Surface water hydrology

Contents
1.Water shed characteristics.............................................................................................................3
Intro duction.....................................................................................................................................3
Definition :........................................................................................................................................3
1.1. Factors Affecting Watershed Functions................................................................................4
1.1.1. CLIMATIC FACTORS..................................................................................................4
1.1.2. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS.....................................................................................5
1.1.3. Channel Geomorphology................................................................................................8
1.2. Water shad parameters........................................................................................................10
1.2.1. Law of stream numbers................................................................................................11
1.2.2. Law of Stream Lengths................................................................................................13
1.3. AREAL ASPECTS OF DRAINAGE BASIN.....................................................................15
1.3.1. Law of Stream Areas....................................................................................................15
1.4. RELEF ASPECTS OF DRANAGE BASIN AND CHANNEL NETWORKS..................16
TERMINOLOGY.......................................................................................................................16
1.4.1. Law of stream slopes....................................................................................................17
2.Runoff..........................................................................................................................................21
2.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................21
2.1.1. Components of Runoff.................................................................................................21
2.2 Factors affecting runoff........................................................................................................24
2.3 Methods of Runoff Computation..........................................................................................30
2.1.3. Computation of Runoff using empirical formulae.......................................................30
2.1.4 Rational Method............................................................................................................33
2.1.4. Infiltration Indices Method...........................................................................................41
3. Hydrograph.................................................................................................................................44
3.1 Unit Hydrograph...................................................................................................................45
3.1.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................45
3.1.2Unit Hydrograph Principles............................................................................................45
Five Assumptions of the Unit Hydrograph................................................................................45
3.1.3 Derivation of the Unit Hydrograph from single storms................................................46

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 Surface water hydrology

3.1.4 Unit Hydrograph Derivation for Composite storm (Deconvolution method)...............47

2.1 Unit Hydrographs for Different Rainfall Durations........................................................48
2.2 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph..............................................................................................49
3.2 Snyder’s synthetic UH..........................................................................................................50
3.2.1 SCS Dimensionless UH.................................................................................................51
3.3 Instantaneous unit Hydrograph (IUH)..................................................................................52
2.3 Solved Examples..............................................................................................................54
4.Design Flood...............................................................................................................................62
4.1 General.................................................................................................................................62
4.2 Flood Frequency Analysis....................................................................................................63
4.2.1 Annual Series.................................................................................................................63
4.3 Gumbel’s Method.................................................................................................................65
4.4 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution.......................................................................................72
4.4.1 Partial duration series or POT model............................................................................76
4.5 Design Flood........................................................................................................................76
4.5.1 Risk, Reliability and Safety factor.................................................................................77
5.FLOOD ROUTING.....................................................................................................................80
5.1 Storage Equation..................................................................................................................81
5.2. Reservoir routing.................................................................................................................82
5.3 Channel routing....................................................................................................................83
5.3.1 Muskingum Method of Routing....................................................................................84
6. Reservoirs...................................................................................................................................87
6.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................87
Environmental impacts:..........................................................................................................87
6.2 Reservoir site selection.........................................................................................................87
6.2.1 Reservoir physical characteristics.................................................................................88
6.3 Determination of required reservoir capacity.......................................................................89
6.3.1Mass-Curve (Ripple) Method.........................................................................................89
Calculation of storage Volume....................................................................................................90
Calculation of Maintainable Demand.........................................................................................91
6.3.2 Sequent peak Algorithm................................................................................................91
6.3.3 Residual Mass curve Method........................................................................................92
6.4 Reservoir Sedimentation......................................................................................................93
6.4.1 Effects of Sedimentation on Reservoir function...........................................................93

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 Surface water hydrology

6.4.2 Mechanism of Sedimentation (in Reservoirs)...............................................................93

6.4.3 Reservoir sedimentation control....................................................................................97

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 Surface water hydrology

1. Watershed characteristics

Introduction

Definition:
What is A Watershed?

A watershed describes an area of land that contains a common set of streams and
rivers that all drain into a single outlet or, larger body of water, such as a larger river, a
lake or an ocean.

1.1. Factors Affecting Watershed Functions

The various characteristics which affect the function (i.e. to receive the incoming precipitation and
dispose it) of watershed are classified as climatic and physiographic factors and presented below:

1.1.1. CLIMATIC FACTORS

The climatic factors of the watershed affecting the performance of a watershed are mainly associated
with the characteristics of precipitation, which include:

(1) Type of precipitation

A precipitation which occurs in the form of rainfall starts to flow immediately in the form of surface flow
over the land surface, depending upon its intensity as well as magnitude. While a precipitation which
occurs in the form of snow or hail, the flow of water on the ground surface will not take place
immediately, but after melting. During the time interval of their melting, the melted water may infiltrate
into the soil and resulted with lesser amount of runoff generated.

(2) Rainfall intensity

If the rain fall intensity is greater than the soil infiltration rate, the surface runoff takes place in a shorter
time. While in case of low intensity rainfall, the reverse will occur. Thus, high intensity rainfall yields
higher runoff and vice versa.

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 Surface water hydrology

(3) Duration of rainfall

Rainfall duration is directly related to the amount of runoff, due to the fact that infiltration rate of the
soil goes on decreasing with the duration of rainfall, till it attains a constant rate. As a result of this, even
a mild intensity rainfall lasting for longer duration may yield a considerable amount of rainfall.

(4) Rainfall distribution

Runoff from a watershed depends very much on the distribution of rainfall. The rainfall distribution for
this purpose can be expressed by a term “distribution coefficient”, which may be defined as “the ratio of
maximum rainfall at a point to the mean rainfall of the watershed. For a given total rainfall, if all other
conditions are the same, the greater the value of distribution coefficient, greater will be the peak runoff
and vice versa. However, for the same distribution coefficient, the peak runoff would be resulted from
the storm, falling on the lower part of the basin. I.e. near the outlet.

(5) Direction of prevailing wind

If the direction of prevailing wind is the same as the direction of the drainage system, then it has a great
effect on the resulting peak flows and also on the duration of surface flow, to reach at the outlet.

A storm moving in the direction of stream slope produces a higher peak in shorter period of time, than a
storm moving in opposite direction.

(6) Other climatic factors

The other climatic factors, such as temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity, annual rainfall etc.
affect the water losses from the watershed area to a great extent and this also affect the performance of
the watershed. If the losses are more, the runoff will be less and vice-versa.

1.1.2. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS

Physiographic factors of watershed consists of, both, the watershed as well as channel characteristics.
The different characteristics of watershed and channel, which affect the performance of a watershed,
are listed below:

(1) Size of watershed

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 Surface water hydrology

The drainage area (A) is the probably the single most important watershed characteristic for hydrologic
design. It reflects the volume of water that can be generated from rainfall. It is common in hydrologic
design to assume a constant depth of rainfall occurring uniformly over the watershed. Under this
assumption, the volume of water available for runoff would be the product of rainfall depth and the
drainage area. Thus the drainage area is required as input to models ranging from simple linear
prediction equations to complex computer models.

Regarding the size of watershed, if all other factors including depth and intensity of rainfall are being
same, any two watersheds, irrespective of their size, will produce about the same amount of runoff.
However, a large watershed takes longer time for draining the runoff to the outlet, as a result the peak
flow expressed as depth, is being smaller and vice-versa.

(2) Watershed Length

The length (L) of a watershed is the second watershed characteristic of interest. While the length
increases as the drainage increases, the length of a watershed is important in hydrologic computations.
Watershed length is usually defined as the distance measured along the main channel from the
watershed outlet to the basin divide. Since the channel does not extend to the basin divide, it is
necessary to extend a line from the end of the channel to the basin divide following a path where the
greatest volume of water would travel. The straight-line distance from the outlet point on the
watershed divide is not usually used to compute L because the travel distance of floodwaters is
conceptually the length of interest. Thus, the length is measured along the principal flow path. Since it
will be used for hydrologic calculations, this length is more appropriately labeled the hydrologic length.

While the drainage area and length are both measures of watershed size, they may reflect different
aspects of size. The drainage area is used to indicate the potential for rainfall to provide a volume of
water. The length is usually used in computing a time parameter, which is a measure of the travel time
of water through a watershed.

3. Shape of watershed

There are two types of watershed’s shape: fan shape and fern shape watersheds. The fan shape
watershed tends to produce higher peak rate of runoff very early, than the fern shape, due to the fact
that in former one, all part of the watershed contribute the runoff to the outlet simultaneously,
comparatively in little period of time, than the fern shaped watershed.

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 Surface water hydrology

Basin shape is not usually used directly in hydrologic design methods; however, parameters that reflect
basin shape are used occasionally and have a conceptual basis. Watersheds have an infinite variety of
shapes, and the shape supposedly reflects the way that runoff will “bunch up” at the outlet. A circular
watershed would result in runoff from various parts of the watershed reaching the outlet at the same
time. An elliptical watershed having the outlet at one end of the major axis and having the same area as
the circular watershed would cause the runoff to be spread out over time, thus producing a smaller flood
peak than that of the circular watershed.

A number of watershed parameters have been developed to reflect basin shape. The following are a few
typical parameters:

1. Length to the center of area (L ca): the distance in miles measured along the main channel from
the basin outlet to the point on the main channel opposite the center of area.

2. Shape Factor (Ll) Ll = (LLca)0.3

Where L is the length of the watershed in miles

3. Circularity ratio (Fc): Fc = P/(4pA)0.5

Where P and A are the perimeter (ft) and area (ft 2) of the watershed,
respectively.

4. Circularity ration (Rc): Rc = A/Ao

Where A0 is the area of a circle having a perimeter equal to the

perimeter of the basin.

5. Elongation Ration (Re): Re = 2/Lm(A/p)0.5

Where Lm is the maximum length (ft) of the basin parallel to the principal
drainage lines.

Generally, the shape factor (L l) is the best descriptor of peak discharge. It is negatively correlated with
peak discharge (i.e. as the Ll decreases, peak discharge increases).

4. Slope of watershed

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 Surface water hydrology

Slope of a watershed controls the time of overland flow and time of concentration of rainfall in the
drainage channel, which provide a cumulative effect on resulting peak runoff. For example, in case of a
sloppy watershed, the time to reach the flow at outlet is less, because of greater runoff velocity, which
results into formation of peak runoff very soon and vice-versa.

Flood magnitudes reflect the momentum of the runoff. Slope is an important factor in the momentum.
Both watershed and channel slope may be of interest. Watershed slope reflects the rate of change of
elevation with respect to distance along the principal flow path. Typically, the principal flow path is
delineated, and the watershed slope (S) is computed as the difference in elevation (DE) between the end
points of the principal flow path divided by the hydrologic length of the flow path (L):

S = DE/L

The elevation difference DE may not necessarily be the maximum elevation difference within the
watershed since the point of highest elevation may occur along a side boundary of the watershed rather
than at the end of the principal flow path.

5. Orientation of watershed

This factor affects the evaporation and transpiration losses from the area by making influence on the
amount of heat to be received from the sun. The north or south orientation of watershed affect the time
of melting of collected snow. It may also affect the moisture content of the soil.

In a mountainous watershed, the part located on the wind ward side of the mountain receives high
intensity of rainfall, resulting into more runoff yield, while the part of watershed lying towards lee wards
side has a reverse trend of the same.

1.1.3. Channel Geomorphology

Channel Length

In addition to the drainage area and the watershed length, the channel length is used frequently in
hydrologic computation. Two computational schemes are used to computer the channel length:

1. The distance measured along the main channel from the watershed outlet to the end of the
channel as indicated on the figure below, which is denoted as Lc.

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 Surface water hydrology

2. The distance measured along the main channel between two points located 10 and 85% of
the distance along the channel from the outlet, which is denoted at L10-85.

These definitions along with the watershed length are illustrated below. The watershed length is defined
by extending a line on the map from the end of the main channel to the divide. This requires some
subjective assessment and is often a source of inaccuracy. The definitions for channel length also involve
a measure of subjectivity because the endpoint of the channel is dependent on the way the map was
drawn.

Channel

Definition 1: L

Definition 2: Lc

Definition 3: L10-85

Channel Slope

The channel slope can be described with any one of a number of computation schemes. The most
common is

Sc = DEc/Lc

In which DEc is the difference in elevation between the points defining the upper and lower ends of the
channel and Lc is the length of the channel between the same to points. The 10-85 slope can also be
used:

S10-85 = DE10-85/L10-85

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 Surface water hydrology

For cases where the channel slope is not uniform, a weighted slope may provide an index that better
reflects the effect of slope on the hydrologic response of the watershed.

Drainage Density

( D d )
The drainage density is defined as the ratio of the total channel length in the watershed to the
( D d )
total watershed area; thus has units of the reciprocal of length (1/L). A high value of the drainage
density would indicate a relatively high density of streams and thus a rapid storm response. Values
typically ranges from 1.5 to 6 mi/mi2.

It is expressed as:
Channel length(Total)
Watershed area
Drainage density =

( D d )
A watershed having greater will form peak runoff very shortly than a watershed with lesser
( D d )
.

1.2. Water shad parameters

It is also referred as linear aspect of channel system; includes the analysis of stream order, stream length
and length of overland flow, mainly.

1.Stream Orders:

It is a dimensionless term. The designation of stream orders of drainage basin is the first step in analysis
of drainage basin. The stream orders are designated in terms of 1 st, 2nd, 3rd orders and so on. These are
defined as follows:

1. The smallest finger tip tributaries are referred as 1st order streams

2. When two 1st order streams joined in one, then the resulting stream segment is termed as 2 nd -
order stream

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 Surface water hydrology

3. When two 2nd order streams joined in one, a 3rd -order stream segment is formed and so on.

One point should always be kept in view that, when a low order stream segment joins to the high order
stream, then order of stream segment doesn’t change, but high order of stream remained as it is. The
highest order stream is also called trunk stream, through which all discharge of watershed passes to the
outlet.

