMPAIRED BY
MEMORY OF HINDI

LANGUAGE
HINDI MARATHI
TEST

RETROACTIVE INHIBITION
HINDI IS IMPAIRED BY
MEMORY OF MARATHI

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 Retroactive interference occurs when a later event interferes with recall
of earlier information. Proactive interference is where previously learnt
information hinders learning in the present.

The following diagram illustrates experimental paradigm followed in

experiments on retroactive and proactive interference.

Experimental Design for the study of Retroactive interference:

Group Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Experimental Learn Hindi Learn Marathi Test retention of Hindi
Group
Control Group Learn Hindi Rest Test retention of Hindi

Experimental design for the study of proactive interference

8.5.1.3 Retrieval failure: In certain cases retrieval may not occur because
of the TOT phenomena. Failure to retrieve information does not mean the
information has disappeared it may mean that there has been a poor encoding
of the information. Even memories that seem impossible to retrieve may pop
into mind when right cues are used.
Group Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
8.5.1.4 Motivated forgetting: Repression
Experimentalis an example of motivated
Learn Hindi Learn Marathi Test reten
forgetting where memories that is painful, embarrassing or degrading maybe
Group
Control Group
forcibly forgotten. According to Freud, repression Rest
occurs because Learn Marathi
we re unable Test reten
to deal with these events in the conscious level. There is general agreement
among psychologists that motivated forgetting dies play a role in blocking at
least some material stored in long term memory.

8.5.1.5 Organic causes of forgetting: Certain physical illnesses or

accidents may cause a loss of memory. There are three prominent types of
organic amnesia:
1) Amnesia caused by disease
2) Retrograde Amnesia
3) Anterograde Amnesia

8.5.1.5.1 Amnesia caused by disease: Some diseases produce actual

physical deterioration of brain cells, impairing memory as well as a variety of
cognitive functions. For instance, cardiovascular disease is characterized by
decreased blood circulation, which sometimes limits o2 supply to the brain to
the point that some brain cells die. Strokes are another common physical
cause of memory impairment. Here, a vessel in the brain ruptures, with
resulting damage to cells. Alzheimer’s disease is another illness that produces

105
progressively widespread degeneration of brain cells. This devastating disease
produces severe memory deficits and other impairments of mental functioning.

8.5.1.5.2 Retrograde Amnesia: Sometimes a blow to the head may cause

loss of memory for certain details or events that occurred prior to the
accidents. This condition is called as retrograde amnesia. In many of the
cases, lost memories return gradually, with older memories tending to come
back first. In almost all cases investigated, memories for recent events have
been shown to be more susceptible to disruption than older memories.
Retrograde amnesia is more likely to impair declarative memory, particularly
episodic type, than to interfere with procedural memory

8.5.1.5.3 Anterograde Amnesia: Amnesia can also work in the opposite

direction. Some victims of brain damage may be able to recall old memories
established before the damage but cannot remember information processed
after the damage has occurred. This condition is called anterograde amnesia.
It may be caused by injury to a specific area of the brain. It may also be
associated with certain surgical procedure and chronic alcoholism. Unlike
retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia is often irreversible.

8.6 LET US SUM UP

(i) Memory connotes the capacity of an individual to record, retain and
reproduce the same information.
(ii) Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 – 1909) Frederic Bartlett (1886-1969) we
the first ones to use scientific techniques to study memory.
(iii) The three-stage information processing differentiates three distinct
stages of memory namely sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory.
(iv) The stimuli that we first receive are momentarily retained in sensory
memory. Images that we see are stored as Iconic memory and the
auditory stimuli are stored as Echoic memory.
(v) Information from sensory memory that has been attended to are sent
to the STM where it stays for 20 seconds or less. If no effort is taken
to rehearse the information at STM it would fade away.
(vi) Information from the short-term memory, when repeatedly rehearsed,
reaches the long-term memory (LTM). Procedural memory and
Declarative memory are the two types of memory in the LTM.
(vii) Memory process includes encoding, storage and retrieval. Encoding
refers to getting information into the brain, Storage refers to retaining
the information and Retrieval refers to getting back the information.
(viii) Successful retrieval depends on organization of the information and
the context of encoding and retrieval.
(ix) Forgetting or retention loss connotes the apparent loss of information
already encoded and stored in an individual’s long term memory.

106
 (x) Few causes of Forgetting that have been identified are the decay of
memory trace, problems with interfering materials, a break down in
retrieval process, emotional and motivational conditions, and organic
factors.

8.7 LESSON-END ACTIVITIES

(i) Try and draw a hypothetical network of facts on animals to depict
how information is organized in LTM.
(ii) Listen to the song that is close to your heart and record the flood of
memories that flow on hearing the song. Record the information stored
in redintegrative memory.
(iii) List some instances when you have forgotten something. Analyze the
cause behind each ‘forgetting’.

8.8 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

(i) Evaluate the information processing model of memory.
(ii) Critically examine the factors influencing forgetting.
(iii) Validate the TOT phenomena using Freudian theory.

8.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

(i) Name the process involved in memory.
(ii) Discuss how information moves from sensory memory to LTM.
(iii) What is meant by interference?
(iv) What do you mean by motivated forgetting?

8.10 REFERENCES
Baddeley, A.D. (1999). Essentials of Human Memory. Hove, England:
Psychology Press.

Coon, D. and Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology. First Indian

Reprint. Delhi. Akash Press.

Cormier, S.M. (1986). Basic Processes of Learning, Cognition and

Motivation. NJ. : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Passer, M.W. and Smith, R.E. (2007). Psychology The Science of Mind and
Behavior. Third Edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

107
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