Table of Contents I

1 ALGEBRA 5
Basics on Set Theory 7
Set of Numbers 10
Exponents 19
Linear Equations and Inequality Properties 31
Equation of a Line 33
Linear Inequality 36
Polynomial Functions 39
Quadratic Equations 42
Composite Function 47
Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 49
Limits and Continuity 58
Continuity of a function 67
Infinite Limits 70
Sequences and Series 762/115
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 Table of Contents II
Simple and Compound Interests 92
2 Matrices Calculus 101
Types of Matrices 101
Matrices Operations 103
Transpose of a Matrix 107
Determinants 108
Inverse of a Matrix 113
System of Linear Equations 116
3 DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION 128
Definition 128
Rules of Differentiation of Univariate Functions 131
Chain Rule 137
Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions 138
Differentiation of Exponential Functions 139
Differential Equation 1422/115
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 Table of Contents III
Rules of Integration 145
Integration by Parts 151
Method of Partial Fractions 152
Applications to Business Mathematics and Optimization 159

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 General Introduction
I welcome you all to the module of Basic Mathematics. The aim of this
module is to provide a grounding in the mathematical techniques that
are of particular relevance to solve problems arising in business and
economic daily life.
In addition, the module will cover three main units, namely algebra;
matrix algebra and differential and integral calculus. A detailed de-
scription of each unit can be found on the attachment of the complete
module description including reading materials. This module will be
taught by Dr. RUTURWA Daniel.

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 Learning Outcomes
As learning outcomes concerned, on successful completion of this sub-
ject , a student will gain essential knowledge on areas such as how to ap-
ply different mathematical techniques to approach/solve business prob-
lems and as well be able to:
1 Understand the basic mathematical theories;
2 Understand and solve business and economic problems using
basic mathematical concepts;
3 Use basic differential and integral techniques for decision making;
4 Demonstrate the ability to communicate mathematical ideas
clearly. You will use correct mathematical terminology and
proper mathematical notation.

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 Basics on Set Theory I
Set Definition

Definition
A set is commonly defined to be a well-defined collection of
objects
The objects that make up to a set are called the elements or
members of the set.
.

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 Basics on Set Theory II
Set Definition

Example
The following are examples of sets:
(a) The books on the shelves in a library.
(b) The first year students in the faculty of economics and
management at the UR-CBE
(c) The customers of a bank.
(d) The bank accounts in a bank.

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 Basics on Set Theory
Set Notation

Notation
Sets are usually denoted by uppercase letters such as
A, B, C, X, Y, Z
Elements are denoted by lowercase letters such as a, b, c, x, y, z.
A set is represented by listing its elements between braces(i.e {})
separated by comma.

Example
1 Let V be any 3 English vowels, that is,

A = {a, e, i}

2 Suppose D is the set of five districts in Rwanda taken randomly

for a particular study. These districts may include:
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 Set of Natural Numbers

It is the set of all counting numbers;

It is defined, in extension, as follows

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, · · · , n}

Explore and Discuss in your respective groups

1) Give a brief description of the properties of Natural numbers
2) Give a brief explanation of subsets underlying Natural numbers

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 Set of Integers
The natural numbers, together with 0, form the set of whole
numbers, that is;
Whole numbers (Z+ ) = {0, 1, 2, 3 · · · n}
Two numbers that are the same distance from 0 on the number
line, but on opposite sides of it, are called opposites

Figure: Number line representation

The whole numbers, together with their opposites, form the

set of integers, that is;
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3 · · · n}
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 Set of Rational Numbers I

A rational number is any number that can be expressed as a

fraction with an integer numerator and a nonzero integer
denominator.
Every natural number, whole number, and integer is also a
rational number
Many numerical quantities are written in decimal notation
Examples
(a) A candy bar might cost $ 0.89
(b) A business loss might be -$ 4.7 million
The decimals described in above examples are terminating
decimals
Repeating decimals are rational numbers
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 Set of Rational Numbers II
Examples
1
(a) 3 = 0.3333 · · ·
5
(b) 22 = 0.2272727 · · ·

The set of rational numbers, Q, can be defined in set-builder

notation as
 
p
Q= : p, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0
q

Clearly, the set of natural numbers is a subset of the set of whole

numbers
Similarly, the set of whole numbers is a subset of the set of
integers, and the set of integers is a subset of the set of rational
numbers
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 Set of Rational Numbers III

Set of Irrational Numbers

An irrational number is a nonterminating, nonrepeating decimal.
cannot be expressed as a fraction with an integer numerator and
an integer denominator

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 Set of Real Numbers I

A real number is any number that is a rational number or an

irrational number.
It is always denoted by R

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 Set of Real Numbers II

The figure below shows that R contains other sets

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 Set of Real Numbers III
R can be represented on a number line as

Exercises
1. Which numbers in the following set are natural numbers, whole num-
bers,
 integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, real numbers?
−3.4, 25 , 0, −6, 1 34 , π, 16

2. A bus leaves its terminus with 22 passengers aboard. At the first stop
7 passengers get off and 12 get on. At the second stop 18 get off and 4
get on. How many passengers remain on the bus?
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 Set of Real Numbers IV

Exercises
3. A restaurant catering for a large party sits 6 people to a table. Each
table requires 2 dishes of vegetables. How many dishes of vegetables
are required for a party of 60?

4. A firm produces 220 units of a good which cost an average of 8.25

euros each to produce and sells them at a price of 9.95 euros . What is
its profit?

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 Exponents I

An exponent is used to indicate repeated multiplication. It is how

many times the base is used as a factor.

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 Exponents II

Example

It is read as 3 to the fifth power

If n is a positive integer and an = b, then a is called an nth root of b. If
a2 = b, then a is a square root of b. If a3 = b, then a is the cube root of
b.

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 Properties of exponents

The properties below play a vital to evaluate or simplify

exponential expressions

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 Con’td

Exercises
1 Evaluate the expressions involving exponents
1 1 1
4 2 , 8 3 , (−8) 3
2 Simplifying the expressions with rational exponents
2 4
(a) x 3 x 3
 1 1
4
(b) x4 y 2
3 2
!1
a2 b3 6
(c)
a2
 1 1 12
(d) a 3 a 2

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 Radical Notation
1
If n is a positive√integer and a is a number for which a n is defined, then
the expression n a is called radical, and
√
n
1
a = an

a is called the radicand

n is the index
Expressions involving rational exponents can be written with
radicals.
√
If a is a real number and m and n are integers for which n a is
real, then
m √ √
a n = ( n a)m = n am
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 Properties of Radicals

Example
Simplify each radical expression. Assume that all variables represent
positive real numbers.
√3
(a) 125a6
q
3
(b) 16
q
5
(c) 5 −32y
x20
√
(d) 3 −8m9 8/115
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 Exercises I

1. Write the following using the tabular form of sets:

(a) The days in a week. (b) The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. (c) The
vowels of English alphabet. (d) The South Asian countries India,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal.
2. Write the sets mentioned in exercise 1 above using the set-builder
form.
3. Let A = {a, b, c}. Decide whether the following statements are true
or false:
(i)a ∈ A; (ii){c} ⊆ A; (iii){b} ∈ A; (iv){a} ⊂ A; (v)2A = 7
4 Given the sets A1 = {1, 2, 3}, A2 = {5, 1, 3}, A3 = {2, 1, 3}, and
A4 = {3, 1}, find:
(i)A1 ∪ A2 ; (ii)A1 ∩ A2 ; (iii)A2 ∪ A3 ; (iv)A2 ∩ A3 ; (v)A1 ∪ A3 ;
(vi)A1 ∩ A3 ; (vii)A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ; (viii)A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 .