Our old pal Horton (from Horton’s infiltration equation fame) developed a set of “laws” that are
indicators of the geomorphological characteristics of watershed. The stream order is a measure of the
degree of stream branching within a watershed. Each length of stream is indicated by its order (for
example, first-order, second-order, etc.). A first-order stream is an unbranched tributary, a second-order
stream is a tributary formed by two or more first-order streams. A third-order stream is a tributary
formed by two or more second-order streams and so on. In general, an n th order stream is a tributary
formed by two or more streams of order (n-1) and streams of lower order. For a watershed, the principal
order is defined as the order of the principal channel. The figure below gives an example of stream
ordering.

1.2.1. Law of stream numbers

It states that, the number of stream segments of each order form an inverse geometric sequence with
the order number, or

N R
k−u

u = b

Where,

N u

= number of stream segments of order ‘u’. The number of stream segments of any order is fewer
than for the next lower order, but more numerous than for the next higher order.

R b

= bifurcation ratio, defined as the ratio of number of stream segments of a given order u to the
number of stream segments of next higher order, expressed as:

R = N
N
b u
u+1

R b

If we want to calculate the average value of for the watershed, we use logarithmic relation as
shown below:

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 Surface water hydrology

N R
k−u

u = b
, taking the ‘log’ on both side of the equation,

log N u R
= ( k −u ) log b

= k log R − u log R
b b

R b R b

The ‘ ’ estimate so, indicates that, there is times as many channel segment of any given order as
of the next higher order stream segment. The bifurcation ratio ranges between 3.0 and 5.0 for the
watershed in which geologic structures do not distort the drainage pattern of the watershed. A high ‘
R b

’ is expected in the regions of steeply dipping rock strata, where narrow strike valleys are confined
between the ridges.

R b

If bifurcation ratio ( ) and trunk order(k) of stream of watershed are known, then total number of
streams of all orders of a drainage network can be computed by using the following equation developed
by Horton(1945):
k
k
∑ Nu =
R b −1
i=1
R b −1

The concept of stream order is used to compute other indicators of drainage character. The bifurcation
ratio (Rb) is defined as the ratio of the number of streams of any order to the number of streams of the
next highest order. Values of Rb typically range from the theoretical minimum of 2 to around 6. Typically,
the values range from 3 to 5. The bifurcation ratio is calculated as

Rb = Ni/Ni+!

From this, Horton developed the Law of Stream Numbers which relates the number of streams of order I
(Ni) to the bifurcation ratio and the principal stream order (k)

Ni = Rbk-1

Example:

The bifurcation ratio of a watershed is the average of the bifurcation ratios of each stream order

For a watershed with a bifurcation ratio of 2.6 and a fourth-order principal stream,

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 Surface water hydrology

Ni = 2.64-I

This would predict 18, 7, and 3 streams of order 1, 2, and 3, respectively.

2.Stream Lengths

The extent of stream length in a watershed reveals the characteristics size of different components of
drainage system and its contributing surface area.

Average stream length of a channel segment of given order can be calculated as follows:
N
∑ Lu
L= i=1

N
u
u

L u N u

in which, is the mean length of channel of order ‘u’ and is the total number of stream segments
L u

of order ’u’. The increase as order number increases.

The stream length is applied to determine the basin perimeter, basin length, drainage density etc.

2.Length ratio

L u

It is defined as the ratio of mean length of stream segment ( ) of order ‘u’ to the mean length of
L u−1
stream segment of next lower order .

L
R =
u

L
L
u−1

R L

The ‘ ’ is dimensionless. Horton (1945) postulated that, the length ratio tends to be constant
throughout the successive orders of stream segments in the watershed.

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 Surface water hydrology

1.2.2. Law of Stream Lengths

It states that, the mean length of stream segment of each successive order of the basin tends to
approximate a direct geometric sequence. i.e.
U −1
L = L ⋅R
u 1 L

L 1

In which is the average length of stream segment of 1st order.

R L

If we want to calculate the average value of for the watershed, we use logarithmic relation as shown
below:
U −1
L = L ⋅R
u 1 L
, taking the ‘log’ on both side of the equation,

log L u = log L 1 + (u−1 ) log R L

The law of stream numbers and stream lengths can be combined, which yield an equation for the total
channel length of given order ‘u’. The equation is given as under:

N k−u u−1
∑ Lu = L1 R b ⋅ R L
i=1

Horton also developed the following relationship to determine the total stream length of all orders in a
given watershed having k as trunk stream order,

R
k
K N k −1 −1
∑∑ L = L ⋅R ⋅ Lb

R
u 1 b
i=1 i=1
Lb −1

R
R =
L

R
Lb
b

which,
in

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 Surface water hydrology

In addition to this Horton proposed a Law of Stream Lengths, in which the average lengths of the streams
of successive orders are related by a length ratio RL:

RL = Li+1/Li

Li = L1rLi-1

By similar reasoning, Schumm (1956) proposed a Law of Stream Areas to relate the average areas A i
drained by streams of successive order

RA= Ai+1/Ai

Example:

3.Length of overland flow

The overland flow refers to that flow of precipitated water which moves over the land surface leading to
the stream channels. This flow is significant in small watersheds.

Horton defined the length of overland flow as the length of flow path, projected on the horizontal plane
of non-channel flow, from appoint of drainage divide to the adjacent steam channel. It is one of the most
important independent variable, affects both the hydrologic and physiographic development of
watershed.

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 Surface water hydrology

The length of overland flow is calculated as one-half of the reciprocal of the drainage density. i.e.:

L= 1

D
g
2 d

L g

Where, = length of overland flow

D d

= drainage density

1.3. AREAL ASPECTS OF DRAINAGE BASIN

This aspect of morphometric study of drainage basin includes the description of arrangement of aerial
elements, law of steam areas, and relation of area to the stream length etc.

Arrangement of Arial elements

In a watershed, there are two forms of area, encountered, in which one s associated with the stream and
another is not with the stream, but contributing the surface flow directly to the stream of higher order
than the first, called as “inter-basin area”. Thus the total watershed area is the sum of area of stream
basin and inter-basin area.

Total basin area ’Au’ of a basin of order ‘u’ can be defined as the total area projected on a horizontal
plane, contributing the overland flow to the stream segments of given order plus all tributaries of lower
order.

1.3.1. Law of Stream Areas

The law of stream area states that, the mean basin areas of stream of each order approximate a direct
geometric sequence. It is expressed as:

A = A ⋅R
u−1

u 1 a

A u

Where, = mean area of basin of order ‘u’.

A 1

= mean area of the 1st –order basin

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 Surface water hydrology

R a R L

= area ratio, it is analogous to the length ratio ( )

This equation states that, the mean drainage –basin areas of progressively higher order streams increase

in geometric sequence in the same way as stream lengths.

R a

If we want to calculate the average value of for the watershed, we use logarithmic relation: as
shown below:

A = A ⋅R
u−1

u 1 a
, taking the ‘log’ on both side of the equation,

log Au = log A 1 + (u−1) log Ra

Hack (1957) developed the following relationship for basin area (Au) of order ‘u’, by the use of area and
stream length in terms of Horton law of drainage network composition, given as:

A = A ⋅R ⋅R
u
u−1
Lb −1
U 1 b
R Lb −1

R Lb R L R b

in which, is the ratio of length ratio ( ) to the bifurcation ratio ( ) called as Horton’s term.

1.4. RELEF ASPECTS OF DRANAGE BASIN AND CHANNEL NETWORKS

TERMINOLOGY
Relief: It is defined as the elevation difference between the reference points located in the drainage
basin.

Maximum relief: Within the given boundary of region, the elevation difference between highest and
lowest points.

Maximum basin relief: It is the elevation difference between basin outlet and the highest point located
on the perimeter of basin.

Relief ratio: It is the ratio of relief to the horizontal distance on which relief was measured.

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 Surface water hydrology

R = HL
h

R h

In which, is the relief ratio, H is the relief (m) and L is referred as the horizontal distance, on which
relief measurement was furnished.

The relief ratio is dimensionless term, measures overall steepness of the drainage basin and is also
considered as an indicator for the intensity of erosion processes operating at basin’s slope.

Relative relief: Melton (1957) used this term to measure the relief of watershed and defined it as:

R hp =
H
p × 100

R hp

Where, = relative relief (%)

H
= maximum basin relief (m)

p
= basin perimeter (m)

Channel slope: In drainage basin, the average slope of channel segments increases as their order
increases. In other words, the average slope of channel of order ‘u’ will be less than the average slope of
next higher order (i.e. u+1) channel, but greater than the immediate previous lower order(i.e. u-1)
channel segment.

1.4.1. Law of stream slopes

Horton (1945) expressed this relationship in the form of law called as laws of stream slopes. It is shown
by the following relationship:
k −u
S = S ⋅R
u 1 s

S u

Where, = average slope of channel of order ‘u’

R = Hp ×100
hp

= average slope of channel of order 1st

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 Surface water hydrology

R s

=constant, called as slope ratio, is analogous to the bifurcation ratio.

The law of stream slope is similar to the law of stream number.

R s

If we want to calculate the average value of for the watershed, we use logarithmic relation: as
shown below:
k −u
S = S ⋅R
u 1 s
, taking the ‘log’ on both side of the equation,

log S u = log S 1 + ( k−u ) log Rs

Ruggedness Number

( D d )
This term is the product of relief (H) and drainage .

Ruggedness number = H⋅ D d

It is a dimensionless term. The ruggedness number indicates that, if drainage density (Dd) is increased,
keeping the relief (H) as constant, then average horizontal distance from the drainage divide to the
adjacent channel is reduced. And, if ‘H’ is increased by keeping Dd as constant, then elevation difference
between the divide and adjacent channel will also be increased.

R b

Problem 1: Determine the value of bifurcation ratio ( ) of watershed, which includes 139 as total
number of streams of first order and 46 as total number of stream of second order:

Solution. Given that, N1 = 139

N2 =46

139
R = N N
N N 46
b u 1
u+1 2

= = = 3.02

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 Surface water hydrology

R b

Problem 2: Calculate the bifurcation ratio ( ) of watershed, which has the following details.

Stream 1 2 3 4 5
order

Numbers 120 35 15 3 1

N R
k−u

u = b

Solution. Using the relation

Taking the ‘log’ on both sides,

log N u = ( k −u ) log R b

∑ log N u =∑ ( k−u ) log R b

or

U N u log N ( k−u ) log R

u b

1 120 2.079 log R b

4.0

2 35 1.544 log R b

3.0

3 15 1.176 log R b

2.0

4 3 0.477 log R b

1.0

5 1 0.000 log R b

0.0

Total 5.276 log R b

10

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 Surface water hydrology

∑ log N u =∑ ( k−u ) log R b

Therefore,

10 log R b

5.276 =

5 .276
log R b 10
= = 0.5275 = 3.369

Problem 3: Determine the value of length ratio (RL) of watershed, which includes the following detail:

Stream order 1 2 3 4 5

Number of stream 120 35 15 3 1

Length of Streams (Km) 75 30 45 15 7

U −1
L = L ⋅R
u 1 L
Solution:

75
L 1 120
in which, = = 0.625 km

Taking the log on both sides,

log L u = log L 1 + (u−1 ) log R L

∑ log L u = ∑ log L 1 + ( u−1) ∑ log R L

or

U L u N u L log L log L (u-1)

u u 1

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 Surface water hydrology

1 75 120 0.62 - 0.204 - 0.204 0

5

2 30 35 0.85 - 0.067 - 0.204 1

7

3 45 15 3.00 0.477 - 0.204 2

0

4 15 3 5.00 0.698 - 0.204 3

0

5 7 1 7.00 0.845 - 0.204 4

0

Tota 1.749 - 1.02 10

l

10 log R L

Therefore, 1.749 = -1.02 +

R L

= 1.891

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 Surface water hydrology

2.Runoff
2.1. Introduction
 The portion of precipitation which appears in the surface streams of either
perennial or intermittent nature is called runoff.
 This is the flow collected from a drainage basin and appearing at an outlet of the
basin.
 In a general sense it is the precipitation excess after meeting the
evapotranspiration demands.
 It is usually expressed as volume per unit time, the common unit being m3/s or
cumec.
 It may also be expressed as depth equivalent over a basin that is mm/day,
mm/month or mm/year. This is particularly useful unit for comparing runoff rate or
runoff volume with precipitation.

2.1.1. Components of Runoff

According to the source from which the flow is derived, the total runoff is visualized to
consist of
 Surface runoff
 Subsurface runoff
 Groundwater runoff
The Fig. below shows the inter-relationship between various items involved in the
process of transforming the total precipitation into the total runoff.
 Before reaching the ground a small portion of precipitation evaporates and
joins back the atmosphere while another portion is intercepted
 The precipitation falling on the water surface is called channel precipitation
and it immediately becomes the stream flow.
 The rest of the precipitation falling on the land surface, after satisfying the
infiltration demand, is temporarily detained on the ground surface and when

23
 Surface water hydrology

sufficient depth is built up it travels over the ground surface towards the
stream channel – overland flow.
The overland flow ceases shortly after the rainfall stops.
 Surface runoff may then be defined as that part of the total runoff which
travels over the ground surface to reach a stream channel and then through
the channel to reach the basin outlet. – it is the combination of the overland
flow and the channel precipitation.

Total precipitation
on the basin

Channel Overland Infiltration Abstractions like

Precipitation flow Interception &
evaporation

Channel Channel flow Interflow or sub- Deep percolation

flow Surface flow

Rapid Delayed Groundwater

interflow interflow runoff

Surface
runoff Channel flow

Base Flow
Direct Runoff
(Quick Flow

Total Runoff
Fig 2.1.: Schematic representation at theprocess
of runoff Basin Outlet

 Water which infiltrates the soil surface and then moves laterally through the
upper soil horizons towards the stream channels above the main groundwater
table is known as the interflow. It is also known as subsurface runoff,
subsurface stream flow, storm seepage, and secondary base flow.

