What is Intelligence?

Intelligence can be defined in many different ways since there are a variety of individual
differences. Intelligence to a lot of people is the ability to reason and respond quickly yet
accurately in all aspects of life, such as physically, emotionally and mentally. Anyone
can define intelligence because it is an open-ended word that has much room for
interpretation, but there are some theories that have more general acceptance than
others.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss child psychologist, is well known for his four stages of mental
growth theory. The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2, when the
child is concerned with gaining motor control and getting familiar with physical objects.
Then, from age 2 to 7, the child develops verbal skills. This is called the preoperational
stage. In the concrete operational stage, the child deals with abstract thinking from age
7 to 12. The final stage, called the formal operational stage, ends at age 15, and this is
when the child learns to reason logically and systematically. Piaget’s theory provides a
basis for human intelligence by categorising the major stages in child development and
how they contribute to intelligence. Each of these invariant stages has major cognitive
skills that must be learned. Knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but must be
constructed and reconstructed by the learner. Thus this development involves a few
basic steps. The first fundamental process of intellectual growth is the ability to
assimilate the new events learned into the pre-existing cognitive structures. The second
fundamental process is the capability to change those structures to accommodate the
new information and the last process is to find equilibrium between the first two
processes.

Howard Gardner, a psychologist at Harvard University, has formulated an even more

intriguing theory. He arranged human intelligence into seven sections. First of all,
Gardner characterises logical-mathematical intelligence as people who think logically
and are able to transfer abstract concepts to reality. These people enjoy solving puzzles
and can be good inventors because they can visualise an invention even before making
a prototype. They normally do better in school, which is for the most part due to the fact
that schools are designed for the logical-mathematical type of thinkers.

The linguistic type, as you might guess, is the natural born writer and poet. They usually
have excellent storytelling skills, spelling skills, and love to play with words. They tend to
be bookworms and can easily learn more than one language. This type of intelligence
seems to be located in the Broca’s Area, since damage to that portion of the brain will
cause a person to lose the ability to express themselves in clear grammatical
sentences, though that person’s understanding of vocabulary and syntax remains intact.

Next Gardner traced musical intelligence to certain areas of the brain. Impaired or
autistic children, who are unable to talk or interact with others, have often exemplified
exceptional musical talent. People of this type of intelligence show great aptitude for
music, have excellent pitch, and a good sense of rhythm. They concentrate better with
music playing in the background. A particular concerto by Mozart has shown positive
 changes in the brains of listeners. Thus, musical intelligence can be a form or a means
of learning.

Another form of intelligence is interpersonal intelligence. This category is for people who
are very well aware of their environment. They tend to be sensitive to people around
them, have an excellent idea of how people behave and are especially sociable.
Politicians, leaders, counsellors, mediators and clergy are excellent examples of people
with this type of intelligence. Damage to the frontal lobe has shown damage to this type
of person’s personality and his or her ability to interact with others.

Intrapersonal intelligence is almost the opposite of interpersonal intelligence. This kind

of intelligence deals with how well you know yourself. People who possess a higher
degree of this type of intelligence have high self-esteem, self-enhancement and a
strong sense of character. They are usually deep thinkers, self-teachers, skilled in
music or art and have an inner discipline. This sort of intelligence is hard to measure
since it is often difficult to recognize externally.

Spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive and interpret images or pictures in three-
dimensional space. The right hemisphere of the brain has been proven to control this
form of intelligence and scientists are certain that spatial intelligence is clearly an
independent portion of this intellect. A person of this intellect enjoys making maps and
charts.

Lastly, Gardner classifies people who are athletically inclined as body-kinesthetic

intelligence. They perform the best in atmospheres of action, touching, physical contact
and working with their hands. Dancers and athletes are good examples of this form of
intellect. Critics are a little sceptical that Gardner considers this a form of intellect since
it is only a physical component of intelligence, but nonetheless, the brain does use both
hemispheres to control movement.

Gardner believes that everyone has a mixture of all the categories varying at different
levels. We can see a couple of intelligence types that stand out in people we know and
including ourselves. For example, a maths major’s logical-mathematical intelligence
would be more predominant than his linguistic intelligence.

Questions 1 - 7

Choose the correct personality type for each statement.