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 Exercises II

5. A marketing survey of 100 people found that 70 people watch TV

news, 40 people listen to radio news, and 30 people both watch TV
news and listen to radio news. Find:
(i) The set of people who watch either TV news or listen to radio
news.
(ii) The set of people who both watch TV news and listen to radio
news.
(iii) The set of people who do Review of basics not watch either TV
news or listen to radio news.
(iv) The set of people who do not both watch TV news and listen to
radio news.
(v) The set of people who watch TV news but do not listen to radio
news.
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 Exercises III

(vi) The set of people who listen to radio news but do not watch TV
news.
6. Determine the symmetric difference A△B where A = {a, b, c, d}
and B = {c, d, e}.
7. Write brief descriptions of the following sets
(i) {3, 6, 9}
(ii) {3, 6, 9, · · · }
(iii) {1, 4, 9}

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 Exercises IV
8. Suppose

A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {a, c, e, g, i}, C = {c, f , i, e, o}

Write down the elements of the following sets: (i)A ∪ B; (ii)A ∩ C;

(iv)A ∪ (B\C).
9. Write at least two different brief descriptions of the set {2, 3, 5, 7}.
10. There are 40 students in Dr. Brown’s Finite Mathematics course
and 50 in his Calculus section. If these are his only classes, and if 20
of the students are taking both subjects, how many students does he
have altogether? Represent the data in a Venn diagram.
11. Draw a Venn diagram that shows that B is a subset of A. Then
shade the part of the diagram that represents the intersection of A and
B.
12. Given that R = {a, b, c} and S = {a, x, b, y}
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 Exercises V
(a) Find the set difference of these sets R\S and S\R
(b) Show that R\S = R\(S ∩ R) and that R\S = R ∩ S
13. Find the number of subsets in the set A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and hence
list them.
14. For the pair of sets, give the cardinal number of each set and say
whether they are equivalent or equal
A =The set of whole numbers less than 5.
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
15. Which of the following are empty sets?
(i) The odd numbers divisible by 2
(ii) The even numbers divisible by 3
(iii) The whole numbers less than 75 divisible by 7 and 11
(iv) The set of even numbers x such that x2 = 25
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 Assignment

Group assignment 1

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 Linear Equations I

Definition
An equation is a sentence that expresses the equality of two
algebraic expressions. For instance

2x + 1 = 7

A linear equation in two variables x and y is an equation of the

form

ay + bx + c = 0 (1)

, where a and b are real numbers, with a, b ̸= 0.

a and b in the linear equation (1) are referred as the coefficients

while c is a constant.
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 Linear Equations II

Example
y − 2x = 1

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 The Slope of a Line
The slope m of the nonvertical line passing through (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is
∆y (y2 − y1 )
m= =
∆x (x2 − x1 )

It measures the number of

units the line rises (or falls)
vertically for each unit of
horizontal change from left to
right.

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 Equation of a Line
An equation of the line with slope m passing through the point (x1 , y1 )
is given by

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) (2)

Examples
1 Find an equation of the line that has a slope of 3 and passes
through the point (1, 2).
Using the relation (2), we find the equation of a line to be

y = 3x − 1

2 Sketch the graph of each equation

y = 2x + 1, y = 2, and 3y + x − 6 = 0
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 Con’td
Parallel lines have the same slope (i.e m1 = m2 )
Perpendicular lines have the reciprocal slopes (i.e m1 = − m12 )

Exercises
1 Sketch the straight line that passes through the point (−2, 5) and
has slope − 43 .
2 Find the slope m of the line that passes through the points (−1, 1)
and (5, 3).
3 Let L1 be a line that passes through the points (−2, 9) and (1, 3)
and let L2 be the line that passes through the points (−4, 10) and
(3, −4). Determine whether L1 and L2 are parallel.
4 Find the general forms of the equations of the lines that pass
through the point (2, −1) and are: (a) parallel to the line
2x − 3y = 5. b perpendicular to the line 2x − 3y = 5
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 Linear Inequality
Definition
If A, B, and C are real numbers with A and B not both zero, then

Ax + By ≤ C

is called a linear inequality.

The inequality sign is not only ≤ (i.e <, >, ≤, ≥)
A linear inequality has infinitely many solutions (i.e the points
satisfying the inequality)
Sketch the equation of a straight line corresponding to the linear
inequality, then shade the right region.
Dashed line indicates that the line is not part of the solution set.
The solution set to the inequality is the shaded region
Example coming soon
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 Con’td
1 Graph the inequality
1
y< x−1 (3)
2
The graph of the inequality (3) is sketched as

2 The solution set to the inequality is the shaded region as shown

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 Your turn

Graph the following inequalities

1 y ≥ −2x + 1
2 3x − 2y < 6
3 The manager of a furniture store can spend a maximum of $3000
on advertising per week. It costs $50 to run a 30-second ad on an
AM radio station and $75 to run the ad on an FM station. Graph
the region that shows the possible numbers of AM and FM ads
that can be purchased and identify some possibilities.

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 Polynomial Functions

A function is a rule that assigns to each element in a set A one and only one
element in a set B.

The set A is called the domain of the function.

The function is usually denoted by the small letter f , the element in B

that f associates with x is written f (x)

The set of all possible values of B is called the range

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 Example
1 Let the function f be defined by the rule f (x) = 2x2 − x + 1. Find:
a)f (1) b)f (−2) c)f (a) d)f (a + h)
2 ThermoMaster manufactures an indoor–outdoor thermometer at its
Mexican subsidiary. Management estimates that the profit (in dollars)
realizable by ThermoMaster in the manufacture and sale of x
thermometers per week is
P(x) = −0.001x2 + 8x − 5000

Find ThermoMaster’s weekly profit if its level of production is (a) 1000

thermometers per week and (b) 2000 thermometers per week.

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 Con’td
A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

Example
1 f (x) = 2x5 − 3x4 + x3 + 22x2 − 6, with the degree 5
2 g(x) = 0.001x3 − 0.2x2 + 10x + 200, with the degree 3

A polynomial function of degree 1 (n = 1) is called linear function

and has the form
f (x) = a1 x + a0
A polynomial function of degree 2 (n = 2) is called quadratic function
and has the form
f (x) = a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
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 Solving Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations are those that contain equations of second degree

of the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are real constants

The roots x1 and x2 can be found as

√ √
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
x1 = and x2 = (4)
2a 2a
Roots are the values which make the left and right sides of an
equation equal to each other
Solving an equation involves finding x1 and x2

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 Example

1 Find the roots of the quadratic equation x2 − 5x + 6 = 0

Using the quadratic formulas of (4), we get
p √
−(−5) + (−5)2 − 4(1)(6) 5 + 25 − 24 5+1
x1 = = = =3
2 × 1 2 2
p √
−(−5) − (−5)2 − 4(1)(6) 5 − 25 − 24 5−1
x2 = = = =2
2×1 2 2
2 Find the roots of the following quadratic equations

x2 + 4x + 4 = 0, 2x2 + 4x + 5 = 0, and 4x2 + 6 = 10

3 Solve the following equations

x2 + 5x + 6 and x3 − 6x + 9
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 Graph of a function
The graph of a function f is the set of all points (x, y) in the xy-plane
such that x is in the domain of f and y = f (x).
Example
1. Sketch the graph of the function defined by the equation y = x2 + 1.
What is the range of f ? The graph of f is plotted as follows:

To determine the range of f , we

observe that x2 ≥ 0 if x is any real
number, and so x2 + 1 ≥ 1 for all
real numbers x. We conclude that
the range of f is [1, ∞).

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 Exercises
1 Sketch the graph of the function with the given rule below. Find
the domain and range of the function.
√
➀. f (x) = 2x2 + 1, ➁. f (x) = 2 + x, ➂. f (x) = 9 − x2

2 Let f be a function defined by the rule f (x) = 2x2 + x − 3.

(a) Find the domain of f .
(b) Compute f (x) for x = −3, −2, −1, − 21 , 0, 1, 2, 3 .
(c) Use the results obtained in parts (a) and (b) to sketch the graph of
f.

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 Exercises
1 The average life expectancy after age 65 is soaring, putting
pressure on the Social Security Administration’s resources.
According to the Social Security Trustees, the average life
expectancy after age 65 is given by

L(t) = 0.056t + 18.1 (0 ≤ t ≤ 7)

(a) How fast is the average life expectancy after age 65 changing at
any time during the period under consideration?
(b) What will the average life expectancy be after age 65 in 2010?

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 Composite Function
Definition
Let f and g be functions. The function given by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) is
called the composite of f with g.
The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all
x in the domain of g such that g(x)
is in the domain of f .