24
 Surface water hydrology

 The infiltrated water which percolates deeply becomes groundwater and when
the groundwater table rises and intersects the stream channels of the basin it
discharges into stream as the groundwater runoff.
 Since the movement of the groundwater is very slow the groundwater runoff to
streams may lag behind the occurrence of precipitation by several days, or
weeks.
 The groundwater flow also tends to be very regular and in general it
represents the main long-term component of total runoff and is particularly
important during dry spells when surface runoff is absent.
 For the practical purpose of analysis total runoff in stream channels is
generally classified as direct runoff and base flow.
o The direct runoff or quick flow is that part of runoff which enters the
stream promptly and is equal to the sum of surface runoff and rapid
interflow.
o This clearly represents the major runoff contribution during storm
periods and is also the major contribution to most floods.
o The base flow is defined as the sustained or fair-weathered runoff and
it is composed of groundwater runoff and delayed interflow.
Precipitation excess is that part of total precipitation which contributes directly to the
surface runoff.

Time

Loss 25

Rainfall excess
 Surface water hydrology

Fig. 2.2: Catchment Rainfall and Runoff process

2.2 Factors affecting runoff
The factors affecting the runoff of a catchment may be broadly calssified into two
categories:
 Climatic factors
 Physiographic factors
The climatic factors include The physiographic factors are
- Intensity of rainfall - Land use
- Duration of rainfall - Type of soil
- Areal distribution of rainfall - Area of the basin
- Direction of storm movement - Shape of the basin
- Antecedent precipitation - Slope
- Other climatic factors that - Storage characteristics of
affect evapotranspiration the basin

Intensity of rainfall
The runoff increases with an increase in the intensity of precipitation because an intense
rainfall occurs in a short and the evaporation and infiltration losses are relatively small.

26
 Surface water hydrology

- For rainfall intensities exceeding the infiltration capacity, the runoff increases
with increase in intensity.
- Owing to the storage effects of the basin, however, the increase in the runoff
rate is not the same as the increase in rainfall intensity.

Duration of rainfall
- If rainfall occurs over a long period, the runoff is large because the runoff is
proportional to the total rainfall. Moreover, the infiltration capacity decreases
with time.
- Under favorable conditions the infiltrated water may even raise the water table
to the ground surface reducing the infiltration to zero leading to serious flood.
- As a consequence, rains of long duration may produce high rates of runoff
even though the intensity is relatively mild.
- It is pertinent here to consider the duration of rainfall in conjunction with
critical concentration time of the basin t c, which is defined as the time
taken by a rain drop falling on the remotest point of the basin to reach the
basin outlet.
- If the duration of rainfall is greater than or equal to t c the whole of the basin is
likely to contribute to runoff during the later stages of the storm so that the
potential runoff rate is maximum.
- On the other hand, if the rainfall duration is less than t c the potential runoff will
be lower than the maximum because only part of the basin will be contributing
to runoff before rainfall ceases.

Rainfall distribution over the basin

Uniform areal distribution of rainfall over a basin is rarely observed in nature. Some
portion of the basin will receive rainfall which is much less than the average rainfall over
the basin while the remaining portion will receive rainfall which is more than the average
of the basin.
A large areal extent of the rainfall over the catchment produces large runoff.

27
 Surface water hydrology

- Heavy rainfalls in the lower portions of the basin will produce a runoff
hydrograph with a rapid rise and nearly peak discharge,
- while heavy rainfall in the upper portions will reverse the hydrograph trend
with a slow rise and late peak.
- On the other hand, rainfall distribution uniformly over the entire basin will
tend to produce increased base flow and consequently a long and slow
increase in the hydrograph.

Direction of storm movement

If a storm striking a long and narrow basin is moving in an upstream direction the runoff
contributed by the lower tributaries would have been already drained out by the time the
runoff from the middle and upper tributaries reaches the basin outlet and therefore less
peak discharge would be observed in this case.
When, on the other hand, the storm moves downstream the runoff peaks from the
individual tributaries are more likely to arrive at the basin outlet at approximately the
same time with the result the runoff peak will be many times more than in the case of
storm moving upstream.

Antecedent precipitation
The soil moisture conditions of the basin existing at the time of occurrence of storm
would greatly influence the runoff peak resulting from that storm. Even very intense rains
falling in late summer, when the soil moisture is at its least, rarely produce high
discharges because most of the water enters the soil moisture under the existing high
infiltration capacity rates and is held there.

Physiographic factors
- Land use: the manner in which a land is being used is called land use. Rain falling
over on a thick forest or vegetated area produces less runoff because of large
interception, transpiration and infiltration losses.
On the other hand, in urban areas, the losses are less and the runoff is more because of
paved areas (no infiltration).

28
 Surface water hydrology

In non forested areas the infiltration, interception and evaporation and

evapotranspiration losses are less and therefore high runoff rates are expected.

Type of soil
The type of soil has direct influence on its infiltration capacity rate and consequently it
also affects the runoff. Light textured soils (sandy soils) consists of coarser soil particles
and has large pore spaces  rapid absorption of water  less runoff potential.
Heavy textured soil (clay soils) have fine soil particles  small pore spaces  little
absorption of water  huge runoff volume.
Area of the basin
The area of the basin increases as the outlet point shifts downstream.
Area of the basin affects the peak flow and minimum flow in different ways.
- If all other factors including depth and intensity of rainfall remain constant in all
instances, the total runoff expressed as depth in cm over the basin will be
same for all the basins irrespective of their size.
- The total runoff expressed as volume will be more in the case of large basins
associated with higher peak discharges.
- As far as the minimum flow in the stream is concerned, the larger basins will
produce higher rates than smaller catchments. This is because after the
surface runoff ceases, the flow is entirely drawn from groundwater storage
which is large for larger basins,

Shape of the catchment

In approximately square or circular drainage basins the tributaries often tend to become
together and join the main stream near the center of the area.  Consequently, the
separate runoff peaks generated by heavy rainfall in the individual tributaries are likely to
reach the main stream in approximately the same locality and at approximately the same
time, thereby resulting in a large and rapid increase in the runoff.
On the other hand, if the basin is long and narrow the tributaries will tend to be relatively
short and are more likely to join the main stream at intervals along its length. This means
that after a heavy rainfall over the area the runoff peaks of the lower tributaries would

29
 Surface water hydrology

have left the catchment before the peaks of the upstream tributaries have reached the
basin outlet.
Elongated catchments are thus less subjected to high runoff peaks (see Fig. below).

Q Q
(m (m
3
/s) 3
/s)

Time Time
Fig. 2.3: Effect of catchment shape on runoff

In Fig. 5.4a, a catchment area with a carrot-shape has peak flow occurring earlier than
the catchment of type shown in Fig. 5.4 b. This is because a larger catchment area in
the latter case is contributing at the basin outlet. Depending on the shape, sometimes a
catchment may have a multi-peak runoff pattern (Fig. 5.4c), even though all the three
catchments may have the same area and characteristics.

30
 Surface water hydrology

a b c

A
Di Di
sch sch
arg arg
e e

Fig. 2.4: Affect of concentration of Basin Area on Flood Peak.

Slope
The slope of the catchment area is an important factor as it decides the relative
importance of infiltration, interflow and overland flow. A catchments having extensive flat
area gives rise to low peaks and less runoff whereas a catchment with steep slope
produces high peak flood.
Rate of infiltration from a flat catchment is more which affects the velocity of overland
flow. Therefore, the time of arrival of peak at the outlet is late and so is the total time of
runoff for such flat shaped catchment. The basin slope plays an important role in urban
hydrology where catchment is usually small. For a high intensity and long duration
storm, the effect may be less pronounced.

Storage Characteristics of the basin

The storage characteristics of the basin affects the runoff.

31
 Surface water hydrology

2.3 Methods of Runoff Computation

Determination of accurate runoff rate or volume from the watershed is a difficult task,
because runoff is dependant upon several factors related to watershed and atmosphere,
prediction of whom is not so easy. However, some common runoff estimation methods
are given below:
- Rainfall-Runoff Correlation
- Empirical Methods
- Rational Method
- Infiltration Indices method
- Hydrograph Method
2.1.3. Computation of Runoff using empirical formulae
Engineers recognized the importance of estimating the water availability from the
available hydrologic data for purpose of planning water-resource projects even in the
last century. With a keen sense of observation in the region of their activity, many
engineers of the past have developed empirical runoff estimation formulae. However,
these are applicable only to the region in which they have been developed.
Empirical formulas can be classified in different ways depending upon the basis
adopted. But they be considered under the following heads for the purpose of present
discussion
- Formulae that take area of the basin only into consideration
- Formulae that take one or more basin parameters apart from area and also
rainfall characteristics into consideration

These formulae are essentially rainfall-runoff relations with additional third or fourth
parameters to account for climatic or catchment characteristics. Some of the important
formulae are

- Runoff Coefficient Method

This method involves the estimation of runoff by multiplying the runoff coefficient to the
rainfall depth of the area. It is given by

32
 Surface water hydrology

R=CP
where, R = runoff, cm
C = Runoff coefficient, and P = Rainfall depth, cm
Runoff coefficient depends on factors affecting runoff. The values of runoff coefficient for
different land use conditions are given in the Tab. Below.

Table 5.1: Values of Runoff Coefficient (C)

S.No. Area C
1 Urban area covered by
(i) building 0.30
(ii) garden apartment 0.50
2 Commercial 6 industrial area 0.90
3 Forest area 0.50 to 0.20
4 Parks, Farms, Pastures 0.05 - 0.3
5 Asphalt or concrete pavement 0.85

- Formulae based on Area of the basin

There are several regression equation for predicting the runoff rate from the drainage
basins. The form of equation is given as under.

Q = CAn
where, Q = Peak flow for a given recurrence interval, (m3/s)
n,C = are constants, known as regression constants
A = Drainage area, (km2)

- Dicken's Formula: Q = C × A3 /4

- Admasu's Formaula (1989): Q = 0 . 87 ( A )0 . 70 for Ethiopian ba sin s

- Seleshi (2001): Q = 0 . 88 ( A )0 . 60 for Rift Valley region

- Khosla`s formula
R = P – 4.811 T (7)
Rm = Pm – Lm (8)

33
 Surface water hydrology

Lm = 0.48 Tm for Tm < 4.5 °C

For Tm < 4.5 0C
Tm (oC) 4.5 -1 -7 -12 -18
Lm 21 18 15 12.5 10
where R = annual runoff in mm
P = annual rainfall in mm
T = mean temperature in °C
Rm = monthly runoff in cm and Rm  0
Pm = monthly rainfall in cm
Lm = monthly loss in cm
Tm = mean monthly temperature of the catchment in °C.
Khosla’s formula is indirectly based on the water-balance concept and the mean
monthly catchment temperature is used to reflect the loss due to evapotranspiration.

Example: For a given catchment, the mean monthly rainfall and temperatures are given.
Calculate the annual runoff and annual runoff coefficient by Khosla`s formula.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
T (°C) 12 16 21 27 31 34 31 29 28 29 19 14
P (cm) 4 4 2 0 2 12 32 29 16 2 1 2

Solution
In Khosla`s formula (Eq. 8)
Rm = Pm – Lm
If the loss Lm is higher than Pm then Rm is taken to be zero.
The value of Rm calculated by Eq. 8 are

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Rm (cm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 17.1 15.1 2.6 0 0 0

Annual runoff = Total = 17.1 + 15.1 + 2.6 = 34.8 cm

Annual runoff 34 .8
Annual runoff coefficient = = = 0.30
Annual ra inf all 116

34
 Surface water hydrology

2.1.4 Rational Method

Among various types of empirical relations, rational formula is the most rational method
of calculating peak discharge for small catchments.
In this method, it is assumed that the maximum flood flow is produced by a certain
rainfall which lasts for a time equal to or greater than the period of concentration time.
This concentration time is the time required for the surface runoff from the remotest part
of the catchment area to reach the basin outlet.
When the storm continues beyond concentration time every part of the catchment would
be contributing to the runoff at outlet and therefore it represents conditions of peak
runoff. the runoff rate corresponding to this condition is given by
Q=C AI
where A is the area of the catchment, I is the intensity of rainfall and C a runoff
coefficient to account for the abstractions from the rainfall.
In this equation, if A and I are substituted in units of acres and inches/h, the runoff is
obtained in ft3/s without requiring any conversation factor. For this reason it is called the
rational formula.
 The formula is called rational because of the units of the quantities considered being
numerically constant.

However, in SI system of units when A is in km 2 and I is in cm/h, the runoff rate is given
by
Q = 2.778 C A I
The maximum rainfall intensity depends on duration and frequency. The intensity of
rainfall used in the equation above should therefore be corresponding to duration equal
to concentration time and desired return period.

35
 Surface water hydrology

This requires an estimate of concentration time which is usually provided by an empirical

equation given by Kirpich (1940).

t c = 0 . 02 L0 . 77 S−0 . 385
where tc is time of concentration in min, L is the maximum length of travel of water along
the water course in m and S is the slope expressed as the ratio of difference in elevation
between the remotest point and the catchment outlet to the length L.
Once the concentration time has been determined, the rainfall intensity can be
determined using the intensity-duration-frequency relation applicable to the catchment
area in question using eq.
CT
rd
i= b
( t + a)
Where Tr is the return period in years and C and d are regression constants for a given
location

Once the rainfall intensity and catchment area have been obtained, a runoff coefficient
applicable to the given design condition is selected from the table below and the peak
runoff estimated from the rational formula.

Runoff coefficient is the ration of peak runoff rate to the rainfall intensity.
Its values are assigned on the basis of land use and soil type (Tab. 1). When the
watershed has different features regarding land use and soil types, then weighted value
of runoff coefficient is determined. For example:
Let, if a watershed area is divided into five sub-parts on the basis of soil type and land
use practice adopted, having the area a1, a2, a3, a4 and a5 and the value of runoff
coefficient is C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5, respectively for the five sub-watersheds.

