PSY2001 Biological Psychology

Lecture 4: Brain Anatomy

25 Sep 2023
3.1 Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

• Central nervous system (CNS): the brain and the

spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): connects the
brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body
– Somatic nervous system: consists of axons conveying
messages from the sense organs to the CNS and
from the CNS to the muscles
– Autonomic nervous system: controls the heart,
intestines, and other organs
• The peripheral nervous
system is the nerves
outside the brain and spinal
cord
• Nerve: a set of axons in the
periphery
 Anatomical Terms Referring to Directions

Term Definition
Dorsal Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side (the top of the brain is
considered dorsal because it has that position in four-legged animals)

Ventral Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side
Anterior Toward the front end
Posterior Toward the rear end
Superior Above another part
Inferior Below another part
Lateral Toward the side, away from the midline
Medial Toward the midline, away from the side
Proximal Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or attachment
Distal Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment
Ipsilateral On the same side of the body (e.g., two parts on the left or two on the right)
Contralateral On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one on the right)

© Cengage Learning 2016

 Anatomical Directions in the Nervous System

The top of the brain is considered

dorsal because it has that position
in four-legged animals.

Figure from: http://johnhawks.net/explainer/laboratory/anatomical-directions.html

 Anatomical Directions in the Nervous System

In four-legged animals, the dorsal and ventral

axes for the head are parallel to those for the
rest of the body.
However, humans’ upright posture has tilted
the head, so the dorsal and ventral directions
of the head are at right angles to those of the
spinal cord. Courtesy of Dr. Dana Copeland, Science
Pictures Limited/Science Source.
 The Spinal Cord

• Part of the CNS found within the spinal column

• Consists of two types of matter
– Grey matter: located in the center of the spinal cord and is
densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites
– White matter: composed mostly of myelinated axons that carries
information from the gray matter to the brain or other areas of the
spinal cord
 The Spinal Cord

• Communicates with the sense organs and muscles,

except those of the head
– It is a segmented structure, and each segment has on each side
a sensory nerve and a motor nerve
– Entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and exiting
ventral roots carry motor information
– The cell bodies of the sensory
neurons are in clusters of neurons
outside the spinal cord, called the
dorsal root ganglia; cell bodies of
the motor neurons are inside the
spinal cord
 Types of Neurons
Sensory neuron

40

Motor neuron
 The Spinal Cord

• Each segment of the spinal cord

communicates with the brain via tracts of
axons in the spinal cord.
• If the spinal cord is cut at a given segment,
the brain loses sensation from that
segment and below. The brain also loses
motor control over all parts of the body
served by that segment and the lower
ones.
 The Autonomic Nervous System

• Sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic

behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, digestion, etc.)
• The sympathetic nervous system
– Prepares the organs for rigorous activity
– Increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, etc. (“fight or
flight” response)
• The parasympathetic nervous system
– Decreases functions increased by the sympathetic nervous
system
– Facilitates vegetative and nonemergency responses
– Dominant during our relaxed states
Major Divisions of the Vertebrate Brain

• In a fish brain, as shown here, the forebrain, midbrain,

and hindbrain are clearly visible as separate bulges.
• In adult mammals, the forebrain grows and surrounds
the entire midbrain and part of the hindbrain.
Sagittal Section Through the Human Brain
 The Hindbrain

• Consists of the:
– Medulla
– Pons
– Cerebellum
• Located at the posterior portion of the brain
 The Hindbrain – The Medulla

• The medulla
– Located just above the spinal cord; like an enlarged extension of
the spinal cord
– Responsible for vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate,
vomiting, salivation, coughing and sneezing
• The cranial nerves (12 pairs)
– Control sensations from the head, muscle movements in the
head, and many parasympathetic outputs
– The nuclei for cranial nerves V through XII are in the medulla
and pons; those for cranial nerves I through IV are in the
midbrain and forebrain
 Cranial Nerves II Through XII

Cranial nerve I, the olfactory

nerve, connects directly to the
olfactory bulbs of the forebrain.
Source: Based on Braus, 1960
 The Hindbrain – The Pons

• Lies on each side of the medulla (ventral and

anterior)
• The term pons is Latin for “bridge”
– Axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite side of
the spinal cord such that the left hemisphere controls the
muscles of the right side of the body and the right hemisphere
controls the left side.
– Whereas spinal information is contralateral, cranial nerve
systems are mostly ipsilateral, meaning that a cranial nerve on
the right side of the head is connected to the right side of the
brain.
 The Hindbrain – The Cerebellum