Examples

(1) Given f (x) = x + 2 and

g(x) = 5x2 − 1, find each
composite function.
(f ◦ g)(x) = (5x − 1) + 2 = 5x − 1 + 2 = 5x2 + 1
2 2

(g ◦ f )(x) = 5(x + 2)2 − 1 = 5x2 − 20x + 20 − 1 = 5x2 − 20x + 19

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 Group Project

Discuss briefly the inverse of a function and give concrete examples

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 Exponential Functions
The function defined by
f (x) = bx (b > 0, b ̸= 1) (5)
the equation (5) is called an exponential function with base b and
exponent x. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.
Example

❶ Let f (x) = 22x−1 . Find the value of x for which f (x) = 16. Equating
the function to 16 and decomposing 16 into 24 , we find
22x−1 = 24 (6)
But the equation (6) holds if and only if
5
2x − 1 = 4 =⇒ x =
2
1 x


❷ Sketch the graph of the exponential functions y = 2x and y = 2
.
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 con’td
❸ Simplify the following exponential forms
32x+1 52x+1 + 5x−1
(a) , (b) ,
82x−1 52x+2 + 5x
❹ Solve for x in the exponential equations
1
(i) 25x = √
125
 2x−1
1
= 3 27−x ,


(ii)
9
√
(iii) (0.125)x = 0.5

❺ Sketch the graph of

f (x) = 5−x
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 Characteristics of Exponential Functions

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 Logarithmic Functions
Definition
The logarithm of x to the base b is defined as

y = logb x if and only if x = by (x > 0) (7)

Examples
➀ Evaluate the following logarithms.
1
(a) log10 100 = 2 (d) log3 =?
27
(b) log5 125 =? (e) log20 20 =?
(c) log5 625 =? 1
(f) log5 =?
125
➁ Solve each of the following equations for x.
(i) log3 x = 4. By (7), log3 x = 4 (ii) log16 4 = x
implies x = 34 = 81 (iii) logx 8 = 3 29/115
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 Laws of Logarithms
If m and n are positive numbers, then
➀ logb mn = logb m + logb n
m
➁ logb = logb m − logb n
n
➂ logb mn = n logb m
➃ logb 1 = 0
➄ logb b = 1
Note: The two most widely used systems of logarithms are the system
of common logarithms, which uses the number 10 as its base, and the
system of natural logarithms, which uses the irrational number
e = 2.71828 · · · . as its base; that is
logx = log10 x Common logarithm
ln x = loge x Natural logarithm
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 1. Expand and simplify the following expressions:

(a) log3 x2 y3
x2 + 1
(b) log2
√ 2x
x2 x2 − 1
(c) ln
ex

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 Con’td

Logarithmic Fucntion
The function defined by

f (x) = logb x (b > 0, b ̸= 1) (8)

is called the logarithmic function with base b. The domain of f is the set
of positive numbers.
The graph of the logarithmic function (8) is to construct a table of
values of the logarithmic (base b)
If we wish to draw the graph of y = logb x, where b > 1, then we need
only draw the mirror reflection of the graph of y = bx with respect to the
line y = x

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 Con’td
The graph of the function above (see (8)) can sketched as follows:

Figure: The graphs of y = bx

and y = logb x are mirror re-
flections of each other.
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 Con’td
Exercises
① Sketch the graph of the function y = ln x. (Hint: Sketch the graph
of y = ex and get the mirror reflection of this graph)
② Solve the equation 2ex+2 = 5.
③ Solve the equation 5 ln x + 3 = 0.
④ Sketch the graph of y = 3x and y = log3 x on the same set of axes.
④ Solve the equation 3ex+1 − 2 = 4
⑤ Use the laws of logarithms to expand and simplify the expression.

(a) log x(x + 1)4

√
x+1
(b) log 2
x +1
−1
(c) log x(x2 + 1) 2
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ln x(x + 1)(x + 2) 34/115
 Limits and Continuity
Limits of a function
Definition
✍ The function f (x) is said to have the limit L as x approaches (or tends to)
a if the values of f (x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking x
sufficiently close to a.
✍ We use the following notation for indicating the limit of a function:

lim f (x) = L read as the limit as x tends to a of f (x) is equal to L (9)

x→a

Example
1 Evaluate lim (5x − 3)
x→2
We simply substitute 2 in the function and we get the limit of 7.
2 Evaluate the following limits:
3x + 4
lim
x→4 5 − 2
x4 − 6 35/115
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 Properties of Limits I

✍ The following rules hold if lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M (L and
x→a x→a
M)
➀ Sum Rule: lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M
x→a
➁ Difference Rule: lim [f (x) − g(x)] = L − M
x→a
➂ Product Rule: lim [f (x) · g(x)] = L · M
x→a
➃ Constant Multiple Rule: lim kf (x) = L (any number k)
x→a
f (x) L
➄ Quotient Rule: lim = , M ̸= 0
x→a g(x) M
m m
➅ Power Rule: lim [f (x)] n = L n
x→a

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 Properties of Limits II

Example
x3 + 4x2 − 3
✍ Find lim
x→a x2 + 5
3 2


3 2
x + 4x − 3 lim x + 4x − 3
lim = x→a
lim x2 + 5
2


x→a x +5
x→a
a3 + 4a2 − 3
=
a2 + 5

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 Con’td
✍ The limits of Polynomials can be found by substitution. If
P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 , then
lim = P(x) = P(c) = an cn + an−1 cn−1 + · · · + a0
x→c
✍ The limits of rational functions can be found by substitution If the
limit of the denominator is not zero. If P(x) and Q(x) are
polynomials and Q(c) ̸= 0, then
P(x) P(c)
lim =
x→c Q(x) Q(c)
Example
✍ Find the limits of
x3 + 4x2 − 3 (−1)3 + 4(−1)2 − 3 0
lim 2
= 2
= =0
x→−1 x +5 (−1) + 5 6

✍ If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the

numerator and denominator will sometimes reduce the fraction to
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 Con’td
Example
x2 + x − 2
✍ Evaluate lim
x→1 x2 − x
We cannot just substitute x = 1, because it makes the denominator zero.
However, we can factor the numerator and denominator and cancel the
common factor to obtain
x2 + x − 2 (x − 1)(x + 2) x+2
= = , if x ̸= 1, then
x −x
2 x(x − 1) x

x2 + x − 2 x+2 1+2
lim = lim = =3
x→1 x −x
2 x→1 x 1
√ √
2 + h − −2
➀ Evaluate lim
h→0 h
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 Exercises
➀ Find the limits in Exercises 1 − 16.

38/115
38/115
 Con’td
➁ Find the limits in Exercises 17 − 30.

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 One Side Limit I

✍ The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches to a, equals L and written

as
lim f (x) = L
x→a+

✍ If we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be

sufficiently close to the right of a.
✍ The left-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches to a equals to L and written
as
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

✍ If we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be

sufficiently close to the right of a.

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 One Side Limit II

Example
1 Find the limits
1
(a) lim+ =∞
x→1 x − 1
1
(b) lim− = −∞
x→1 x − 1

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 Continuity of a function I
✍ A function is continuous at c if the following three conditions are met.
➀ f (c)is defined
➁ lim f (x) exists
x→c
➂ lim f (x) = f (c)
x→c

Example
At which value(s) of x is the given function discontinuous?

a) f (x) = x + 2

x2 − 9
b) g(x) =
x+3

✍ A function that is continuous on the entire real line (−∞, ∞) is

everywhere continuous.

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 Continuity of a function II

Example
✍ Discuss the continuity of each function.
1 x2 − 1
(a) f (x) = (b) g(x) =
x x−1
✍ A function f might be continuous both on the open and closed
interval;
✍ A function f is continuous
(i) on an open interval (a, b) if it continuous at every number in the
interval; and
(ii) on an closed interval [a, b] if it continuous on (a, b) and, in
addition,

lim f (x) = f (a) and lim f (x) = f (b)

x→a+ x→b−

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 Continuity of a function III

Example
1
1 f (x) = √ is continuous on the open interval (−1, 1) but is not
1 − x2
continuous on the closed interval [−1, 1], since neither f (−1) nor f (1) is
defined.
p
2 f (x) = 1 − x2 is continuous on [−1, 1]. Observe that
lim + f (x) = f (−1) = 0 and lim f (x) = f (1) = 0;
x→−1 x→1−
√
3 f (x) = x −q1 is continuous√on the unbounded interval [1, ∞), because
lim f (x) = lim (x − 1) = a − 1 = f (a), for any real number a
x→a x→a
√ a > 1, and f is continuous from the right at 1 since
satisfying
lim+ x − 1 = f (1) = 0
x→1

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 Infinite Limits I

✍ We say that f (x) approaches infinity as x approaches x0 , and write

lim f (x) = ∞
x→x0

✍ We say that f (x) approaches minus infinity as x approaches x0 ,

and write

lim f (x) = −∞
x→x0

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 Infinite Limits II
Example
✍ Discuss the behavior of
1
(a) f (x) = near x = 0
x2
1
(b) g(x) = near x = −3
(x + 3)2

Sol: 1
(a) As x approaches zero from either side, the values of x2
are
positive and becoming arbitrarily large:
1
lim f (x) = lim 2 = ∞
x→0 x→x0 x

(b) g behaves near −3 exactly the way f behaves near 0, therefore

1
lim g(x) = lim =∞
x→−3 x→x0 (x + 3)2
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 Infinite Limits III
✍ Rational functions can behave in various ways near zeros of their
denominators.
Example
✍ Evaluate the limits of
(x − 2)2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)
(a) lim 2 = lim = lim =0
x→2 x − 4 x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2) x→2 x + 2

x−2
(b) lim
x→2 x2 − 4 x−3
(e) lim
x−3 x→2 (x2 − 4)
(c) lim+ 2
x→2 (x − 4) 2−x
(f ) lim
x−3 x→2 (x − 4)3
(d) lim− 2
x→2 (x − 4)

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 Limits at Infinity I

✍ If a function f approaches a constant value L as the independent

variable x increases without bound (x → ∞) or as x
decreases(x → −∞) without bound, then we write

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L

x→−∞ x→∞

and say that f possesses a limit at infinity.