Then the value of weighted runoff coefficient (C) is given by:

C 1 a1 + C 2 a2 + C 3 a 3 + C 4 a 4 + C 5 a5
C=
a 1 + a2 + a 3 + a4 + a5
n
∑ C i ai
i=1
C= 36
A
 Surface water hydrology

In which, A is the total area of watershed.

Table: Values of C as a function of land use, topography and soil type for
use in rational Method
Land use and Soil Types
topography Sandy loam Clay and siltloam Tight clay
Cultivated land
i) Flat 0.30 0.50 0.60
ii) Rolling 0.4 0.60 0.70
iii) Hilling 0.52 0.70 0.82
Pasture land
i) Flat 0.10 0.30 0.40
ii) Rollin 0.16 0.36 0.55
iii) Hilling 0.22 0.42 0.60
Forest land
i) Flat 0.10 0.30 0.40
ii) Hilling 0.30 0.50 0.60
Populated land
i) Flat 0.40 0.55 0.65
ii) Rolling 0.50 0.65 0.80

Example 1: Compute the value of weighted runoff coefficient of watershed from the
following data regarding watershed characteristics.

Land use and Cultivated land Pasture land Populated

topography Flat, sandy soil Rolling and sandy land
soil flat,, sandy soil
Area (ha) 100 30 75
Solution
Using the weighted runoff coefficient formula

C 1 a1 + C 2 a2 + C 3 a 3
C=
a 1 + a2 + a 3
In which, the values of C1 are obtained from the above table, for a given land use and
topographical feature of the watershed. The calculation is shown in the following table.

Land use/ topography Area (ha) C Computation

1. Cultivated land + flat
topography + sandy soil 100 0.30 C 1 a 1 + C 2 a 2 + C 3 a3
C=
2. Pasture land + rolling a1 + a 2 + a3
topography + sandy soil 30 0.16 100 × 0.30 + 30 × 0.16 + 75 × 0.40
=
100 + 30 75
37 = 0.32
 Surface water hydrology

3. Populated land + flat

topography + sandy 75 0.40
loam soil

Example 2: An engineer is required to design a drainage system for an airport with an

area of 2.5 km2 for 50 years return period. The 50-year rainfall intensity in that region is
given by
35
I=
( t + 10 )0. 38

where I is intensity in cm/h and t is duration in minutes.

If the concentration time for the area is estimated as 50 minutes, what is discharge that
must be used to design the system?

Solution
Concentration time tc = 50 min
35 35 35
I= = = = 7 .384 cm/h
Intensity of rainfall for this duration = ( t + 10 )0. 38 60 0. 38 4 . 74
Since the airport is fully paved, it may be considered impervious and the runoff
coefficient C may be taken as unity. Therefore

Q = 2.778 CAI = 2.778 × 1 × 2.5 × 7.384 = 51.25 m3 / s

Therefore the engineer must design the drainage system for a discharge of 51.28 m3/s.

Example 3: A culvert is proposed across stream drainage an area of 185 ha. The
catchment has a slope of 0.004 and the length of travel for water is 1150 m. Estimate
the 25-year discharge if the rainfall intensity is given by
1000 Tr 0 . 2
I=
( t + 20 )0 .7
where I is in mm/h, Tr is in years and t is in minutes. Assume a runoff coefficient of 0.35.

Solution
L = 1150 m
S = 0.004

38
 Surface water hydrology

t c = 0 . 0195 ( 1150 )0 . 77 ( 0. 004 )−0. 385 = 37 . 2 min utes

1000 ( 25 )0. 2
I = = 112. 05 mm /h = 11.205 cm/h
( 37 . 2 + 20 )0. 7
A = 185 ha = 1.85 km2
C = 0.35

Q = 2.778 × 0.35 × 1.85 × 11.205 = 20.12 m3 /s

Since the above relationship does not give the accurate estimate for the small
watershed smaller than 5 sq. km. Haan et al (1982) proposed another relationship. He
justified that, small watersheds are mainly dominated by overland flow rather than
channel flow. Incorporating this effect, he formulated the following equation for
computing the time of concentration which is basically the addition of overland flow
component in the above equation.

[ ]
0. 467
0. 77 −0. 385 2 L0 √n
T c = 0 . 02 L ⋅S +
S0
where, L0 = length of overland flow, m
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (Tab.)
S0 = Slope along the flow path, m/m
Table 2.3: Value of Mannings Roughness Coefficient (n)
S.No. Surface condition Value of n
1 Smooth and impervious surface 0.02
2 Smooth and bare surface 0.12
3 Cultivated row crops 0.20
4 Pasture or average grassed 0.40
surface
5 Forest area with dense grass 0.80
cover
To find intensity of rainfall I at a place, any of the following formulae can be used
depending on their suitability.

39
 Surface water hydrology

Table 2.4: Equations for Computation of Maximum Intensity of a Storm

Equation Condition of its use Proposed by
I = 30.48/ t0.5 Applicable for ordinary to sever C.E. Gregory
storms
I = 15.24/ t0.5 Applicable to winter storm C.E. Gregory
I = 81.25/ t0.8 Applicable to storm of max. Intensity C.E. Gregory
I = (348/ t)0.5 For storm expected each year E.W.Clark
I = (1045/ t)0.5 For storm expected once in 8 years E.W. Clark
I = (2090/ t)0.5 For storm expected once in 15 years E.W.Clark
I = 98.4/ t0.687 Storms of maximum intensity Sherman
I = 63.8/ t0.687 Applicable to ordinary storms Sherman
where I is the intensity of rainfall (mm/h), t the time (min).
If there is no self-recording rain gauge, then the following formula can be used to obtain
the maximum intensity of the storm that is likely to occur during an interval of any one
hour within the storm duration.
F 1
I= +
2 t
where I is the maximum intensity of rainfall in mm/h, F the total rainfall of the storm in
mm and t is the duration of the storm in h.

Assumption of rational Method

The rational formula was developed, using the following assumptions:
1. Rainfall occurs with a uniform intensity for the duration atleast equal to the time of
concentration of the catchment area, and
2. The rainfall intensity is uniformly distributed throughout the catchment.
If the above two assumptions are satisfied for any storm, then the relationship between
rainfall and runoff produced by the catchment, may be presented in the graphical form,
shown in the Fig., which indicates that, any specified storm having uniform intensity, if
occurred for the duration greater than time of concentration, the rate of runoff yield is
less than the peak value, because rainfall intensity is reduced for greater duration.

40
 Surface water hydrology

Similarly, a storm occurring for the duration less than T c, the resulting runoff would also
be less than the peak value, as in this condition, all parts of watershed are not able to
yield the discharge to the outlet, simultaneously.

R
ai
nf
all Rainfall intensity, i
in
te
ns
it Peak runoff rate
y
an
d
ru Tc Time, hour
no
Fig. Relationship between rainfall and runoff

Example: An outlet is to be designed for a small town covering 12 km 2, of which road area is
30 %, residential area is 50 % and the rest is industrial area. The slope of the catchment is 0.005
and the maximum length of the town measured on the map is 1.6 km. From depth duration
analysis for the catchment, the following informations are obtained.

Rainfall duration (min) 30 40 50

Rainfall depth (mm) 30 40 44

Solution
Time of concentration can be calculated from Kirpich equation
tc = 0.02 L0.77 S-0.385 = 0.00  16000.77  0.005-0.385 = 45 min

Rainfall for tc = 45 min is computaed by interpolating data given in the problem.

41
 Surface water hydrology

i.e. 40 45 50
40 ? 44
50 − 40 44 − 40 10 4
= =
45 − 40 ? − 40  5 ? − 40  10 ( ? − 40 ) = 20  10 ? − 400 = 20  ? = 42 mm
 I = 42 mm within 45 min = 56 mm/h
From Table 5.2, C for road is 0.8, for residential area is 0.40 and for industrial area is
0.20.

0 .8 ( 0.3 × 12 ) + 0 . 4 ( 0. 5 × 12 ) + 0 . 2 ( 0.2 × 12 )
∴ Composite C =
12

= 0.24 + 0.20 + 0.04 = 0.48

0 . 48 × 56 × 12
QP = = 89 .6 m3 /s
 3. 6

Limitation of Rational Formula

1. The formula is applicable to small catchments. The watershed can be maximum
upto 50 km2.
2. Duration of rainfall intensity should be more than the time of concentration of the
basin.
3. It gives the peak of the hydrograph but does not provide the complete
hydrograph.
4. It plots a straight-line relation between Q p and I with intercept zero whereas
nature does not follow such a simple equation.
5. Rainfall intensity must be constant over the entire watershed during the time of
concentration.
6. Coefficient C is assumed to be same for all storms which means the losses are
constant for all storms.

42
 Surface water hydrology

2.1.4. Infiltration Indices Method

Infiltration may be defined as the entry of water into the soil. The capacity of any soil to
absorb the rainwater falling continuously at an excessive rate goes on decreasing with
the unit a minimum infiltration rate is reached. The trend of infiltration curve is shown in
Fig. below. When rainfall and infiltration rate are plotted on the same graph paper, then
the area between rainfall and infiltration curve indicates the excess rainfall, responsible
for making the runoff yield.
While area lying below the infiltration curve, represents the loss of rainfall due to
infiltration as shown in Fig. This loss varies greatly in the early of the rainfall and
subsequently decreases with the advancement of rainfall duration.

Infitr
ation
rate Rainfall
and
rainfa Runoff
ll
intens
ity Infiltration

Time
Fig. Relationship between runoff and infiltration

This method is suitable for estimating the runoff, especially from large watershed areas
having uniform infiltration characteristics. It is done by subtracting the infiltration loss
from the total rainfall amount, termed as infiltration indices method.
Infiltration Index
It is defined as the average rate of loss of water, such that the volume of rainfall excess
is being equal to the direct runoff. The infiltration indices are of the following two types
1. -index and
2. W-index
-  - index

43
 Surface water hydrology

It can be defined as the rate of rainfall, above which the volume of rainfall is being to be
the volume of runoff, shown in the Fig. below. Mathematically, -index may be
expressed as:
Total ba sin rech arge
φ−index =
Ra inf all disch arg e
This approach is applicable, when rainfall intensity is in excess of -index, continuously.
The method assumes that, the less runoff is formed at the beginning of the storm and
too much at the end of storm, due to the fact that rate of surface retention and infiltration
goes on decreasing with the time. The -index is also known as retention rate rather
than infiltration index.

- W-index: is also known as average infiltration rate, defined as the value of average
infiltration rate during the storm, when rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
(i.e. maximum infiltration rate). It is given as
F P−Q−S
W −index = =
tr Tr
where, F = total amount of water lost through infiltration
tr = time during which rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
P = Total rainfall amount occurring during tr
Q = Amount of surface runoff
S = Amount of water retained through surface retention

In very wet condition, when infiltration rate of the soil becomes equal to the infiltration
capacity and surface retention is at minimum level, and then the value of W-index and -
index are, almost become same. In this condition W-index is known as Wmin-index.
Rainfall intensity

Runoff

44


Time
 Surface water hydrology

Fig. Relationship between -index and runoff

Example: The rainfall rates for successive 30-minutes interval up to 3-hours are given
as under. Calculate the -index and W-indices, assuming that surface runoff is 3.6 cm.
Time (minute) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Rainfall rate (cm/s) 0 1.6 3.6 5.0 2.8 2.2 1.0
Solution:
1. Computation of -index
2. Let ‘I’ is the rainfall intensity. Then surface runoff = ( I - )  t
Total runoff =  ( I - )  t
Thus, substituting the value of ‘I’ and ‘t’, we have,

[ 3. 6 ( 3 . 6 − φ ) + ( 5 − φ ) + ( 2. 8 − φ ) + ( 2.2 − φ )
30
60 ]
 = 1.6 cm/h
Computation of W-index

30
P = ( 1 .6 + 3.6 + 5.0 + 2.8 + 2.2 + 1.0 ) × = 8 .1 cm
60
Q = 3.6 cm
S=0
Tr = 3 hour = 180 minutes

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 Surface water hydrology

3. Hydrograph
A hydrograph is the graphical representation of the instantaneous discharge of a stream plotted with time
(see Fig. 3.1). It includes the integrated contributions from surface runoff, groundwater seepage, and drainage
and channel precipitation. The shape of a hydrograph of a single storm occurring over the drainage area
follows a general pattern. This pattern shows a period of rise that culminates in a peak, followed by a period
of decreasing discharge (called precession) which may, or may not, decrease to zero discharge, depending on
the amount of groundwater flow.
The hydrograph has two main components, a broad band near the time axis representing baseflow
contributed from groundwater, and the remaining area above the baseflow, the surface runoff, which is
produced by the storm. The peak of the hydrograph is reached after the effective rainfall has reached its
maximum. The time difference between the maximum effective rainfall intensity and the maximum runoff is
called the time lag.
The boundary between surface runoff and baseflow is difficult to define and depends strongly on the
geological structure and composition of the catchment. Permeable aquifers, such as limestone and sandstone
strata, react much faster than impervious clays. During the course of an individual rainfall event, the baseflow
component continues to fall even after river levels have begun to rise, and only when the storm rainfall has
had the time to percolate down to the water table does the baseflow component begin to increase.
Since baseflow represents the discharge of aquifers, changes occur slowly and there is a lag between cause
and effect that can easily extend to periods of days or weeks. This will depend on the transmissivity of the
aquifers bordering the stream and the climate.
Depending upon the unit of time involved, we have:
a) Annual hydrographs showing the variation of daily or weekly or 10 daily mean flows over a year;
b) Monthly hydrographs showing the variation of daily mean flows over a month;
c) Seasonal hydrographs depicting the variation of the discharge in a particular season such as the monsoon
season or dry season; and
d) Flood hydrographs or hydrographs due to a storm representing stream flow due to a storm over a
catchment.
Each of these types has particular applications, Annual and seasonal hydrographs are of use in (i) calculating
the surface water potential of stream, (ii) reservoir studies and (iii) drought studies. Flood hydrographs are
essential in analyzing stream characteristics associated with floods.
A study of the annual hydrographs of streams enables one to classify streams into three classes as (i)
perennial, (ii) intermittent and (iii) ephemeral.
A perennial stream is one which always caries some flow, there is considerable amount of groundwater flow
throughout the year. Even during dry seasons the water table will be able to reach the bed of the stream.
An intermittent stream has limited contribution from the groundwater. During the wet season the water table
is above the streambed and there is a contribution of the base flow to the stream flow. However, during dry
seasons the water table drops to a level lower than that of the streambed and the stream dries up. Excepting

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 Surface water hydrology

for an occasional storm, which can produce a short-duration flow, the stream remains dry for the most part of
the dry months.
An ephemeral stream is one, which does not have any base-flow contribution. The annual hydrograph of such a
river show series of short duration peaks marking flash flows in response to storms. The stream becomes dry
soon after the end of the storm flow. Typically an ephemeral stream does not have any well-defined channel.
Most rivers in arid zones are of the ephemeral kind
3.1 Unit Hydrograph
3.1.1 Definition
 The unit hydrograph was first introduced by Sherman in 1932 as unit-graph, where “unit” referred
originally to unit of time; later “unit” was interpreted as a unit depth of rainfall.
 The unit hydrograph of a watershed is defined as a direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) resulting from

–1 cm or 1mm depth of excess rainfall,

– generated uniformly over the drainage area,
– At a constant rate for an effective duration.