1 Young people with mental disabilities frequently display

this type of intelligence.

 A - Logical-mathematical type
 B - Linguistic type

 C - Musical type

 D - Interpersonal type

 E - Intrapersonal type

 F - Spatial type

 G - Body-kinesthetic type

2People with this type of intelligence are often good with

words.

 A - Logical-mathematical type

 B - Linguistic type

 C - Musical type

 D - Interpersonal type

 E - Intrapersonal type

 F - Spatial type

 G - Body-kinesthetic type

3People with this type of intelligence are often good

physiotherapists.

 A - Logical-mathematical type

 B - Linguistic type
 C - Musical type

 D - Interpersonal type

 E - Intrapersonal type

 F - Spatial type

 G - Body-kinesthetic type

4People with this type of intelligence are often very self-

confident.

 A - Logical-mathematical type

 B - Linguistic type

 C - Musical type

 D - Interpersonal type

 E - Intrapersonal type

 F - Spatial type

 G - Body-kinesthetic type

5People with this type of intelligence are often good at

developing new products for a company.

 A - Logical-mathematical type

 B - Linguistic type

 C - Musical type
 D - Interpersonal type

 E - Intrapersonal type

 F - Spatial type

 G - Body-kinesthetic type

6People with this type of intelligence often learn by

imagining things as pictures.

 A - Logical-mathematical type

 B - Linguistic type

 C - Musical type

 D - Interpersonal type

 E - Intrapersonal type

 F - Spatial type

 G - Body-kinesthetic type

7People with this type of intelligence often mix well with

other people.

 A - Logical-mathematical type

 B - Linguistic type

 C - Musical type

 D - Interpersonal type
 E - Intrapersonal type

 F - Spatial type

 G - Body-kinesthetic type

Questions 8 - 13

Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text,
choose FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, or choose NOT GIVEN if
there is no information on this.

8There are no theories of intelligence that have universal

recognition around the world.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

9Part of Piaget's development theory includes children

learning how to walk.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

10Piaget theorised that psychological development is

finished before adulthood.

 TRUE

 FALSE
 NOT GIVEN

11The seven-category theory created by Gardner is

considered more valid than Piaget 's.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

12People usually have a blend of Gardner's intelligence

types.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

13Individuals find it difficult to identify Gardner 's

intelligence types in themselves.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

Pilotage - The Original Pilots

Although most people nowadays think of aviation when they hear the word "pilot", the
term was originally used to refer to local seamen whose task was to guide ships through
coastal waters and into a port. In fact, the English word "pilot" evolved from the Dutch
term for a plumb lead, a length of rope with a weight on the end of it used for measuring
the depth of water. Today, nearly every port employs pilots licensed by the government
of the country, and the use of their services is compulsory, except for local ships whose
master holds a current pilotage exemption for a specific port. Pilots are responsible for
the safe conduct and navigation of any ship from the time they assume control from the
master after boarding at sea until the vessel is safely moored at the allocated wharf, or
vice versa in the case of ships that are leaving a harbour.

The history of sea pilotage goes back many hundreds of years to a time when seamen
with local knowledge offered their services to ships’ captains to help them navigate their
vessels through the waters at the entrance to ports. As maritime trade widened into new
territories, help was required in approaching little-known areas of coastline. Early
European settlers in the New World were often provided navigational assistance by the
native people who had been residing in the area for many thousands of years. Using
their canoes, the natives would lead ships into unknown rivers or natural harbours and
warn mariners of any underwater dangers. Once settlements began to become more
established, ships arrived more regularly in the area. By then many of the early pilots
were settlers who had become fishermen. These fishermen would often command good
fees for piloting ships because of their specialised knowledge of water depths,
navigational hazards, tides and currents in their local areas.

Although modern electronic equipment and navigational aids have changed the way
ships are operated at sea, the employment of a marine pilot with extensive local
knowledge and expert ship-handling skills is as essential as ever. In addition, changes
in the shipping business have increased the need for pilots. Ships have become larger
and more complex, while the number of crew members on the ships has decreased.
There are now fewer skilled people on board these large ships who can both handle
them and have knowledge of different harbours. In today’s competitive world, there are
also increasing demands for ships to operate in more severe weather conditions than in
the past. Accordingly, local knowledge of how a particular type of weather affects the
approach and entry to a port is essential in getting ships docked quickly. A reliable and
responsible marine pilotage system in every port plays a significant role in allowing
businesses to remain competitive in the global marketplace.