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 Limits at Infinity II

Example

1 1
(a) lim = 0 = lim
x→−∞ x − a x→∞ x − a
1 1
(b) lim = 0 = lim
x→−∞ (x − a)2 x→∞ (x − a)2

In general, if r is a positive rational number and if (x − a)r is defined,

then
1 1
lim = 0 = lim
x→−∞ (x − a)r x→∞ (x − a)r

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 Exercises
1 − x3
➊ Evaluate lim
x→∞ 3x + 2
r
2x3 − 5x2 + 4x − 6
➋ Evaluate lim
x→∞
 6x3 + 2x 
p
➌ Evaluate lim x2 − x4 + 7x2 + 1
x→∞
➍ In Problems 1–6, express the given limit as a number, as−∞ , or
as ∞ .

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 Sequences and Series
Sequences
Definition
✍ In mathematics, a sequence can be thought as a list of numbers
where each number in the sequence is called a term of the
sequence.
✍ A finite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive
integers less than or equal to some fixed positive integer.
✍ An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of all
positive integers.
Example
✍ The set of all positive even integers can be thought as an infinite
sequence
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, · · ·
✍ The letter a is usually used to represent sequential functions, and
the functional value of a at n is written an (read as ”a sub n). 41/115
41/115
 Con’td
✍ a1 is the first term, a2 is the second term, a3 is the third term and
so on. The expression an which defines the sequence, is called the
general term of the sequence.
Example
✍ Find the first five terms of the sequence where an = 2n2 − 3; find the
20th term.
The first five terms are generated by replacing n with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5,
that are;

−1, 5, 15, 29, and 47

The 20th term is generated as

a20 = 2(20)2 − 3 = 797

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42/115
 Con’td

✍ Write the first four terms of the sequence given by an = 2n + 1

n
✍ Write the first ten terms of the sequence given by an = (−1)
2n−1

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 Arithmetic Sequences I

✍ An arithmetic sequence (also called an arithmetic progression) is

a sequence that has a common difference between successive
terms.
Example
✍ The sequences below are arithmetic

1, 8, 15, 22, 29, · · · (10)

4, 7, 10, 13, 16 (11)

The sequence (10) has a common difference of 7 while the sequence

(11) has 3.

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 Arithmetic Sequences II

✍ Generally, the sequence

a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , · · · , an , · · ·

is an arithmetic sequence if and only if there is a real number d

such that
ak+1 − ak = d

for every positive integer k. The number d is called the common

difference.
✍ An arithmetic sequence can be generated by adding d to each
successive term, having actually first term

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 Arithmetic Sequences III

✍ The general term of an arithmetic sequence is given by

an = a1 + (n − 1)d (12)

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 Arithmetic Sequences IV

Example
✍ Find the general term of the arithmetic sequence 6, 2, −2, −6, · · ·
Considering the first and second terms we see that the common difference d is
2 − 6 = −4. Substituting the values of d and a1 in the formula (14), we get

an = a1 + (n − 1)d
= 6 + (n − 1)(−4)
= 6 − 4n + 4
= −4n + 10

✍ Find the 40th term of the arithmetic sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, · · ·

✍ Find the first term of the arithmetic sequence where the fourth term is 26
and the ninth term is 61.

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 Arithmetic Series
Definition
✍ The indicated sum of an arithmetic sequence is called an arithmetic
series.
Example
✍ The arithmetic progression with five terms having first term 4 and common
difference 5 is 4, 9, 14, 19, 24.
If these terms are added we obtain the arithmetic series 4 + 9 + 14 + 19 + 24.
Sum of an Arithmetic Series
The sum, Sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an , of the first n terms of an arithmetic series
with first term a1 and nth term an , is given by

n(a1 + an )
Sn = (13)
2
Example
✍ Find the sum of the positive integers from 1 to 100 inclusive.
The described series, 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 100, has 100 terms. So we can use
44/115
44/115 = 100, a1 , and an = 100 in the formula (13) for the sum of an arithmetic
n
 Exercises
① Find the sum of the series

12 + 16 + 20 + · · · + 84

② Find the eighth term of the sequence that has a sixth term of −42
and a first term of 3.
③ Find the sixth term of the sequence that has a fifth term of 13 and
a first term of −3.
④ If the common difference is −2 and the seventh term is 14, then
what is the first term?
⑤ If an air-conditioning system is not completed by the agreed upon
date, the contractor pays a penalty of $500 for the first day that it
is overdue, $600 for the second day, $700 for the third day, and so
on. If the system is completed 10 days late, then what is the total
amount of the penalties that the contractor must pay?
⑥ If a lab technician has a salary of $22, 000 her first year and is due
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 Geometric Sequences
✍ A geometric sequence or geometric progression is a sequence in
which we obtain each term after the first by multiplying the
preceding term by a common multiplier called the common ratio
of the sequence.
Example
✍ The following geometric sequences have common ratios of 3, 2, and
−4, respectively:

1, 3, 9, 27, 81, · · ·
3, 6, 12, 24, 48, · · ·
− 1, 4, −16, 64, −256, · · ·

✍ Generally, the sequence

a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , · · · , an , · · ·
is a geometric sequence if and only if there is a nonzero real
46/115
46/115
 Con’td

✍ The general term of a geometric sequence is given by

an = a1 rn−1 (14)

where a1 is the first term and r is the common ratio.

Example
✍ Find the general term for the geometric sequence 8, 16, 32, 64, · · ·

✍ Find the ninth term of the geometric sequence 27, 9, 3, 1, · · ·

✍ Find the first eight terms of the geometric sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, · · ·

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 Finite Geometric Series
✍ The indicated sum of a geometric sequence is called a geometric
series.
✍ If Sn represents the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series
with first term a1 and common ratio r(r ̸= 1), then
a1 (1 − rn )
Sn =
1−r
Example
✍ Find the sum of the series
1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· +
3 9 27 729
The first term is 13 , and the common ratio is 1
3
. So the nth term can be
written as  n−1
1 1
an =
3 3

We can use this formula to find the number of terms in the series: 48/115
48/115    
 Con’td
The formula (15) allows to determine the value of n as 6, then S6 is
h
i
1 1 6
3
1 − 3
S6 = 1
1− 3
1 728 3
=
3 729 2
364
=
729
✍ Find the sum of the series
12
X
3 (−2)i−1
i=1

✍ Find the sum of the series

1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + · · · + 512
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 Sum of an Infinite Geometric Series
✍ If a1 + a1 r + a1 r2 + · · · is an infinite geometric series, with
|r| < 1, then the sum S of all of the terms of this series is given by
a1
S=
1−r
Example
✍ Find the sum of the series
1 1 1 1
+ + + + ···
2 4 8 16
1
This series is an infinite geometric series with a1 = 2
and r = 21 . Be-
cause r < 1, we have
1
2
S= 1
=1
1− 2

✍ Find the value of the sum

∞  i−1
X 3
8 50/115
50/115
 Con’td
✍ One of the most important applications of geometric series is in
calculating the value of an annuity.
✍ An annuity is a sequence of periodic payments. The payments
might be loan payments or investments.
Example
✍A deposit of $1, 000 is made at the beginning of each year for 30 years and
earns 6% interest compounded annually. What is the value of this annuity at
the end of the thirtieth year?
The value of the annuity at the end of the thirtieth year is the sum of the finite
geometric series
1000(1.06) + 1000(1.06)2 + 1000(1.06)3 + · · · + 1000(1.06)30

Use the formula for the sum of 30 terms of a finite geometric series with a1 =
1000(1.06) and r < 1.06:
100(1.06) 1 − (1.06)30