Figure 2.1: Unit Hydrograph

 Unit hydrograph is a simple linear model that can be used to derive the hydrograph resulting from
any amount of excess rainfall.
 The unit hydrograph is a “transfer” mechanism for transforming excess precipitation into stream
flow.
 UHG represent direct surface runoffbase flow (ground water) must be removed

3.1.2Unit Hydrograph Principles

Principle of time invariance
 There is a unique unit hydrograph for a given watershed that is invariable with respect to time.
 Principles of linear system analysis
 Also known as “principles of superposition and proportionality” commonly used in electrical
circuits
 Allow runoff to be linearly proportional to rainfall
 Allow computation of direct runoff hydrograph ordinates from the “discrete convolution”
equation (Eq. 7.2.15) for a linear system

--------------------------------------------2.1
 Linearity of unit hydrograph
 Unit hydrograph theory assumes that the watershed responds uniformly(i.e. meaning that
peak flow from 2 cm of excess rainfall will be twice that of 1cm of excess rainfall

Five Assumptions of the Unit Hydrograph

1. Excess rainfall has a constant intensity within the effective duration.
 Applicable to short duration storms.
2. The excess rainfall intensity is uniformly distributed throughout the whole drainage area.

47
 Surface water hydrology

 Not applicable for very large watersheds

 Large areas might not be covered by uniform rainfall distribution
 Subdivide very large watersheds into smaller sub basins
3. The base time (duration) of direct runoff hydrograph resulting from an excess rainfall of given duration is
constant.
 Base time depends on method of base flow separation

Figure 2.2: Base flow Separation

4. The ordinates of all direct runoff hydrographs of a common base time are directly proportional to the total
amount of direct runoff represented by each hydrograph.
.. System is linear: principles of superposition and proportionality are valid
.. Discrete convolution equation (Eqn. 7.2.15) is valid
.. Actual hydrologic data are not truly linear. Application of Eqn.7.2.15 gives an approximate
hydrograph, which is satisfactory in many practical cases.

5. For a given watershed, the hydrograph resulting from a given excess rainfall reflects the unchanging
characteristics of the watershed.
.. Principle of time invariance is applicable.
.. There is a unique unit hydrograph for a given watershed.
APPLICATIONS
 The above assumptions cannot be perfectly satisfied under natural conditions. However, if input
hydrologic data are accurate, model results are generally accurate for practical purpose.
 Method originally designed for large watersheds but has been found to be applicable to small
watersheds (0.5 hectares to 25 km2 or 1 acre to 10 mi2)
LIMITATIONS
Unit hydrographs are valid only when:
 Channel conditions remain unchanged
 Watersheds do not have appreciable storage
Unit hydrographs are not valid when:
 Watershed has many reservoirs
 Flood overflows into the floodplain (which provides considerable storage)
 Runoff is from snow or ice melt

3.1.3 Derivation of the Unit Hydrograph from single storms

The derivation of the unit hydrograph of a catchment from single storms proceeds in the following stages:

48
 Surface water hydrology

1. The rainfall records are scanned to find a storm of desired duration that gives a fairly uniform
distribution in time and space. The hyetograph of this storm is constructed using a convenient uniform
interval of time.
2. The base flow is separated from the hydrograph using one of the methods
3. The surface runoff volume is determined as a depth of flow by numerical integration.
3.6 ∆ t ∑ Q
d= ----------------------------------------------------------2.2
A
Where,
d = depth of surface runoff in mm
Δt = uniform time interval in hours at which the ordinates of
the surface runoff are measured
ΣQ = sum of all ordinates of surface runoff hydrograph in m3/s
A = catchment area in Km2
4. The ordinates of the surface runoff hydrograph are divided by the runoff depth d due to the ordinates of
the unit hydrograph.
5. The unit hydrograph for effective rainfall of duration T, the TUH, is plotted, and the area under the curve
is checked to see if the enclosed volume is equivalent to unit effective rainfall over the area of catchment.

3.1.4 Unit Hydrograph Derivation for Composite storm (Deconvolution method)

 The procedure of deriving a storm hydrograph from an excess rainfall hyetograph using a given unit
hydrograph
 As easy as 1-2-3
1) Multiply unit hydrograph ordinates by rainfall excess.
2) Lag by the duration of unit hydrograph.
3) Add.
 Add and lag multiple hydrographs in sequence to obtain storm hydrographs
 The discrete convolution equation allows the computation of direct runoff Q n, given excess rainfall
Pm and the unit hydrograph Un-m+1
Convolution Application
 Time increment of excess rainfall should be equal to the duration of the unit hydrograph.
 To estimate a 0.5 hour unit hydrograph, excess rainfall hyetograph time increment should
also be 0.5 hour (Ex.7.4.1)

Convolution Equation
The governing equation for storm hydrograph in discrete form is called the convolution equation
Qn = P1.Un + P2.Un-1 + P3.Un-2 + ….. PnU1---------------------------2.3

Where

49
 Surface water hydrology

Qn = Ordinate of storm hydrograph

Pm = Ordinate of excess rainfall hyetograph
Un-m+1 = Ordinate of unit hydrograph
M = Number of excess rainfall hyetograph increments
n≤M means m = 1, 2, ….., n for n≤M
m = 1, 2… M for n>M

 Time intervals for rainfall

 Time intervals for flow
 Rainfall during m-th time interval
 Stream flow at end of n-th time interval
 If, M = Number of excess rainfall hyetograph increments (ordinates)
J = Number of non-zero unit hydrograph increments (ordinates)
N = Number of non-zero storm hydrograph increments (ordinates)
Then,
N=M+J–1

The reverse process is called Deconvolution is needed to derive UH given data a on Pm and Qn. For example if
you are given with m=3 and n=10 then N-m+1=8  you have 8 Uh ordinates. You can use table as follows to
find the relation between Q, P and U at any point.

Activity 2.1
1. What is the basic concept behind Unit Hydrograph?
2. Does the workability of Unit Hydrograph depend on the stability of the
river cross section at which the stream flow data is measured? Why?
3. To be in the limitation boundaries of the unit hydrograph, what is it you
have to do for each assumption?
4. When developing UH we use rainfall and stream flow data’s. But in reality
since the way of representing data (pulse data representation for stream
2.1 Unitflow
Hydrographs for Different
and sample dataRainfall Durations for rainfall data) and also has
representation
When UH of a given excess rainfall duration is available, the UH other durations can be derived. If other
different dimensions (rainfall in mm, cm, but Stream flow is in m3/s). How
durations are integral multiple of the given duration, the UH can be easily computed by application of
principle of is it possible to
proportionality andrelate
superthem?
position. However a general method of derivation applicable to UH of
any required duration may be used on the basis of principles of super position. This is the S-Hydrograph
method. The theoretical S-hydrograph is that resulting from a continuous excess rainfall at a constant rate of
1cm/hr for definite period. This is unit step response function of a watershed system.
The curve assumes a deformed S-shape and its ordinate ultimately approach the rate of excess rainfall at a
time of equilibrium. This step response function g(t) can be derived from a unit pulse response function h(t)
of the UH as follows.
 The response at time t to a unit pulse ∆t beginning at time t=0 is
h (t) = (1/∆t) [g (t)-g (t-∆t)]
 The response at time t to a unit pulse beginning at time ∆t is equal to h(t-∆t) that is lagged by time ∆t
unit.
h(t-∆t) = (1/∆t)[g(t-∆t)-g(t-2∆t)]

50
 Surface water hydrology

 The response at time t to third unit pulse beginning at time ∆t is equal to

h(t-2∆t) = (1/∆t)[g(t-2∆t)-g(t-3∆t)]

Continuing this process indefinitely, summing the resulting equation and rearranging yields the unit step
response function or S-hydrograph.
g(t) = ∆t[h(t)+h(t-∆t)+h(t-2∆t)+………]-------------------------------------2.4
After S-hydrograph is constructed, the unit hydrograph of a given duration can be computed as follows
 Advance or offset the position of S-hydrograph by a period equal to desired duration ∆t’ and
call this hydrograph an offset S-hydrograph, g’(t), defined by
g’(t) = g(t-∆t)
 The difference between ordinates of the original S-hydrograph, divided by ∆t’ gives the
desired UH
h’(t) = (1/∆t)[g(t)- g(t-∆t’)]-----------------------------------------2.5

Figure 2. 3: S-Hydrograph

Activity 2.2
1. What do you think are the advantages of S-Hydrograph?
2. We have seen that unit hydrograph is the unit pulse response function and S- hydrograph
2.2 Synthetic Unit
is the step Hydrograph
response function. What is the difference between the two?
The UH developed from rainfall and stream flow data on a watershed applies only for that watershed and for
the point on stream where the stream flow data where measured. Synthetic UH procedures are used to
develop UH for other locations on the stream in the same watershed or nearby watershed of similar character.
There are three types of synthetic UH.
i. Snyder’s synthetic UH
ii. SCS Dimensionless UH
iii. Those based on models of watershed storage.

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 Surface water hydrology

3.2 Snyder’s synthetic UH

This method relates the hydrograph characteristics (peak flow, rate, base time, etc) to watershed
characteristics. From relations, five characteristics of a required UH for a given excess rainfall duration may be
calculated.
 The peak discharge per unit watershed area, qPR
 The basin lag tPR (time difference between the centroid of excess rainfall hyetograph and the UH peak)
 Base time,tb
 The width W(in time unit) of the UH at 50% and 75% of the peak discharge

Using these characteristics the required UH may be drawn.

 Snyder’s defined the standard UH as one whose rainfall duration tr is related to basin lag tp by

tp = 5.5 tr---------------------------------------------2.6
For Standard UH Snyder’s found that
1. The basin lag ,tp is
tp = C1Ct(LLc)0.3-------------------------------------------------2.7
Where: L- length of the mainstream in km from the outlet to the upstream divide.
Lc- is the distance in km, from the outlet to a point on the stream nearest
to the centroid of the watershed.
C1-is a constant equal to 0.75
Ct- coefficient derived from gauged watersheds in the same region
2. The peak discharge per unit drainage area in m3/s.km2 of the standard UH is
C2 C p
q p= --------------------------------------2.8
tp
Where; C2 is a constant equal to 2.75 and Cp –is coefficient derived from gauged watersheds in same
region.
 To compute the Ct and Cp for gauged watershed, the value of L and L c are measured from the
basin map. From derived UH of the watershed we can obtain values of its effective duration
tR in hours, its basin lag tPR in hours and its peak discharge per unit area, qPR in m3/s.km2.
 If tPR=5.5tR then tR=tr  tP=tPR and qP=qPR and Ct and Cp are computed from above equations.
t r −t R
 If tPR is quite different from 5.5tR, the standard basin lag is t p=t PR + and equation tP
4
=5.5tR are solved simultaneously for tr and tP.
3. The relationship between qP and qPR of required UH is
qp tp
q PR = ----------------------------------2.9
t PR
4. The base time,tb (hr) of the UH can be determined using the fact the area under UH is equivalent to
direct runoff of 1cm. Assuming triangular shape for the UH, the base time may be estimated by
C3
t b= ------------------------------------2.10
q PR
5. The width in hours of UH at discharge equal to a certain percent of the peak discharge qPR is given by
−1.08
W =C w q PR -------------------------------2.11
Where Cw =1.22 for 75% and Cw= 2.14 for 50%
 Usually 1/3 of this width is distributed before the UH peak time and 2/3 after the peak time

52
 Surface water hydrology

Figure 2.4: Snyder’s Synthetic UH

3.2.1 SCS Dimensionless UH
The SCS dimensionless hydrograph is a synthetic UH in which the discharge is expressed in the ratio of q to
peak discharge qp and time by the ratio of time t to the peak time of UH,T p. Given the peak discharge and lag
time for the duration of excess rainfall, the UH can be estimated from the synthetic dimensionless hydrograph
for the given basin. The value of q p and Tp may be estimated using simplified model of triangular UH. From
review of large number of UH, SCS suggests that the time of recession may be approximated as 1.67T p. As the
CA
area under the UH should be equal to direct runoff of 1cm, it can be shown that. q p=
Tp
--------------------------------------------------2.12
Where C= a constant equal to 2.08 and A= drainage are in km2
Further study of UH of many large and small rural watersheds indicates that the basin lag t p≅ 0.67Tc where Tc
is the time of concentration.