Shipping is a very high cost industry, with running costs for fuel, maintenance and crews
easily averaging US $2,000 per ship per hour for every hour of every day.
Consequently, shipping is a 24-hour-a-day industry and pilots need to be available at
any time to play their part. In fact, the importance of pilot reliability has led to pilots in
Australia being self-employed, which means none is a union member and they are
therefore never involved in industrial disputes that could cause delays to shipping.
 Over the years, pilots have had to develop different levels of expertise in order to deal
with how ships have changed, the most spectacular of which is probably the increase in
size. A hundred years ago, 2,000 tonnes was considered a large ship. Forty years ago,
10,000 tonnes was considered a large ship. Today, 100,000 tonnes is an everyday
occurrence. The types of ships have also changed. Most ships today are built for
specific cargoes, such as containers, tankers, roll-on-roll-offs, car carriers, bulk carriers
and general purpose ships. As a result of this, their appearance and handling differ
considerably. For example, a large loaded tanker would not be much affected by wind,
but the pilot would have to commence reducing speed about 10 miles before reaching
the berth. The other extreme would be a car carrier, which does not go deep into the
water. This could be stopped quickly, but would be very much affected by winds.
Different harbour conditions are also important. Big, deep-draught ships in narrow
channels require the pilot’s full attention; a lapse of concentration could result in a major
accident with a considerable impact on the environment from, for example, a
subsequent oil spillage.

Today, coastal marine pilots have a wide range of responsibilities. They must provide
advice on the safe navigation of a vessel and act as stewards of the sea. They must
provide detailed passage planning, local knowledge, leadership to the bridge team, and
liaison with shore authorities and vessel traffic services. Pilots also need to provide
independent judgement and advice to the ship’s master, who ultimately remains in
command of the vessel. Moreover, a pilot has to monitor his or her own personal health
and safety, and he or she must also be a mentor to new coastal pilots. The scope and
obligations of the job facing a pilot today are extremely challenging, but the variety and
rewards of this work mean that there is intense competition among people wanting to
enter the field.

Questions 14 - 21

Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text,
choose FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, or choose NOT GIVEN if
there is no information on this.

14 The origin of the term pilot described one of the tools of

the job.

 TRUE

 FALSE
 NOT GIVEN

15The use of a government-licensed pilot is mandatory in

all cases.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

16The indigenous people of the Americas were not paid

for their services as pilots.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

17Some ports employ pilots who specialise in bringing

ships into harbour in bad weather.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

18A ship might be unable to enter an Australian port due

to a strike by pilots.

 TRUE
 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

19Being a pilot is a highly paid job.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

20When on board, the pilot is the most senior member of

a ship 's crew.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

21Familiarity with a specific stretch of coastal waters has

always been a key requirement for a pilot.

 TRUE

 FALSE

 NOT GIVEN

Questions 22 - 26

Choose words from the list in the box to complete the summary below.

Over the years, despite developments in technology, the importance of

 pilots' (22) hasn't changed. However, the sizes and functions

of ships have. Nowadays (23) are loaded onto ships

specifically designed for them and, as the ships’ characteristics vary
considerably, pilots face a range of different problems when

handling them. A lack of (24) when piloting these large ships

might lead to an accident that could cause severe environmental problems.

Although the (25) of a ship into or out of port is still their

main responsibility, pilots also handle comunications with the port
authorities and other vessels in the area. In addition, they must manage

their own physical well-being and offer (26) to less

experienced members of the profession.

A navigation B skills C vehicles D qualifications

E cargoes F focus G advice H planning

Hydrogen Cars

Record fuel prices are making driving more expensive than ever. But what if, instead of
petrol, your car ran on the most abundant element in our universe, hydrogen? Many
experts think this will replace petrol, diesel and natural gas as the main fuel for cars,
buses and lorries over the next few decades. Already car manufacturers around the
world have invested billions of dollars in research and development.