S30 = ≈ $83, 801.68
1 − 1.06
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 Exercises
➀ Write the first five terms of the geometric sequence with the given
nth term.
 n−1
1
(a) an = 2
3
 n−1
1
(b) an = −5
2
➁ Find the first term of the geometric sequence that has fifth term 4
and common ratio 21 .
➂ If you had invested $5, 000 at the beginning of each year for the
past 10 years in the Fidelity’s Magellan Fund you would have
averaged 12.46% compounded annually. Find the amount of this
annuity at the end of the tenth year.
➃ Consider yourself, your parents, your grand- parents, your
great-grandparents, your great-great- grandparents, and so on,
back to your grandparents with the word “great” used in front 40
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 Simple and Compound Interests
Simple Interest
✍ A paid interest is charge for a loan, usually a percentage of the
amount loaned.
✍ It means that if we have borrowed money, from a bank or credit
union, we have to pay them interest.
✍ An earned interest is a percentage of an amount that we receive from a
bank or credit union for the amount of money that we have deposited.
Simple interest
✍ The Simple interest is calculated on a yearly basis (annually) and
depends on the interest rate. The rate is often given per annum (p.a.)
which means per year.
✍ The maturity value(i.e., future value) of a loan is computed as
A = P + I = P + Prt = P(1 + rt) (16)

where P is the principal of the loan ( i.e ., present value), I denotes the
interest on a principal P, r the interest rate per period simple interest
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 Example
➊ We deposit $500.00 into a bank account with an interest rate of
2% per annum. We want to find how much money we have in the
account after one yea and three years.
Solution: We see that
P = 500 , r = 0.02, t = 1 or 3
Therefore, after one year the maturity values A1 and A3 will be
A1 = P(1 + rt) = 500(1 + 1 × 0.02) = $510
A3 = P(1 + rt) = 500(1 + 1 × 0.03) = $530
➋ We deposit $350.00 in a simple interest account for 3 years. The
account pays interest at a rate of 3% per annum. How much do
we have in this account after three years?
➌ We deposit $50, 000 in a simple interest account for 6 months.
This account pays interest at a rate of 8.5% per annum. How
much do we have in this account after 6 months? 54/115
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 Compound Interest
✍ Compound interest includes interest earned on interest,
✍ The interest rate is applied to the original principle and any
accumulated interest.
✍ Clearly the interest earned is periodically added to the principal
and thereafter earns interest itself at the same rate.
Example
✍ Suppose $1, 000 (the principal) is deposited in a bank for a term of 3
years, earning interest at the rate of 8% per year (called the nominal, or
stated, rate) compounded annually.
Using Formula (16) with P = 1000, r = 0.08, and t = 1, we see that
the accumulated amount at the end of the first year is

A1 = P(1 + rt)
= 1, 000[1 + 0.08(1)] = 1, 080, or $1, 080
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 Con’td
✍ To find the accumulated amount A2 at the end of the second year, we
use (16) once again, this time with P = A1 . (Remember, the principal
and interest now earn interest over the second year.) We obtain

A2 = P(1 + rt) = A1 (1 + rt)

= 1, 000[1 + 0.08(1)][1 + 0.08(1)]
= 1, 000(1 + 0.08)2 = 1, 166.40, or $1, 166.40

✍ Finally, the accumulated amount A3 at the end of the third year is

found using (16) with P = A2 , giving

A2 = P(1 + rt) = A2 (1 + rt)

= 1, 000[1 + 0.08(1)]2 [1 + 0.08(1)]
= 1, 000(1 + 0.08)3 = 1, 259.71, or $1, 259.71
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 Con’td
✍ If we reexamine our calculations in this example, we will see that
the accumulated amounts at the end of each year have the
following form:

✍ These observations suggest the following general result: If the

amount of money, principal P, are invested over a term of t years
earning interest at the rate of r per year compounded annually,
then the accumulated amount is
A = P(1 + r)t
✍ If interest at a nominal rate of r per year is compounded m times a
year on a principal of P, then the simple interest rate per
conversion period is
57/115
r 57/115
 Con’td
Example
✍ If the nominal interest rate is 8% per year (r = 0.08) and interest is
compounded quarterly (m = 4), then

r 0.08
i= = = 0.02
m 4
✍ The accumulated amount at the end of t years consideration
conversion periods is given by
 r mt
A=P 1+ (17)
m
where
A = Accumulated amount at the end of t years
P = Principal
r= Nominal interest rate per year
m= Number of conversion periods per year 58/115
58/115
 Con’td
Example
✍ Find the accumulated amount after 3 years if $1, 000 is invested at
8% per year compounded (a) annually, (b) semiannually, (c) quarterly,
(d) monthly, and (e) daily.
Solution:
(a) Here P = 1, 000, r = 0.08, m = 1, and t = 3, so Formula (17)
gives

A = 1, 000(1 + 0.08)3 = 1, 259.71, or $1, 259.71

(b) Here P = 1, 000, r = 0.08, m = 2, and t = 3, so Formula (17)

gives
 6
0.08
A = 1, 000 1 + = 1, 265.32, or $1, 265.32
2
59/115
(c) Here P = 1, 000, r = 0.08, m = 4, and t = 3, so Formula (17)
59/115
 Con’td

(d) Here P = 1, 000, r = 0.08, m = 12, and t = 3, so Formula (17)

gives
 36
0.08
A = 1, 000 1 + = 1, 270.24, or $1, 270.24
12

(e) Here P = 1, 000, r = 0.08, m = 365, and t = 3, so Formula (17)

gives
 (365)(3)
0.08
A = 1, 000 1 + = 1, 271.22, or $1, 271.22
365

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 Investment Appraisal

To be investigated in groups

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 Types of Matrices
Definition
An m × n matrix is a rectangular array of numbers (m rows and n
columns) enclosed in brackets.
The numbers are called the elements of the matrix and each
number in the matrix is called an entry.
Example
Consider the matrix A  
1 2 3
A = 5 6 7
0 4 8
In general form, a matrix A is denotes as
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
a21 a22 · · · a2n 
A= . (18)
 
.. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
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an1 an2 · · · ann 62/115
 Con’td
The numbers aij are the elements of the matrix where the index i
indicates the row and j indicates the column in which each
element is positioned;
A matrix of m rows and n columns is said to be of m × n order
matrix;
If m = n , the matrix is said to be a square matrix of order m (or n
);
In a square matrix, the elements a11 , a22 , a33 , · · · , ann are called
the diagonal elements;
A matrix in which every element is zero, is called a zero matrix;
A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix;
A matrix which only have one row is called a row matrix;
A square matrix whose diagonal elements equal to one and other
ones are zeros is called an identity matrix;
A diagonal matrix only has non-zero elements on the main
diagonal. 63/115
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 Addition and Subtraction
✍ Two matrices are said to be conformable for addition
(subtraction) if they are of the same order, that is, both matrices
must have
 the same number
  of rows and columns;
✍ If A = aij and B = bij are conformable for addition
(subtraction), their sum (difference) will be another matrix C with
the same order as A and B,
✍ Each element of C represents the sum (difference) of the
corresponding elements of A and B, that is,
C = A ± B = aij ± bi j
Examples
① Compute A + B and A − B given that
   
1 2 3 2 3 0
A= and B =
0 1 4 −1 2 5
   
1+2 2+3 3+0 3 5 3 64/115
64/115 A+B= =
 Multiplication
The multiplication of a matrix A by the scalar k is the
 
multiplication of every element of A by k i.e kA = kaij
Example
   
1 −2 1 −2
Multiply the matrix A = by k = 5 =⇒ kA = 5 × =
   2 3 2 3
5 × 1 5 × −2 5 −10
=
5×2 5×3 10 15
Two matrices A and B are said to be conformable for
multiplication A · B in that order, only when the number of
columns of matrix A is equal to the number of rows of matrix B,

65/115
65/115
 Con’td
For matrix multiplication, the operation is row by column. Thus, to
obtain the product A · B , we multiply each element of a row of A by the
corresponding element of a column of B , and then we add these
products.
Examples
Compute the products C · D and D · C, given
 
  1
C= 2 3 4 and D = −1
2
 
  1    
C · D = 2 3 4 −1 = (2) · (1) + (3) · (−1) + (4) · (2) = 7
2
    
1   (1) · (2) (1) · (3) 2 2 3 2
D
66/115 · C =  −1  2 3 4 = (−1) · (2) (−1) · (3) −3  = −2 −3 −
66/115
 Con’td
Exercises
✍ Multiply the following :
 
  1 2 0
1 2 1 
➊ 0 3 1
0 2 1
−2 1 1
 
1 2 0  
1 2 1
➋  0 3 1 
0 2 1
−2 1 1
➌ In eachcase, find A + B  
2 3 21 12
() A = and B =
2 1  2 5 
1 2 3 10 12 3
(b) A = and B =
5 6 7  5 16 3 
1 2 3 2 2 2 10 1
(c) A = 5 6 7 2 and B = 5
   1 6 3
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67/115 8 9 10 7 2 3 10 6
 Transpose of a Matrix
Definition
Let A be an m × n matrix. Then AT denotes the n × m matrix which is
defined as follows.