53
 Surface water hydrology

Figure 2.5: Dimensionless UH

3.3 Instantaneous unit Hydrograph (IUH)

For a given catchment a number of unit hydrographs of different durations are possible. The shape of these
different UHs depends upon the value of D. As the value of D is reduced, the intensity of rainfall excess being
equal to 1/D increases and the unit hydrograph becomes more skewed. A finite UH is indicated as the
duration Do. The limiting case of a unit hydrograph of zero duration is known as instantaneous unit
hydrograph (IUH). This IUH is a fictitious, conceptual UH which represent the direct runoff from the
catchment due to an instantaneous precipitation of the rainfall excess volume of 1 unit (cm). IUH is
represented by U (t) or sometimes by U (0, t). It is a single-peaked hydrograph with a finite base width and its
important properties being:

1. 0 ≤ u ≤ u(t) a positive value, for t > o;

2. u(t) =0 for t ≤0;
3. u(t) → = 0 for t → ∞;
❑
4. ∫ U ( t ) dt=Unit depth
the
catchment∧¿ ¿ .
0
5. Time to peak = time to the centroid of the curve.

54
 Surface water hydrology

Figure 2.6: Unit hydrograph of different duration

Figure 2.7: Convolution of I(t) of IUH

Consider an effective rainfall I(t) of duration t0 applied to a catchment as shown in figure 2.7;Each
infinitesimal element of the ERH will operate on the IUH to produce a DRH whose discharge at time t is given
by:

---------------------------------------------------2.13
If t’ = t when t< t0
If t’ = t0 when t>=t0
Equation (2.13) is called the convolution integral. The main advantage of IUH is that, it is independent of the
duration of ERH and thus has one parameter less than a D-h unit hydrograph. This fact and the definition of
IUH make it eminently suitable for theoretical analysis of excess-runoff relationship of a catchment. For a

55
 Surface water hydrology

given catchment IUH, being independent of rainfall characteristics, is indicative of the catchment storage
characteristics.
Derivation of IUH: As dt is made smaller and smaller, i.e., as dt0 an IUH results.

------------------------------------------------2.14
If I = 1, then u(t) = ds’/dt = slope of S-curve of intensity 1 and 2 of unit depth Derivation of D-hour UH from
IUH From ds’ = u(t)dt, integrating between two points 1 and 2

--------------------------------------------------------------2.15
If u(t) is linear within the range 1 to 2, then for small values of Ät (t2 –t1) by taking:

---------------------------------------------2.16
But (S’2-S’1)/ (t2-t1) = ordinate of a unit hydrograph of duration D1 = (t2 –t1). Thus, in general terms, for
small values of D1, the ordinates of a D1, the ordinates of a D1-hour UH are obtained by the equation:

-----------------------------------------2.17
Activity 2.3
1. What do you think about the performances of synthetic unit hydrograph
with respect to the actual characteristics’ of the catchments they are
developed for?
2. How
2.3 Solved the IUH expresses the response of a given catchment?
Examples
Example 2.1: The 1-h 1 mm unit hydrograph for a small catchment is given in the Table 1 below. Determine
the peak of the hydrograph that should result from the following storm: 5 mm in the first hour, no rain in the
next 30 min, and 8 mm of rain in the next final hour. Assume a loss rate of 3 mmh-1 in the first hour and 2
mmh-1 for the remainder of the storm

Table 1
Time (h) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Flow (m3/s) 0 0.9 3.0 5.5 4.3 3.0 1.9 1.0 0.4 0

Solution
If we draw the data given for 1-h UH it looks like as it is shown below. Always when we draw certain UH we
have to express its duration over the graph.

56
 Surface water hydrology

 We can find the effective rainfall which produces the direct runoff as follows

57
 Surface water hydrology

Example 3.2: During a notable storm, rainfall measurements were made at five stations in a particular river
catchment. Given the ordinates of the 5-h (1mm) unit hydrograph shown in Table 2 below, derive the outflow
hydrograph of the storm for the gauging station at the river outlet, assuming 80% of the total precipitation is
lost at a constant rate.

Table 2

Solution

58
 Surface water hydrology

Example 3.3:An acceptable 1-h unit hydrograph (10 mm) has been derived for a catchment. Its ordinates are
shown in Table 3. What is the approximate area of the catchment? Determine the peak flow that would result
from a storm whose effective rainfall, assumed over the whole catchment, and is given in Table 4.
Table 3

Table 4

59
 Surface water hydrology

Solution

From this the approximate area of the catchment = 35.28 sq. km.

Example3.4: The ordinates of the 1-h unit hydrograph of a catchment area are summarized in Table 5 below.
a) Derive the S-Curve for the catchment
b) Use the S-Curve to obtain the 2-h unit hydrograph; and
c) Forecast the peak runoff that would result from storm in which the effective rainfall totals in two
consecutive 2-h periods were 20 mm and 5 mm.

Table 5

Solution

60
 Surface water hydrology

a) Derive the S-Curve for the catchment

b) Use the S-Curve to obtain the 2-h unit hydrograph

61
 Surface water hydrology

C) Forecast the peak runoff that would result from storm in which the effective rainfall totals in two
consecutive 2-h periods were 20 mm and 5 mm.

62
Surface water hydrology

63
 Surface water hydrology

4.Design Flood
4.1 General

Water resource systems must be planned for future events for which no exact
time of occurrence can be forecasted. Hence, the hydrologist must give a
statement of the probability of the stream flows (or other hydrologic factors) will
equal or exceed (or be less than) a specified value. These probabilities are
important to the economic and social evaluation of a project. In most cases,
absolute control of the floods or droughts is impossible. Planning to control a
flood of a specific probability recognizes that a project will be overtaxed
occasionally and damages will be incurred. However, repair of the damages
should be less costly in the long run than building initially to protect against the
worst possible event. The planning goal is not to eliminate all floods but to
reduce the frequency of flooding, and hence the resulting damages. If the socio-
economic analysis is to be correct, the probability of flooding must be eliminated
accurately. For major projects, the failure of which seriously threatens human
life, a more extreme event, the probable maximum flood, has become the
standard for designing the spillway. This chapter deals with techniques for
defining probability from a given set of data and with special methods employed
for determining design flood for major hydraulic structures.

Frequency analysis is the hydrologic term used to describe the probability of

occurrence of a particular hydrologic event (e.g. rainfall, flood, drought, etc.).
Therefore, basic knowledge about probability (e.g. distribution functions) and
statistics (e.g. measure of location, measure of spread, measure of skewness,
etc) is essential. Frequency analysis usually requires recorded hydrologic data.

Hydrological data are recorded either as a continuous record (e.g. water level or
stage, rainfall, etc.) or in discrete series form (e.g. mean daily/monthly/annual
flows or rainfall, annual series, partial series, etc.).

For planning and designing water resources development projects, the important
parameters are river discharges and related questions on the frequency &
duration of normal flows (e.g. for hydropower production or for water availability)
and extreme flows (floods and droughts).

The question that a civil engineer would ask a hydrologist concerning normal
flows is the length of time (duration) that a certain river flow is expected to be
exceeded. An answer to this question is provided by the flow duration curve
(FDC) that is the relationship between any given discharge and the percentage
of time that the discharge is exceeded. The FDC only applies for the period for

64
 Surface water hydrology

which it was derived. If this is a long period, say more than 10 to 20 years, the
FDC may be regarded as a probability curve, which may be used to estimate the
percentage of time that a specified discharge will be equalled or exceeded in the
future.
4.2 Flood Frequency Analysis
Apart from normal flow frequency, hydrologists are also interested in the
occurrence of extreme events. Hydrologic processes such as floods are
exceedingly complex natural events. They are resultants of a number of
component parameters and are therefore very difficult to model analytically. For
example, the floods in a catchment depend upon the characteristics of the
catchment; rainfall and antecedent conditions, each one of these factors in turn
depend upon a host of constituent parameters. This makes the estimation of the
flood peak a very complex problem leading to many different approaches. The
empirical formulae, the unit hydrograph methods are some of the methods for
estimation. Another approach to the prediction of flood flows, and also applicable
to other hydrologic processes such as rainfall etc. is the statistical method of
frequency analysis.

There are two data series of floods (peak flows):

(i) The annual series, and
(ii) The partial duration series.

The annual series constitutes the data series that the values of the single
maximum daily/monthly/annually discharge in each year of record so that the
number of data values equals the record length in years. For statistical purposes,
it is necessary to ensure that the selected peak discharges are independent of
one another. However as the interest is limited to relatively rare events, the
analysis could have been carried out for a partial duration series.

The partial duration series constitutes the data series with those values that
exceed some arbitrary level. All the peaks above a selected level of discharge (a
threshold) are included in the series and hence the series is often called the
Peaks Over Threshold (POT) series. There are generally more data values for
analysis in this series than in the AM series, but there is more chance of the
peaks being related and the assumption of true independence is less valid.

4.2.1 Annual Series

Here, the data are arranged in decreasing order of magnitude and the
probability P of each event being equalled to or exceeded (plotting position) is
calculated by the plotting-position formula (see also Table 6.1 For other formulae
available).

(4.1)
Where m = order number of the event and N = total number of events in the
data.

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 Surface water hydrology

The recurrence interval, T (also called the return period or frequency) is

calculated as

(4.2)
The relationship between T and the probability of occurrence of various events is
presented below. For example, the probability of occurrence of the event r
times in n successive years is given by:

(4.3)
Where q = 1 - P.

Table 4.1 Plotting-position formulae

Method P
California m/N
Hazen (m - 0.5) / N
Weibull m / (N+1)
Chegodayev (m - 0.3) / (N+0.4)
Gringorten (m - 3/8) / (N + 1/4)

Consider, for example, a list of flood magnitudes of a river arranged in

descending order as shown in Table 6.2. The length of record is 50 years.

Table 4.2. Calculation of Frequency T

Order No. m Flood magnitude Q T in years = 51/m

(m3/s)
1 160 51.00
2 135 25.50
3 128 17.00
4 116 12.75
. . .
. . .
. . .
49 65 1.04
50 63 1.02

The last column shows the return period T of various flood magnitude, Q. A plot
of Q Vs T yields the probability distribution. For small return periods (i.e. for
interpolation) or where limited extrapolation is required, a simple best-fitting
curve through plotted points can be used as the probability distribution. A
logarithmic scale for T is often advantageous. However, when larger
extrapolations of T are involved, theoretical probability distributions (e.g.

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 Surface water hydrology

Gumbel extreme-value, Log-Pearson Type III, and log normal distributions) have
to be used. In frequency analysis of floods the usual problem is to predict
extreme flood events. Towards this, specific extreme-value distributions are
assumed and the required statistical parameters calculated from the available
data. Using these the flood magnitude for a specific return period is estimated.

Chow (1951) has shown that most frequency-distribution functions applicable in

hydrologic studies can be expressed by the following equation known as the
general equation of hydrologic frequency analysis:
(4.4)

Where xT = value of the variate X of a random hydrologic series with a return

period T, = mean of the variate,  = standard deviation of the variate, K =
frequency factor which depends upon the return period, T and the assumed
frequency distribution.

4.3 Gumbel’s Method

This extreme value distribution was introduced by Gumbel (1941) and is

commonly known as Gumbel's distribution. It is one of the most widely used
probability-distribution functions for extreme values in hydrologic and
meteorological studies for prediction of flood peaks, maximum rainfalls, and
maximum wind speed, etc. Therefore, this extreme value theory of Gumbel is
only applicable to annual extremes. In contrast to the previous example, in the
Gumbel method the data are ranked in ascending order and it makes use of the
probability of non-exceedence q=1-P (the probability that the annual maximum
flow is less than a certain magnitude). The return period T is therefore given by
T = 1 / P = 1 / (1-q).

Gumbel makes use of a reduced variate y as a function of q, which allows the

plotting of the distribution as a linear function between y and X (the maximum
flow in this case). Gumbel also defined a flood as the largest of the 365 daily
flows and the annual series of flood flows constitute a series of largest values of
flow. According to his theory of extreme events, the probability of occurrence of
an event equal to or larger than a value x0 is

(4.5)

In which y is a dimensionless variable given by

y = (X-a) (4.6)

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 Surface water hydrology

1.2825 ( X  − X̄ )
y  =  + 0.577
Thus
σX (4.7)
Where = mean and x = standard deviation of the variate X. In practice it is
the value of X for a given P that is required and as such Eq.( 4.7) is transposed
as
y = -1n(-1n(q)) = -1n(-1n(1-p)) (4.8)

meaning that the probability of non-exceedence equals:

(4.9)

Noting that the return period T = 1/P and designating; y T = the value of y,
commonly called the reduced variate, for a given T

(4.10)

Or (4.10a)

Now rearranging Eq.( 4.7), the value of the variate X with a return period T is

(4.11)

Where (412)

Note that Eq. 4.12) is of the same form as the general equation of hydrologic-
frequency analysis, Eq.( 4.4). Further, Eqs. (4.11) and (4.12) constitute the basic
Gumbel's equations and are applicable to an infinite sample size (i.e. N  ).

Since practical annual data series of extreme events such as floods, maximum
rainfall depths, etc., all have finite lengths of record, Eq. (4.12) is modified to
account for finite N as given below for practical use.

Gumbel's Equation for Practical Use: Eq. (4.11) giving the variate X with the
return period T is used as

(4.13)

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 Surface water hydrology

σn-1
=
√ ∑ ( x  − x̄ )2
N  − 1
Where n-1 = standard deviation of the sample

K = frequency factor expressed as (4.14)

In which yT = reduced variate, a function of T and is given by

(4..15)
or

[ ( T −1 ))]
( T
y T  = − 0 . 834  + 2 .303 log log

= reduced mean, a function of sample size N and is given in Table 4.3; for N 
,  0.577.
Sn = reduced standard deviation, a function of sample size N and is given in
Table 4.4; for N  , Sn  1.2825.