The advantages of hydrogen are enormous: no more smog-forming exhaust fumes, no

more carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to global warming, no more worries
about diminishing oil supplies and rising prices. But some tricky questions need to be
answered before mass-produced hydrogen cars start appearing on the streets. Where
will the hydrogen come from? How will motorists fill up? How will cars store the fuel?
And there is also the question of how best to tap the energy in the fuel for good, on-road
performance.
C

Two kinds of engines can use hydrogen as a fuel: those that have an internal
combustion engine converted to use it and those that are made up of a stack of fuel
cells. Internal combustion engines have powered cars since they first began to replace
horse-drawn carriages more than 100 years ago. These engines can be converted to
run on a variety of fuels, including hydrogen. However, most car manufacturers believe
that fuel cells powering an electric motor offer a better alternative. Unlike heavy
batteries that need frequent recharging, fuel cells make electricity as they go. In
addition, recent developments in technology have greatly increased the amount of
power that a stack of cells can provide. This has opened up the prospect of efficient,
non-polluting electric cars.

Fuel cell technology sounds simple. The hydrogen fuel reacts with oxygen from the air
to produce water and electricity, the reverse of the familiar electrolysis process that
releases oxygen and hydrogen from water. In reality, of course, it is somewhat more
complicated. The big advantage of a fuel cell engine over an internal combustion engine
running on hydrogen is its greater efficiency. The same amount of hydrogen will take a
fuel cell car at least twice as far as one with a converted internal combustion engine.

Hydrogen has many advantages as a fuel for vehicles, but a big disadvantage is that it
is difficult to store. This is because at normal temperatures hydrogen is a gas. The
obvious solutions are to compress the hydrogen or to liquefy it. However, tanks
designed to hold hydrogen at extremely high pressures, or at temperatures approaching
absolute zero, are heavy and expensive. So, high cost and the large amount of energy
needed to liquefy the fuel are likely to be the main problems with refuelling with liquid
hydrogen. Filling up with compressed hydrogen gas will probably prove more practical,
even though it may reduce the distance between fills. Cars could store the hydrogen in
high pressure tanks similar to those used for compressed natural gas, or specially
treated carbon may also hold large amounts.

Although there is no risk that we will ever run out of hydrogen, on earth it exists naturally
only in chemical compounds, not as hydrogen gas. A relatively simple principal
technology, steam reforming, can produce hydrogen gas for cars at central plants or
filling stations. Alternatively, fuel tanks could be filled with petrol or methanol, with the
cars using on-board reformers to generate hydrogen for their fuel cells. This shows
promise as a transitional measure while research proceeds on the problems of storing
hydrogen. Water is the only potentially pollution-free source of hydrogen. Researchers
are looking at new ways of producing hydrogen from water such as using algae,
bacteria or photovoltaic cells to absorb sunlight and split water into hydrogen and
 oxygen. But the technology most likely to be adopted on a large scale is electrolysis,
which uses an electric current to split water into oxygen and hydrogen.

"Remember the Hindenburg" is a phrase often heard when hydrogen is discussed. This
German passenger airship, kept aloft by hydrogen, crashed in flames as it came in to
land at Lakehurst, New Jersey, USA in May 1937 killing 35 people. Nowadays helium,
which cannot burn, is the gas of choice for lighter-than-air craft. Hydrogen is highly
flammable, but recent research has indicated that the airship’s fabric, not hydrogen, was
the culprit in the Hindenburg disaster. Properly handled, there is no reason to think
hydrogen is any more dangerous as a fuel than petrol, the explosive liquid now carried
safely in the tanks of millions of motor vehicles.

Recent technological advances, particularly in fuel cell design, have made hydrogen-
powered cars a practical proposition, and car manufacturers expect to start mass-
producing them within the next decade or so. Their power and acceleration should
match those of today’s conventionally powered vehicles, but they may have to be
refuelled more often. The best ways to produce, distribute and store the hydrogen still
have to be sorted out. In the short term, fossil fuels may remain in demand as a
hydrogen source. However, the idea that in the not too distant future most of us will be
driving non-polluting cars fuelled by hydrogen from a clean, renewable source is no
longer a flight of fantasy.

Questions 27 - 33

The text has eight paragraphs. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph.