(AT )ij = Aji

Example
 
1 3 4
✍ Let C be a square matrix of order 3, say 5 6 8. Its transpose
3 0 1
will be  
1 5 3
C T = 3 6 0
4 8 1
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 Determinants
2 × 2 Determinants

The determinant of a matrix A, denoted as det(A) is a number. If

the matrix is a 2 × 2 matrix, this number is very easy to find, that
is;
 
a11 a − 12
A= =⇒ det(A) = a11 a22 − a21 a − 12 (19)
a21 a22

Example
Compute det(A) and det(B) given that
   
1 2 2 −1
A= and B =
3 4 2 0

Using (19), we get

det(A) = 4 − 6 = −2 69/115
69/115
 Minors and Cofactors
Minors
The ijth minor, denoted as minor(A)ij , is the determinant of the
n − 1 × n − 1 matrix which results from deleting the ith row and
the jth column,
✍ Consider the matrix
 
1 2 3
4 3 2 (20)
3 2 1

The (1, 2) minor is the determinant of the 2 × 2 matrix which

results when you delete the first row and the second column. This
minor is therefore
 
4 2
det = −2
3 1
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 Con’td
Cofactors
The ijth cofactor, cof (A)ij , is defined to be (−1)i+j × (ijth minor)
✍ Consider the matrix (20). It follows that
 
1+2 4 2
cof (A)12 = (−1) det =2
3 1

✍ Determine cof (A)22

The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix A, is obtained by picking a row
(column) and taking the product of each entry in that row
(column) with its cofactor and adding these up,
Let A be an n × n matrix where n ≥ 2 and suppose the
determinant of an (n − 1) × (n − 1) has been defined. Then
n
X n
X
det(A) = aij cof (A)ij = aij cof (A)ij 71/115
71/115
 Con’td
Examples
✍ Find the determinant of
 
1 2 3
A = 4 3 2
3 2 1

Expanding the determinant, we find

② Compute the cofactors and the determinant of

 
1 2 −3
A =  2 −4 2 
72/115
−1 2 −6 72/115
 Con’td
③ Compute the determinant of
 
2 −1 0 −3
−1 1 0 −1
B= 
4 0 3 −2
−3 0 0 1

Useful Properties of Determinants

① If all elements of one row or one column of a square matrix are
zero, the determinant is zero;
② If all the elements of one row (column) of a square matrix A are m
times the corresponding elements of another row (column), det(A)
is zero.. For instance, if
 
2 4 1
M = 3 6 1
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73/115 1 2 1
 Inverse of a Matrix
Adjoint Matrix

The adjoint of a square matrix A, usually denoted as adjA, is the

transpose of the cofactor matrix.
Example
Compute adjA, given that
 
1 2 3
A = 1 3 4 (21)
1 4 3

 
−7 6 −1
adjA =  1 0 −1
1 −2 1

An n square matrix A is called singular if det(A) = 0 ; if

74/115
det(A) ̸= 0 , it is called non-singular. 74/115
 Con’td
If A and B are n square matrices such that AB = BA = I where I is
the identity matrix, B is called the inverse of A , denoted as
B = A−1 , and likewise, A is called the inverse of B , that is,
A = B−1 .
The inverse of a non-singular matrix A is defined as follows
1
A−1 = adjA
det(A)

Example
✍ Find the inverse of the matrix A (21), A−1

det(A) = 9 + 8 + 12 − 9 − 16 − 6 = −2
 
−7 6 −1
adjA =  1 0 −1
1 −2 1
75/115
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 Con’td

   
−7 6 −1 3.5 −3 0.5
1 1
A−1 = adjA = −  1 0 −1 = −0.5 0 0.5
det(A) 2
1 −2 1 −0.5 1 0.5

Exercises
1 Compute the inverse of the following matrices
 
1 −5 7
(a) B =  7 1 −5
−5 7 1
 
1 2 3
(b) D = 3 0 1

1 2 1
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 System of Linear Equations
Solving Linear Equations

A linear equation in n variables is an equation of the form

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b

where x1 , x2 , ..., xn are the unknowns (i.e. quantities to be found)

and a1 , , an are the coefficients ( i.e. given numbers).
A system of linear equations or simply a linear system is any
finite collection of linear equations and it has general form


 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2

.. .. (22)


 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

a x + a x + · · · + a x = b
m1 1 m2 2 mn n m

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 A solution set of a system of linear equations (22) in n unknowns
is a finite ordered collection of numbers (s1 , s2 , ..., sn ) that
satisfies each linear equation.
Examples
✍ Solve the system of equations
(
x+y=4
(23)
x−y=2

There are two or more methods while solving a system of linear

equations with two variables, that are: Substitution and
Elimination
Using the method of substitution, the system (23) can be solved as

✍ Find the value of y in Equation 1 =⇒ y = 4 − x

✍ Substitute the value of y in Equation 2 and get

x − (4 − x) = 2 Finally, you can solve for y by 78/115

78/115
 Exercises
① Solve the system of linear equations

② The demand and supply equations for a DVDs are given by

(
p = 35 − 0.0001x
p = 8 + 0.0001x
where p is the price (in dollars) and x represents the number of DVDs.
For how many units will the quantity demanded equal the quantity
supplied? What price corresponds to this value?
③ Solve the system by elimination
( (
3x − 2y = 2 −x − 3y = 2
① ②
x + 2y = 6 x − 4y = 6
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 Gaussian Elimination
Row-Echelon Form and Back-Substitution
✍ A matrix is in echelon form when:
The first non-zero element in each row, called the leading entry, is
1.
Each leading entry is in a column to the right of the leading entry
in the previous row.
Rows with all zero elements, if any, are below rows having a
non-zero element.
Examples

✍ The process of rewriting a system of equations in row-echelon

form by using the three basic row operations is called Gaussian 80/115
80/115
 Con’td
Operations that Produce Equivalent Systems
Each of the following row operations on a system of linear equations
produces an equivalent system of linear equations.
✍ Interchange two equations;
✍ Multiply one of the equations by a nonzero constant;
✍ Add a multiple of one of the equations to another equation to
replace the latter equation.

Example
✍ Use matrices to solve the following systems of equations

x − y + z = −4

2x − 3y + 4z = −15

5x + y − 2z = 12

81/115
81/115
 Con’td

82/115
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 The number of solutions of a linear System
For a system of linear equations, exactly one of the following is true:
☎ There is exactly one solution
✆ There are infinitely many solutions
✇ There is no solution
Example of a system with infinitely many solutions
In last second equation, solve
for y in terms of z to obtain
y = z. Back-substituting for y
into the previous equation
produces x = 2z − 1. Finally,
letting z = a, the solutions to
the original system are all of
the form
x − 2a − 1, y = a and z = a

where a is a real number. So,

every ordered triple of the 83/115
83/115
 The augmented matrix in echelon form may be used to determine
whether the linear system is consistent or not. For instance

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 Exercises

➊ Find a quadratic equation, y = ax2 + bx + c, whose graph passes

through the point (−1, 3), (1, 1) , and (2, 6).
➋ Match each system of equations with its solution. [The solutions
are labeled (a), (b), (c), and (d).]

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 Inverse Method
✍ Let AX = B represent a system of linear equations (22) where the
matrix A is the coefficient matrix of the system, X is the matrix of
variables and B is the matrix of constants.
✍ If the determinant of A is nonzero, then the linear system has
exactly one solution, which is X = A−1 B
Example
✍ Use matrices to solve the linear system
(
−3x + 4y = 5
(24)
2x − y = −10

The linear system (24) can be written in form AX = B as

 A X  B 
−3 4 x 5
=
86/115 2 −1 y −10 86/115
 Con’td
The inverse of matrix A is given by
  1 4

−1 1 −1 −4
A = = 52 5
3
3 − 8 −2 −3 5 5

Finally, multiply the matrix of constants by A−1

1 4      
−1 5 5
5 −7 x
X=A B= 2 3 = =
5 5
−10 −4 y
The solution of the system is (−7, −4).
Exercises
➊ Use an inverse matrix to solve the linear system.