These equations are used under the following procedure to estimate the flood
magnitude corresponding to a given return period based on annual flood series.
1. Assemble the discharge data and note the sample size N. Here the annual
flood value is the variate X. Find and n-1 for the given data.
2. Using Tables 4..3 and 4..4 determine and Sn appropriate to given N
3. Find yT for a given T by Eq.(6.15).
4. Find K by Eq.( 4..14).
5. Determine the required xT by Eq.( 4.13).

To verify whether the given data follow the assumed Gumbel's distribution, the
following procedure may be adopted. The value of x T for some return periods
T<N are calculated by using Gumbel's formula and plotted as x T Vs T on a
convenient paper such as a semi-log, log-log or Gumbel probability paper. The
use of Gumbel probability paper results in a straight line for x T Vs T plot.
Gumbel's distribution has the property which gives T = 2.33 years for the
average of the annual series when N is very large. Thus the value of a flood with
T = 2.33 years is called the mean annual flood. In graphical plots this gives a
mandatory point through which the line showing variation of x T with T must pass.
For the given data, values of return periods (plotting positions) for various
recorded values, x of the variate are obtained by the relation T = (N+1)/m and
plotted on the graph described above. A good fit of observed data with the
theoretical variation line indicates the applicability of Gumbel's distribution to

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 Surface water hydrology

the given data series. By extrapolation of the straight-line x T Vs T, values of xT>

N can be determined easily.
The Gumbel (or extreme-value) probability paper is a paper that consists of an
abscissa specially marked for various convenient values of the return period T
(or corresponding reduced variate yT in arithmetic scale). The ordinate of a
Gumbel paper represent xT (flood discharge, maximum rainfall depth, etc.),
which may have either arithmetic scale or logarithmic scale.

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 Surface water hydrology

Table 4.3 Reduced mean in Gumbel's extreme value distribution, N = sample

size
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0.495 0.499 0.503 0.507 0.510 0.512 0.515 0.518 0.520 0.522
2 6 5 0 0 8 7 1 2 0
20 0.523 0.525 0.526 0.528 0.529 0.530 0.532 0.533 0.534 0.535
6 2 8 3 6 9 0 2 3 3
30 0.536 0.537 0.538 0.538 0.539 0.540 0.541 0.541 0.542 0.543
2 1 0 8 6 2 0 8 4 0
40 0.543 0.544 0.544 0.545 0.545 0.546 0.546 0.547 0.547 0.548
6 2 8 3 8 3 8 3 7 1
50 0.548 0.548 0.549 0.549 0.550 0.550 0.550 0.551 0.551 0.551
5 9 3 7 1 4 8 1 5 8
60 0.552 0.552 0.552 0.553 0.553 0.553 0.553 0.554 0.554 0.554
1 4 7 0 3 5 8 0 3 5
70 0.554 0.555 0.555 0.555 0.555 0.555 0.556 0.556 0.556 0.556
8 0 2 5 7 9 1 3 5 7
80 0.556 0.557 0.557 0.557 0.557 0.557 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558
9 0 2 4 6 8 0 1 3 5
90 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.559 0.559 0.559 0.559 0.559 0.559 0.559
6 7 9 1 2 3 5 6 8 9
10 0.560
0 0

Table 4.4 Reduced standard deviation Sn in Gumbel's extreme value distribution,

N = sample size
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0.949 0.967 0.983 0.997 1.009 1.020 1.031 1.041 1.049 1.056
6 6 3 1 5 6 6 1 3 5
20 1.062 1.069 1.075 1.081 1.086 1.091 1.096 1.100 1.104 1.108
8 6 4 1 4 5 1 4 7 6
30 1.112 1.115 1.119 1.122 1.125 1.128 1.131 1.133 1.136 1.138
4 9 3 6 5 5 3 9 3 8
40 1.141 1.143 1.145 1.148 1.149 1.151 1.153 1.155 1.157 1.159
3 6 8 0 9 9 8 7 4 0
50 1.160 1.162 1.163 1.165 1.166 1.168 1.169 1.170 1.172 1.173
7 3 8 8 7 1 6 8 1 4
60 1.174 1.175 1.177 1.178 1.179 1.180 1.181 1.182 1.183 1.184
7 9 0 2 3 3 4 4 4 4
70 1.185 1.186 1.187 1.188 1.189 1.189 1.190 1.191 1.192 1.193
4 3 3 1 0 8 6 5 3 0
80 1.193 1.194 1.195 1.195 1.196 1.197 1.198 1.198 1.199 1.200
8 5 3 9 7 3 0 7 4 1
90 1.200 1.201 1.202 1.202 1.203 1.203 1.204 1.204 1.205 1.206
7 3 0 6 2 8 4 9 5 0
10 1.206
0 5

Example 4.1
Annual maximum recorded floods in a certain river, for the period 1951 to 1977
is given below. Verify whether the Gumbel extreme-value distribution fit the

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 Surface water hydrology

recorded values. Estimate the flood discharge with return period of (i) 100 years
and (ii) 150 years by graphical extrapolation.

Solutions: The flood discharge values are arranged in descending order and the
plotting position return period TP for each discharge is obtained as

. Where m = order number. The discharge magnitude Q can be

plotted against the corresponding TP on a Gumbel extreme probability paper.

Year Max. flood (m3/s) Year Max. flood (m3/s) Year Max. flood (m3/s)
1951 2947 1960 4798 1969 6599
1952 3521 1961 4290 1970 3700
1953 2399 1962 4652 1971 4175
1954 4124 1963 5050 1972 2988
1955 3496 1964 6900 1973 2709
1956 2947 1965 4366 1974 3873
1957 5060 1966 3380 1975 4593
1958 4903 1967 7826 1976 6761
1959 3757 1968 3320 1977 1971
The statistics and n-1 for the series are next calculated and are shown in table
below.

Order Flood Order Flood

number discharge TP number discharge TP
m x (m3/s) (years) m x (m3/s) (years)
1 7826 28.00 15 3873 1.87
2 6900 14.00 16 3757 1.75
3 6761 9.33 17 3700 1.65
4 6599 7.00 18 3521 1.56
5 5060 5.60 19 3496 1.47
6 5050 4.67 20 3380 1.40
7 4903 4.00 21 3320 1.33
8 4798 3.50 22 2988 1.27
9 4652 3.11 23 2947 -
10 4593 2.80 24 2947 1.17
11 4366 2.55 25 2709 1.12
12 4290 2.33 26 2399 1.08
13 4175 2.15 27 1971 1.04
14 4124 2.00
N = 27 years, = 4263 m3/s, n-1 = 1432.6 m3/s

Using these the discharge xT for some chosen return interval is calculated by
using Gumbel's formulae [Eqs.( 4..15), (4..14) and (4..13)]. From Tables 4..3 and
4..4, for N = 27, yn = 0.5332 and Sn = 1.1004.

Choosing T = 10 years, by Eq.(4.15), yT = -[ln(ln(10/9))] = 2.25037 and

K = (2.25307-0.5332)/1.1004 = 1.56 and xT = 4263 + (1.56*1432.6) =
6499m3/s.
Similarly, values of xT are calculated for two more T values as shown below.

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 Surface water hydrology

T XT[obtained by Eq.(4.13)]
(Years) (m3/s)
5.0 5522
10.0 6499
20.0 7436

When these values are plotted on Gumbel probability paper, it is seen that these
points lie on a straight line according to the property of the Gumbel's extreme
probability paper. Then by extrapolation of the theoretical x T Vs T relationship,
from this plot, at T = 100 years, xT = 9600m3/s and at T = 150 years, x T =
10700m3/s. [By using Eq. (4..13) to (4..15), x100 = 9558m3/s and x150 =
10088m3/s.]

4.3.1 Confidence Limits:

Since the value of the variate for a given return period, x T determined by
Gumbel's method can have errors due to the limited sample data used; an
estimate of the confidence limits of the estimate is desirable. The confidence
interval indicates the limits about the calculated value between which the true
value can be said to lie with a specific probability based on sampling errors only.
For a confidence probability c, the confidence interval of the variate x T is bound
by value x1 and x2 given by
x1/2 = xT f (c) Se (4..16)

Where f(c) = function of the confidence probability c determined by using the

table of normal variate as

c in per cent 50 68 80 90 95 99
f(c) 0.674 1.00 1.282 1.645 1.96 2.58

Se = probable error = (4..16a)

K = frequency factor given by Eq.( 4.14)

n-1 = standard deviation of the sample
N = sample size

It is seen that for a given sample and T, 80% confidence limits are twice as large
as the 50% limits and 95% limits are thrice as large as 50% limits.

Example 4..2:
Data covering a period of 92 years for a certain river yielded the mean and
standard deviation of the annual flood series as 6437 and 2951 m 3/s
respectively. Using Gumbel's method, estimate the flood discharge with a return

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 Surface water hydrology

period of 500 years. What are the (a) 95% and (b) 80% confidence limits for this
estimate?
Solution: From Table 4..3 and 4. 4..4 for N = 92 years, = 0.5589, and Sn =
1.2020. Then
y500 = -[ln((ln(500/499))] = 6.21361
K500 = (6.21361 - 0.5589)/1.2020 = 4.7044,
Hence, x500 = 6437 + 4.7044*2951 = 20320m3/s.

From Eq.(6.16a), = 5.61

Se = probable error = = 1726

(a) For the 95% confidence probability f(c) = 1.96 and by Eq.(3.16) x 1/2 =
20320xT (1.96*1726), which results in x1 = 23703m3/s and x2 = 16937m3/s.
Thus the estimated discharge of 20320m 3/s has a 95% probability of lying
between 23700 and 16940m3/s.

(b) For 80% confidence probability, f(c) = 1.282 and by Eq.(4.16) x 1/2 = 20320xT
(1.282*1726), which results in x 1 = 22533m3/s and x2 = 18107m3/s. Thus the
estimated discharge of 20320m3/s has an 80% probability of lying between
22533 and 18107m3/s.

For the data of Example 4. 2, the values of x T for different values of T are
calculated and can be shown plotted on a Gumbel probability paper.

In addition to the analysis of maximum extreme events, there also is a need to

analyze minimum extreme events; e.g. the occurrence of droughts. The
probability distribution of Gumbel, similarly to the Gaussian probability
distribution, does not have a lower limit; meaning that negative values of events
may occur. As rainfall or river flows do have a lower limit of zero, neither the
Gumbel nor Gaussian distribution is an appropriate tool to analyze minimum
values. Because the logarithmic function has a lower limit of zero, it is often
useful to first transform the series to its logarithmic value before applying the
theory. Appropriate tools for analyzing minimum flows or rainfall amounts are
the Log-Normal, Log-Gumbel, or Log-Pearson distributions.

4.4 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution

This distribution is extensively used in USA for projects sponsored by the US

Government. In this the variate is first transformed into logarithmic form (base
10) and the transformed data is then analysed. If X is the variate of a random
hydrologic series, then the series of Z variates where
Z = log x (4..18)
are first obtained. For this z series, for any recurrence interval T, Eq.( 4..4) gives

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 Surface water hydrology

(4..19)
Where Kz = a frequency factor which is a function of recurrence interval T and
the coefficient of skew Cs,

z = standard deviation of the Z variate sample = √ ∑ ( z − z̄ )2

N−1 (4..19a)

and Cs = coefficient of skew of variate Z = (4..19b)

= mean of the z values
N = sample size = number of years of record
The variations of Kz = f(Cs, T) is given in Table 4..5. After finding zT by Eq.
( 4..19), the corresponding value of x T is obtained by Eq.( 4..18) as xT =
antilog(zT) (4..20)

Sometimes, the coefficient of skew Cs, is adjusted to account for the size of the
sample by using the following relation proposed by Hazen (1930)

(
C^ s=C s
1+ 8. 5
N ) (4..21)
^
Where C s = adjusted coefficient of skew. However the standard procedure for
use of Log-Pearson Type III distribution adopted by U.S. Water Resources Council
does not include this adjustment for skew.
When the skew is zero, i.e. C s = 0, the Log-Pearson Type III distribution reduces
to log-normal distribution. The log-normal distribution plots as a straight line on
logarithmic probability paper.
Example 4.3: For the annual flood series data given in Example 4..1, estimate
the flood discharge for a return period of (a) 100 years (b) 200 years and (c)
1000 years by using Log-Pearson Type III distribution.

Solution: The variate z = log x is first calculated for all the discharges in table
below. Then the statistics , z and Cs are calculated from table 4.5 to obtain

z = 0.1427
= 3.6071 Cs = 0.043

The flood discharge for a given T is calculated as below. Here, values of K z for
given T and Cs = 0.043 are read from table 4..5.