• Structure located in the hindbrain with many

deep folds
– Helps regulate motor movement, balance, and
coordination
– Also important for shifting attention between auditory
and visual stimuli
 The Midbrain

• Contains the following structures

– Tectum: roof of the midbrain
– Superior colliculus and inferior colliculus: processes
sensory information
– Tegmentum: contains nuclei for cranial nerves and
part of the reticular formation
– Substantia nigra: gives rise to the dopamine-
containing pathway facilitating readiness for
movement
 The Human Brainstem

• The medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain central

structures of the forebrain constitute the brainstem
• Regulates basic bodily processes
• If damaged, may cause a person to lapse into a coma or even
die
 The Forebrain

• The most anterior and prominent part of the

mammalian brain, with two cerebral
hemispheres
– Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical regions
– Outer portion is known as the “cerebral cortex”
 The Forebrain – Subcortical Regions

• Thalamus: relay station from the sensory organs; main

source of input to the cortex

Each thalamic nucleus projects

its axons to a different part of the
cortex. Source: After Nieuwenhuys,
Voogd, & van Huijzen, 1988.
 The Forebrain – Subcortical Regions

• Hypothalamus (ventral to the thalamus)

– Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to alter the release of
hormones
– Hormones are important for triggering long-lasting changes in
multiple parts of the body
– Associated with behaviors such as eating, drinking, sexual
behavior, and other motivated behaviors
• Pituitary gland: hormone-producing gland at the base of
the hypothalamus
– In response to messages from the hypothalamus, the pituitary
synthesizes hormones that the blood carries to organs
throughout the body
 The Forebrain – Subcortical Regions

• Hippocampus
– Located between the thalamus and cerebral cortex
– Critical for storing certain types of memory,
particularly new events
 The Forebrain – The Limbic System

• Consists of a number of other interlinked

structures that form a border around the
brainstem
– Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus,
hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the
cerebral cortex
– Associated with motivations and emotions, such as
eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and
aggression
The Limbic System
 The Forebrain – Subcortical Regions

• Basal ganglia (lateral to thalamus)

– Associated with planning of motor movement, and with aspects
of memory and emotional expression
– Also important for attention, language planning, and other
cognitive functions
 The Ventricles

• Four fluid-filled cavities within the brain’s central

canal containing cerebrospinal fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): a clear fluid found in
the brain and spinal cord
– Provides “cushioning” for the brain
– Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and
spinal cord
The Cerebral Ventricles
 3.2 The Cerebral Cortex

• The most prominent part of the mammalian

brain
• Consists of the cellular layers on the outer
surface of the cerebral hemispheres
– Divided into two halves
– Joined by two bundles of axons called the corpus
callosum and the anterior commissure
– More highly developed in humans than other species
 Three Views of the Corpus Callosum

The cells on the outer surface of the

cerebral cortex are gray matter, and
their axons extending inward are
white matter.
 Areas of the Human Cerebral Cortex
Central sulcus/fissure

• Gyrus (pl.: gyri): a protuberance

on the surface of the brain
• Sulcus (pl.: sulci): a groove that Lateral sulcus/fissure
separates one gyrus from another
• A long, deep sulcus is also called The four lobes: occipital,
fissure parietal, temporal, and frontal
 The Occipital Lobe

• Located at the posterior end of the cortex

• Known as the primary visual cortex
 The Temporal Lobe

• Located on the lateral portion of each

hemisphere near the temples
• Target for auditory information and essential for
processing spoken language
• Also responsible for complex aspects of vision,
and some emotional and motivational behaviors
 The Parietal Lobe

• Contains the postcentral gyrus (primary somatosensory

cortex)
– Primary target for sensations from touch receptors, muscle-
stretch receptors, and joint receptors
 The Parietal Lobe

• Also responsible for processing and integrating

information about eye, head, and body positions
from information sent from muscles and joints
• Essential for spatial information as well as
numerical information
 The Frontal Lobe

• Contains the prefrontal cortex and the precentral

gyrus
– Precentral gyrus (primary motor cortex): responsible
for the control of fine motor movement
– Prefrontal cortex (most anterior
portion of the frontal lobe): the
integration center for all sensory
information and input from other
areas of the cortex
 Species Differences in Prefrontal Cortex

The prefrontal cortex (blue area) constitutes a larger proportion of the

human brain than of these other species. Source: Based on Fuster, 1989
 The Prefrontal Cortex

• Our ability to remember recent events and

information (“working memory”)
– People with damage to the prefrontal cortex have
trouble on the delayed-response task: first see or
hear something, and then need to respond to it after a
delay
• Higher functions such as attention, abstract
thinking, decision making, and planning
Name the brain parts