2x + 3y + z = −1

3x + 3y + z = 1

2x + 4y + z = −2

87/115
87/115
 Con’td
➋ You have $10, 000 to invest. You want to invest the money in a
stock mutual fund, a bond mutual fund, and a money market fund.
The expected annual returns for these funds are given in the figure
below.

Figure: The expected annual returns

You want your investment to obtain an overall annual return of

8%. A financial planner recommends that you invest the same
amount in stocks as in bonds and the money market combined.
How much should you invest in each fund? 88/115
88/115
 DIFFERENTIATION
Definition
✍ The derivative of f at x is given by

f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim (25)
∆x→0 ∆x
provided the limit exists. For all x for which this limit exists, f ′ is
a function of x.
✍ The process of finding the derivative of a function is called
differentiation.
✍ A function is differentiable at x if its derivative exists at x and is
differentiable on an open interval (a, b) if it is differentiable at
every point in the interval.
✍ In addition to f ′ (x) , which is read as “ f prime of x ,” other
notations are used to denote the derivative of y = f ′ (x) . The most
common are 89/115
89/115
 Con’td
Example
➊ Find the derivative of f (x) = x3 + 2x. Using the (25) we see that

➋ Find the derivative with respect to t for the function y = 2t + 1

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90/115
 Con’td
➌ Find f ′ (x) for
√
f (x) = x
➍ Find the derivative with respect to t for the function
2
y=
t
➎ Assume that the utility (y) that a consumer obtains from the
consumption of different units of a good (x) is given by the
function y = f (x) = 1x . Find the marginal utility function using
the definition of the derivative. Also find the marginal utility
when x = 5.
➏ Assume that the total cost (y) in dollars of producing x units of a
good to a firm is given by the function y = f (x) = 1 + 0.5x. Find
the marginal cost function using the definition of the derivative.
Also find the marginal cost when x = 10. 91/115
91/115
 Rules of Differentiation of Univariate Functions
Differentiation of a constant function
✍ The derivative of a constant function is 0. Suppose that our
differentiable function is y = f (x) = c, where c is a constant.
Then
dy
= f ′ (x) = (c)′ = 0 (26)
dx
✍ The rule (26) can be validated using equation (25). The
verification left as an exercise in class.
Example
✍ Find the derivative of f (x) = 10 and g(x) = −5

Differentiation of a power function

✍ If n is a rational number, then the function f (x) = xn is
differentiable and 92/115
92/115
 Con’td
✍ The power function rule states that the derivative of a function
raised to a power is equal to the power times the independent
variable raised to the power minus one.
✍ The power function rule can be substantiated using equation (25).
Substitution of the function into equation (25) yields

Example
✍ Find the derivative of f (x) = x3 . The derivative is given by
93/115
93/115 ′ 2
 The Constant Multiple Rule
✍ If f is a differentiable function and c is a real number, then cf is
also differentiable and
d
[cf (x)] = cf ′ (x)
dx
Example
✍ Find the derivative of f (x) = 2x . The derivative f is given

d  −1  d  −1  2
f ′ (x) = 2x =2 x = −2x−2 = − 2
dx dx x
The Sum and Difference Rules
✍ The sum (or difference) of two differentiable functions f and g is itself
differentiable. Moreover, the derivative of f + g or f − g is the sum (or
difference) of the derivatives of f and g

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 Con’td
Example
4
✍ Find the derivatives of f (x) = x3 − 4x + 5 and g(x) = − x2 + 3x3 − 2x.
Their derivatives are

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 4
g′ (x) = −2x3 + 9x2 − 2
The Product Rule
✍ Suppose that we have two functions: f (x) and g(x) and assuming
that f (x) and g(x) are differentiable.
✍ Their product H(x) = f (x).g(x) is also differentiable. Then
d[f (x) × g(x)]
H ′ (x) = = f ′ (x)g(x) + g′ (x)f (x)
dx
Example
✍ Find the derivative of h(x) = (3x − 2x2 )(5 + 4x). 95/115
95/115
 Con’td
Example
✍ Find the derivative of h(x) = (3x − 2x2 )(5 + 4x).

Differentiation of a rational function(i.e,The Quotient

Rule)
✍ The quotient f /g of two differentiable functions f and g is itself
differentiable at all values of x for which g(x) ̸= 0.
✍ It is defined by
f ′ (x)g(x) − g′ (x)f (x)
 
96/115 d f (x) 96/115
 Con’td
Example
5x − 2
✍ Find the derivative of f (x) =
x2 + 1

Exercises
❶ Find the derivatives of the functions, applying different differentiation
rules
① f (x) = (6x + 5)(x3 − 2)
97/115
4 − 3x − x2 97/115
 Differentiation of Composite Functions (i.e,
Chain Rule)
✍ Suppose that we have two differentiable functions: y = f (u) and
u = g(x).
✍ It can clearly be seen that the function y depends on u; and the
function u depends on x.
✍ These functions together, y and u, imply that changes in x cause
changes in u which, in turn, will change y.
✍ Now if y and u are differentiable functions of u and x,
respectively. Then
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
Example
✍ consider the functions y = f (u) = 2 + u2 and u = g(x) = 2x + 3x2 .
Applying the chain rule, we obtain
dy du
98/115
= 2u and = 2 + 6x, so 98/115
 Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions
✍ Assume that our function is a differentiable natural logarithmic
function given by y = f (x) = ln x. Then the derivative of y = f (x)
with respect to x is given by
dy d[ln x] 1
= =
dx dx x
✍ Generally, if the function f depends on other function, say u,
expressed in a differentiable natural logarithmic function given by
y = f (x) = ln u(x), then
dy d[ln u(x)] u′ (x)
= = (27)
dx dx u(x)
Example
✍ Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(2 + x2 ). Using the equation (27) we
obtain
2x
99/115 f ′ (x) = 99/115
 Differentiation of Exponential Functions

✍ Suppose that our differentiable exponential function is given by

y = f (x) = eu(x) . The derivative of this function with respect to x
is given by

f ′ (x) = u′ (x)eu(x)

✍ It is worth noting that derivative of the exponential function f (x) =

ex is the function itself (i.e f ′ (x) = ex
Example
✍ consider the function f (x) = e5x . Then the derivative of this function
with respect to x is given by
f ′ (x) = 5e5x

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 Exercises I

❶ Find the derivatives of the following functions, applying different

differentiation
 rules
x2 − x − 3

① g(x) = (x2 + x + 1)4
x2 + 1
2
④ h(x) = x2 + e3x +1
x+1
⑤ p(x) = ln
1−x
❷ Assume that the inverse demand function for a firm’s product is
given by p = f (q) = 25 q
, where p denotes the per unit price in
dollars and q denotes the quantity of the good demanded. Find the
rate of change of price with respect to quantity. How fast will the
price change when q = 10?

101/115
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 Exercises II

❸ Suppose that a company’s total revenue is given by the function

R = f (q) = 50q − 0.2q2 . where R denotes the total revenue in
dollars and q denotes the total quantity of the good sold by the
company. Find the marginal revenue when q = 20. Also find the
percentage rate of change of revenue with respect to the quantity
of the good sold when q = 20 and interpret the result.
❹ Assume that the total utility that an individual obtains from the
consumption of different units of a good is given by the function
U = f (x) = ln(2 + x2 ), where U denotes the total utility obtained
and x denotes the units of the good consumed. Find the individ-
ual’s marginal utility when x = 10; and find the percentage rate of
change of the individual’s total utility when x = 10 and interpret
the result.

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100/115
 INTEGRATION
Definition of Differential Equation
✍ A function F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I if
F ′ (x) = f (x) for all x in I.
✍ If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then G is an
antiderivative of f on the interval I if and only if G is of the form
G(x) = F(x) + C, for all x in I where C is a constant.
✍ A differential equation in x and y is an equation that involves x, y,
and derivatives of y.
Example
y′ = 3x and y′ = x2 + 1 are differential equations.