27 Paragraph B

 i - Where and How to Keep the Fuel

 ii - Traditional Production Methods

 iii - The Possible Danger of Combustible Hydrogen

 iv - A Plentiful Alternative

 v - Looking Forward

 vi - Concerns about Viability

 vii - Today's Hydrogen Production

 viii - How the Process Works

 ix - Hydrogen Sources and Production

 x - The Workings of the Internal Combustion Engine

 xi - The Engine Dilemma

28Paragraph C

 i - Where and How to Keep the Fuel

 ii - Traditional Production Methods

 iii - The Possible Danger of Combustible Hydrogen

 iv - A Plentiful Alternative

 v - Looking Forward

 vi - Concerns about Viability

 vii - Today's Hydrogen Production

 viii - How the Process Works

 ix - Hydrogen Sources and Production

 x - The Workings of the Internal Combustion Engine

 xi - The Engine Dilemma

29Paragraph D

 i - Where and How to Keep the Fuel

 ii - Traditional Production Methods

 iii - The Possible Danger of Combustible Hydrogen

 iv - A Plentiful Alternative

 v - Looking Forward

 vi - Concerns about Viability

 vii - Today's Hydrogen Production

 viii - How the Process Works

 ix - Hydrogen Sources and Production

 x - The Workings of the Internal Combustion Engine

 xi - The Engine Dilemma

30Paragraph E

 i - Where and How to Keep the Fuel

 ii - Traditional Production Methods

 iii - The Possible Danger of Combustible Hydrogen

 iv - A Plentiful Alternative

 v - Looking Forward

 vi - Concerns about Viability

 vii - Today's Hydrogen Production

 viii - How the Process Works

 ix - Hydrogen Sources and Production

 x - The Workings of the Internal Combustion Engine

 xi - The Engine Dilemma

31Paragraph F

 i - Where and How to Keep the Fuel

 ii - Traditional Production Methods

 iii - The Possible Danger of Combustible Hydrogen

 iv - A Plentiful Alternative

 v - Looking Forward

 vi - Concerns about Viability

 vii - Today's Hydrogen Production

 viii - How the Process Works

 ix - Hydrogen Sources and Production

 x - The Workings of the Internal Combustion Engine

 xi - The Engine Dilemma

32Paragraph G

 i - Where and How to Keep the Fuel

 ii - Traditional Production Methods

 iii - The Possible Danger of Combustible Hydrogen

 iv - A Plentiful Alternative

 v - Looking Forward

 vi - Concerns about Viability

 vii - Today's Hydrogen Production

 viii - How the Process Works

 ix - Hydrogen Sources and Production

 x - The Workings of the Internal Combustion Engine

 xi - The Engine Dilemma

33Paragraph H

 i - Where and How to Keep the Fuel

 ii - Traditional Production Methods

 iii - The Possible Danger of Combustible Hydrogen

 iv - A Plentiful Alternative

 v - Looking Forward

 vi - Concerns about Viability

 vii - Today's Hydrogen Production

 viii - How the Process Works

 ix - Hydrogen Sources and Production

 x - The Workings of the Internal Combustion Engine

 xi - The Engine Dilemma

Questions 34 - 38

Complete the sentences. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer.

There is no reason that we will run out of hydrogen as it is the that exists.

Companies have put into the growth of the hydrogen car industry.

could use traditional fuels to produce the hydrogen needed to power

hydrogen cars.

Investigations have proved that was the cause of the Hindenburg disaster.

Hydrogen cars have the potential to offer the power and that we associate
with today’s fossil fuel powered vehicles.

Questions 39 - 40

Choose the correct answer.

39Which of the following is NOT a potential problem with

the introduction of hydrogen cars?

 A - The frequency of refuelling stops.

 B - The creation of by-products of the electricity production process.

 C - The volatility of hydrogen.

 D - Keeping hydrogen in cars.

 40Which of the following hydrogen production methods for
hydrogen-powered cars is viewed in the article as a
temporary measure?

 A - A system producing hydrogen from fossil fuels.

 B - A method producing hydrogen from water vapour.

 C - A process using microscopic organisms to produce hydrogen.

 D - An electrolysis-basis hydrogen production system.