Notation for Antiderivatives

✍ When solving a differential equation of the form
dy
101/115
= f (x) (28)
101/115
 Con’td
✍ It is convenient to write the equation (28) in the equivalent
differential form
dy = f (x) dx
✍ The operation of finding all solutions of this equation is called
antidifferentiation
Z (or indefinite integration) and is denoted by
an integral sign .
✍ The general solution is denoted by

102/115
102/115
 Con’td
Z
✍ The expression f (x)dx is read as the antiderivative of f with
respect to x.
✍ The differential dx serves to identify x as the variable of
integration.
✍ The term indefinite integral is a synonym for antiderivative.
Example
✍ Find the following antiderivative
Z
dx = x + c

Exercises
❶ Evaluate the antiderivatives, given that
Z
(a) 4dx
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 Rules of Integration
Constant Function Rule
✍ Suppose that the function we want to integrate is a constant
function given by f (x) = k, where k is a constant.
✍ Then the integral
Z of f (x)Zwith respect
Z to x is
f (x)dx = kdx = k dx

= F(x) + c = kx + c, with c ∈ Z

Example
Z
✍ An antiderivative of 4dx
Z Z
4dx = 4 dx = 4x + c

Exercises
❶ Evaluate the antiderivatives, given that
Z Z
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 Power Function Rule
✍ Suppose that the function we want to integrate is a power function
given by f (x) = xn , where n ̸= −1 is a constant.
✍ The integral of f Z(x) with respect
Z to x is n+1
x
f (x)dx = xn dx = +c
n+1

Example
Z
✍ Find x2 dx

x3
Z
x2 dx = +c
3

Exercises
✍ Find the indefinite integral and check the result by differentiation.
√
Z Z
1
(a) 3
dx, (b) xdx 105/115
105/115 x
 Logarithmic Rule
1
✍ Suppose that we a have function of the form f (x) = = x−1 ,
x
where x > 0. Then
Z the integralZ of f (x) with respect to x is
1
f (x)dx = dx = ln |x| + c
x
Exponential Function Rule
✍ Suppose that we have an exponential function of the form
f (x) = ex . Then the integral of f (x) with respect to x is
Z Z
f (x)dx = ex dx = ex + c (29)

✍ The relation (29) varies when f (x) = ekx , where k is a constant,

that is Z Z
1
f (x)dx = ekx dx = ekx + c
k
Example
Z 106/115
106/115
 Constant Multiple of a Function Rule
✍ Suppose that we have a function multiplied by a constant, such as
kf (x), where k is a constant.
✍ The integral of this function is
Z Z
kf (x)dx = k f (x)dx

Example
✍ The integral of f (x) = 6x2 equals to
Z Z
6
6x dx = 6 x2 dx = x3 + c
2
3
Sum-Difference Rule
The integral of the sum of these two functions, say f (x) and g(x) is equal
to the sum of the integrals of the two individual functions and similarly
for the difference
Z of these two functions.
Z That isZ


f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx
107/115
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 Con’td
Example
✍ The integral of e4x + 2x − x3 equals to
Z Z Z Z
1 1
e + 2x − x dx = e dx + 2xdx − x3 dx = e4x + x2 − x4
4x
4x 3


4 4
Substitution Rule
✍ Let g be a function whose range is an interval I, and let f be a
function that is continuous on I.
✍ If g is differentiable on its domain and F is an antiderivative of f
on I, then
Z
f (g(x))g′ (x)dx = F(g(x)) + c

✍ Letting u = g(x) gives du = g′ (x)dx and

Z
108/115
108/115 f (u)du = F(u) + c
 Con’td
Example
Z

2
✍ Find x2 + 1 2xdx. We can proceed by letting u = (x2 + 1) and
du = 2xdx, you obtain
Z Z

2 1
x + 1 2xdx = u2 du = u3 + c
2
(30)
3
Substituting back the value of u in the solution (30), we have
Z

2 1 2
3
x2 + 1 2xdx = x +1 +c
3
Exercises
Z p
① Find 3x2 x3 + 1dx
√
Z
② Find x 2x − 1dx 109/115
109/115
 Integration by Parts
✍ If u and v are functionsZof x and have continuous
Z derivatives, then
udv = uv − vdu (31)

✍ The resulting formula in the equation (31) can be proved by using

the concepts we have developed so far in the chapter 7.
Example
Z
✍ The integral of xex dx can found by using the formula (31) and let
Z Z
dv = e dx ⇒ v = dv = ex dx = ex
x

u = x ⇒ du = dx

Now, integrating by parts produces

Z Z
xe dx = xe − ex dx
x x

110/115
= xex − ex + c 110/115
 Method of Partial Fractions
✍ This method examines a procedure for decomposing a rational function
into simpler rational functions to which you can apply the basic integra-
tion formulas. To do that let us see how it works in the following 4 steps

111/115
111/115
 Con’td I

Example
1
✍ The integral of can be found by the method of partial fraction.
x2 − 5x + 6
1
First we write the partial fraction decomposition for 2 as follow.
x − 5x + 6
2
Since x − 5x + 6 = (x − 3)(x − 2), we should include one partial fraction for
each factor and write

1 A B
= +
x2 − 5x + 6 x−3 x−2
where A and B are to be determined. Multiplying this equation by the least
common denominator (x − 3)(x − 2) yields the basic equation

1 = A(x − 2) + B(x − 3) (32)

112/115
111/115
 Con’td II

Because the equation (32) is to be true for all x, you can substitute any
convenient values for x to obtain equations in A and B. The most convenient
values are the ones that make particular factors equal to 0.
To solve for A, let x = 3 and obtain

1 = A(3 − 2) + B(3 − 3) ⇒ A = 1

To solve for B, let x = 2 and obtain

1 = A(2 − 2) + B(2 − 3) ⇒ B = −1

So, the decomposition is

1 1 1
= −
x2 − 5x + 6 x−3 x−2

112/115
111/115
 Con’td III

1
Therefore the integral of can easily be found as
x2
− 5x + 6
Z Z Z
1 1 1
2
dx = dx − dx
x − 5x + 6 x−3 x−2
= ln |(x − 3)| − ln |(x − 2)| + c

5x2 + 20x + 6
Z
✍ Find
x3 + 2x2 − x

112/115
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 Exercises I

❶ State the method you would use to evaluate each integral. Explain
why Zyou chose that method. Do not integrate.
x+1
() dx
Z x2
+ 2x − 8
7x + 4
(b) 2
dx
x + 2x − 8
❷ Identify u and dv for finding the integral using integration by
parts.Z (Do not evaluate the integral.)
() xe2x dxdx
Z
(b) (ln x)2 dx
Z
(c) ln 5xdx

❸ Evaluate the following integrals using integration by parts

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 Exercises II
Z
() (4x + 7)ex dxdx
Z
(b) x3 ln xdx
Z
ln 2x
(c) 2
dx
Z x
(d) (x2 − 1)ex dx

❹ Find Zthe following integrals

2
() x x2 + 1 dx
Z
1
(b) x2 (1 − x) 2 dx
Z
1
(c) dx
Z x2
+x−2
x+1
(d) 2
dx
x (x − 1)
112/115
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 Exercises III
x2 − 10
Z
() dx
x2 + 7x + 10
❺ Suppose that the rate of change of the total revenue of a firm that
sells a good is given by R′ = F ′ (x) = 50 − x − x2 , where x is the
quantity of the good sold by the firm. Determine the inverse
demand function for the firm’s good assuming that the firm’s total
revenue is zero when the firm sells no unit of the good.
❻ Assume that the marginal cost to a firm of producing x units of a
e1+0.5x
good is given by F ′ (x) = . Assume also that the firm’s
2
fixed cost is $100. Find the firm’s total cost function.
❼ Suppose that a consumer’s marginal utility when x units of a good
1
are consumed is given by F ′ (x) = . Find the consumer’s total
x
utility function assuming that the consumer’s total utility is zero
when the consumer consumes one unit of the good.
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 Applications of differentiation and integration to
Business Mathematics and Optimization

Group Assignment
✍ Discuss the Applications of differentiation and integration to
Business Mathematics and Optimization

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 THANK YOU

THANK YOU
I kindly valued your participation and thank you very much indeed for
that.

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 Enquiries

Addressing Queries
Please address your queries to :
✍ Your respective CPs or
✆ Lecturer (i.e, thru mail : [email protected] or by phone :
0788527050)

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 For Further Reading

E. K. Ummer.
Basic Mathematics for Economics, Business, and Finance.
Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14
4RN, 2012.
S. T. Tan.
Applied Calculus for the Managerial, Life, and Social Sciences: A
Brief Approach, Eighth Edition.
2009, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
R. LARSON & A. V. H O D G K I N S.
College Algebra with Applications for Business and the Life
Sciences.
H OUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY, Boston New York, 2009.

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