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 Surface water hydrology

=3.6071, z = 0.1427, Cs = 0.043

T Kz
(years) (from table 3.5) Kzz ZT = + Kz z XT = antilog zT
(for Cs = 0.043) (m3/s)
100 2.358 0.3365 3.9436 8782
200 2.616 0.3733 3.9804 9559
1000 3.152 0.4498 4.0569 11400

Flood Flood
Year x(m3/s) z = log x Year x(m3/s) z = log x
1951 2947 3.4694 1965 4366 3.6401
1952 3521 3.5467 1966 3380 3.5289
1953 2399 3.3800 1967 7826 3.8935
1954 4124 3.6153 1968 3320 3.5211
1955 3496 3.5436 1969 6599 3.8195
1956 2947 3.4694 1970 3700 3.5682
1957 5060 3.7042 1971 4175 3.6207
1958 4903 3.6905 1972 2988 3.4754
1959 3751 3.5748 1973 2709 3.4328
1960 4798 3.6811 1974 3873 3.5880
1961 4290 3.6325 1975 4593 3.6621
1962 4652 3.6676 1976 6761 3.8300
1963 5050 3.7033 1977 1971 3.2947
1964 6900 3.8388

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 Surface water hydrology

Table 4.5 Kz = F(Cs, T) for use in Log-Pearson Type III Distribution

Coef. of Return Period T in years

skew, Cs 2 10 25 50 100 200 1000
3.0 -0.396 1.180 2.278 3.152 4.051 4.970 7.250
2.5 -0.360 1.250 2.262 3.048 3.845 4.652 6.600
2.2 -0.330 1.284 2.240 2.970 3.705 4.444 6.200
2.0 -0.307 1.302 2.219 2.912 3.605 4.298 5.910
1.8 -0.282 1.318 2.193 2.848 3.499 4.147 5.660
1.6 -0.254 1.329 2.163 2.780 3.388 3.990 5.390
1.4 -0.225 1.337 2.128 2.706 3.271 3.828 5.110
1.2 -0.195 1.340 2.087 2.626 3.149 3.661 4.820
1.0 -0.164 1.340 2.043 2.542 3.022 3.489 4.540
0.9 -0.148 1.339 2.018 2.498 2.957 3.401 4.395
0.8 -0.132 1.336 1.998 2.453 2.891 3.312 4.250
0.7 -0.116 1.333 1.967 2.407 2.824 3.223 4.105
0.6 -0.099 1.328 1.939 2.359 2.755 3.132 3.960
0.5 -0.083 1.323 1.910 2.311 2.686 3.041 3.815
0.4 -0.066 1.317 1.880 2.261 2.615 2.949 3.670
0.3 -0.050 1.309 1.849 2.211 2.544 2.856 3.525
0.2 -0.033 1.301 1.818 2.159 2.472 2.763 3.380
0.1 -0.017 1.292 1.785 2.107 2.400 2.670 3.235
0.0 0.000 1.282 1.751 2.054 2.326 2.576 3.090
-0.1 0.017 1.270 1.716 2.000 2.252 2.482 2.950
-0.2 0.033 1.258 1.680 1.945 2.178 2.388 2.810
-0.3 0.050 1.245 1.643 1.890 2.104 2.294 2.675
-0.4 0.066 1.231 1.606 1.834 2.029 2.201 2.540
-0.5 0.083 1.216 1.567 1.777 1.955 2.108 2.400
-0.6 0.099 1.200 1.528 1.720 1.880 2.016 2.275
-0.7 0.116 1.183 1.488 1.663 1.806 1.926 2.150
-0.8 0.132 1.166 1.448 1.606 1.733 1.837 2.035
-0.9 0.148 1.147 1.407 1.549 1.660 1.749 1.910
-1.0 0.164 1.128 1.366 1.492 1.588 1.664 1.880
-1.4 0.225 1.041 1.198 1.270 1.318 1.351 1.465
-1.8 0.282 0.945 1.035 1.069 1.087 1.097 1.130
-2.2 0.330 0.844 0.888 0.900 0.905 0.907 0.910
-3.0 0.396 0.660 0.666 0.666 0.667 0.667 0.668

The flood-frequency analysis described above is a direct means of estimating the

desired flood based upon the available flood-flow data of the catchment. The

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 Surface water hydrology

results of the frequency analysis depend upon the length of data. The minimum
number of years of record required to obtain satisfactory estimates depends
upon the variability of data and hence on the physical and climatological
characteristics of the basin. Generally a minimum of 30 years of data is
considered as essential. Smaller lengths of records are also used when it is
unavoidable. However, frequency analysis should not be adopted if the length of
records is less than 10 years.
Flood-frequency studies are most reliable in climates that are uniform from year
to year. In such cases a relatively short record gives a reliable picture of the
frequency distribution. With increasing lengths of flood records, it affords a
viable alternative method of flood-flow estimation in most cases.

A final remark of caution should be made regarding to frequency analysis. None

of the frequency distribution functions have a real physical background. The
only information having physical meaning are the measurements themselves.
Extrapolation beyond the period of observation is dangerous. It requires a good
engineer to judge the value of extrapolated events of high return periods. A
good impression of the relativity of frequency analysis can be acquired through
the comparison of result obtained from different statistical methods. Generally
they differ considerably.

4.4.1 Partial duration series or POT model

In using the partial-duration series, it is necessary to establish that all events

considered are independent. Hence the partial-duration series is adopted mostly
for rainfall analysis where the conditions of independency of events are easy to
establish. Its use in flood studies is rather rare. The return interval of an event
obtained by annual series (T A) and by the partial duration series (T P) are related
by

(4.17)

From this it can be seen that the difference between T A and TP is significant for
TA<10 years and that for TA>20, the difference is negligibly small.

4.5 Design Flood

In the design of hydraulic structures it is not practical from economic

considerations to provide for the safety of the structure and the system at the
maximum possible flood in the catchment. Small structures such as culverts and
storm drainage can be designed for less severe floods as the consequences of a
higher than-design flood may not be very serious. It can cause temporary
inconvenience like the disruption of traffic and very rarely severe property
damage and loss of life. On the other hand, storage structures such as dams

78
 Surface water hydrology

demand greater attention to the magnitude of floods used in the design. The
failure of these structures causes large loss of life and great property damage on
the down-stream of the structure. From this it is apparent that the type of the
structure, importance of the structure, and economic development of the
surrounding area dictate the design criteria for choosing the flood magnitude.

The following definitions are first noted:

1. Design flood: is a flood adopted for the design of a structure.

2. Spillway Design flood: it is a design flood used for the specific purpose of
designing the spillway of a storage structure. This term is frequently used to
denote the maximum discharge that can be passed in a hydraulic structure
without any damage or serious threat to the stability of the structure.
3. Standard project Flood (SPF): The flood that would result from a severe
combination of meteorological and hydrological factors that is reasonably
applicable to the region. Extremely rare combinations of factors are
excluded.
4. Probable Maximum Flood (PMF): The extreme flood that is physically possible
in a region as a result of severe most combinations, including rare
combinations of meteorological and hydrological factors.

The PMF is used in situations where the failure of the structure would result in
loss of life and catastrophic damage and as such complete security from
potential floods is sought. On the other hand, SPF is often used where the failure
of a structure would cause less severe damages. Typically, the SPF is about 40
to 60% of the PMF for the same drainage basin. The criteria used for selecting
the design flood for various hydraulic structures vary from one country to
another.

Frequency Analysis of low flows (Reading assignment)

The flow duration curve (FDC) (Reading assignment)
Rainfall Frequency Analysis (Reading assignment)

4.5.1 Risk, Reliability and Safety factor

4.5.1.1Risk and Reliability

The designer of a hydraulic structure always faces a nagging doubt
about the risk of failure of his structure. This is because the estimation
of the hydrologic design values (such as the design flood discharge and
the river stage during the design flood) involve a natural or inbuilt
uncertainty and as such a hydrological risk of failure. As an example,
consider a weir with an expected life of 50 years and designed for a
flood magnitude of return period T=100 years. This weir may fail if a
flood magnitude greater than the design flood occurs within the life
period (50 years) of the weir.

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 Surface water hydrology

The probability of occurrence of an event (x>x T) at least once over a period of n

successive years is called the risk, . Thus the risk is given by = 1 -
(probability of non-occurrence of the event xxT in n years)

= = (4..18)

Where P = probability P(xxT) = T = return period

The reliability Re, is defined as

(4..19)
It can be seen that the return period for which a structure should be designed
depends upon the acceptable level of risk. In practice, the acceptable risk is
governed by economic and policy considerations.

4.5.1.2 Safety Factor

In addition to the hydrologic uncertainty, as mentioned above, a water resource
development project will have many other uncertainties. These may arise out of
structural, constructional, operational and environmental causes as well as from
non-technological considerations such as economic, sociological and political
causes. As such, any water resource development project will have a safety
factor for a given hydrological parameter M as defined below.

Safety factor (for the parameter M) = (SF) m=

Actual value of the parameter M adopted in the design of the project

=
Value of the parameter M obtained from hydrological considerations only
= Cam / Chm (4..20)

The parameter M includes such items as flood discharge magnitude, maximum

river stage, reservoir capacity and free board. The difference (C am - Chm) is
known as Safety Margin.

Example 4..4: A bridge has an expected life of 25 years and is designed for a
flood magnitude of return period 100 years. (a) What is the risk of this
hydrological design? (b) If 10% risk is acceptable, what return period will have to
be adopted?

Solution:

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 Surface water hydrology

(a) The risk for n = 25 years and T = 100 years is:

. Hence the inbuilt risk in this design is 22.2%.

(b) If =10% = 0.10,  and T = 238 years

= say 240 years. Hence to get 10% acceptable risk, the bridge will have to
be designed for a flood of return period T = 240 years.

Exercise: Annual flood data of a certain river covering the period 1948 to 1979
yielded for the annual flood discharges a mean of 29,600m 3/s and a standard
deviation of 14,860m3/s. for a proposed bridge on this river near the gauging
site it is decided to have an acceptable risk of 10% in its expected life of 50
years. (a) Estimate the flood discharge by Gumbel's method for use in the
design of this structure (b) If the actual flood value adopted in the design is
125,000m3/s what are the safety factor and safety margin relating to maximum
flood discharge? (Answers (a) 105,000m3/s and (b) (SF)flood = 1.19, Safety Margin
for flood magnitude = 20,000m3/s)

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 Surface water hydrology

5.FLOOD ROUTING

Flood routing is, essentially, the calculation of the modification undergone by a flood wave in
moving through a reservoir or channel reach.

It is the knowledge of variation of discharge (hydrograph) with time at a gauging station by

knowing the discharge distribution at an upstream station. Or we may answer the question. How a
flood wave may be reduced in magnitude and lengthened in time by considering the storage
behaviour of the stream b/n the two gauging stations.

The modification of the flood hydrograph occurs in two ways:

Firstly, and abviously, the time of the peak rate of flow occurs later at downstream points. This is
known as translation. Secondly, the magnified of the peak rate of flow is diminished at
downstream paints, the shape of the hydrograph flattens out, and the volume the flood water takes
longer to pass a lower section. This modification of the hydrograph is called attenuation.

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 Surface water hydrology

Fig 5.1 flood translation and attenuation

Flood routing methods may be divided in to two main categories differing in their fundamental
approaches to the problem.

It is known that the phenomenon of flood propagation in a river is governed by the St. Venant
equations (equations of motion of unsteady flows and continuity equation) and when the method
of forecasting the flow depends on the solution of these equations it is known as Hydraulic
routing.

It is important to consider the water reach to be system which acts upon an input e.g. upstream
Hydrograph to produce an output, e.g. downstream hydrogtaph. When the downstream
hydrograph is determined by the upstream hydrograph with out explicitly considering the course
of the moving flood wave, then this approach is known as hydrologic flood routing method.

5.1 Storage Equation

Flood routings (Hydrologic, both reservoir and channel) use the continuity equation in the form
or “ Inflow minus outflow equals rate of change of storage”.

i.e., I(t)-Q(t)=ds(t)/dt (2.1)

where:- I (t) = Inflow in to the reach

Q (t) = Outflow from the reach
dS (t)/dt =Rate of change storage within the reach.

The principle of continuity is that, neglecting the lateral and tributary inflows, the volume of
inflow equals the volume of outflow, i.e.,
T1 T3

∀=∫ I (t )dt=∫ Q(t )dt

o T2
The flood Volume,
T T
∫ I (t )dt ∫ Q (t )dt
At some intermediate time T an amount O has entered the reach and an amount O
has left the reach. The difference S, within the reach at t= T is given by
T
S=∫ [ I (t )−Q (t )]dt
O
In the continuity equation (I-Q)=ds/dt), which forms basis for all the storage routing methods, the
routing problem consists of finding Q as a function of time, given I as a function of time, and
having information or making assumptions about S.

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 Surface water hydrology

Alternatively, the continuity (storage) equation can be stated as in a small time interval t the the
difference between the total inflow volume and total outflow volume in a reach is equal to the
change in storage in that reach, i.e.,

It-Qt=S (2.2)
Where
I= average inflow in time t
Q=average outflow in time t
S=Change in storage
t= routing period.

The time interval t should be sufficiently short so that the inflow and out flow hydrographs can
be assumed to be straight line in that interval. t should be chosen than the travel time of the
1 1
flood wave crest from the upstream to the down stream station (between 3 and 4 of the travel
time). The shorter the routing period (or discrete time steps) the better the approximation of the
real flood wave, but the higher the computation effort.

5.2. Reservoir routing

A flood wave I (t) enters a reservoir provided with an outlet such as a spillway. The outflow is a
function of the reservoir elevation only, I.e., Q= Q(h). the storage in the reservoir is also a
function of the flow reservoir elevation, S= S(h). reservoir, the water level in the reservoir
changes with time, h= h(t) and hence the storage and discharge change with time. It is required to
find the variation of S, h and Q with time, I,.e., find S=S(t), Q=Q(t) and h=(t), given I =I(t)

Fig Storage routing

Depending on the forms of the outlet relations for Q(h) will be available.

For reservoir routing , the following data have to be known:

1. Storage volume Vs elevation for the reservoir

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 Surface water hydrology

2. Water surface elevation Vs out flow and hence storage Vs outflow.

3. Inflow hydrograph, I= I(t), and
4. Initial values of S, I and Q t time t=0.

The finite difference form of continuity equation (eqn. 3.2) van be rewritten as:

(I1+I2)t/2-(Q1+Q2) )t/2=S2-S1 (2.3)

Where:-

(I1+I2)/2= I ;(Q1Q2)/2=Q and S2-S1=S and suffixes 1 and 2 to denote the beginning and end of
the time interval t.

Let the inflow hydrograph be given at equal time intervals t (one minute, one hour, etc.) as I1,
I2,I3, etc.,) and assuming knowledge of Q 1, the initial condition, we write eqn. 2.3. (by collecting
known terms to the left ) as.

(I1+I2)t/2-(Q1+t/2) +S1=S2+Q2 t/2 (2.4)

The right hand side contains two unknowns but these are related. Since S is a function of Q,
(S+Qt/2) is also a specific function of Q.

If therefore, a curve of S+ Qt can be prepared as a function of Q, we may enter on the abscissa
with the left hand side of eqn. (2.4) and obtain Q2 on the ordinate.

Having found Q2 the calculation can be taken over the second time interval to obtain Q 3 and so
on.

We can also rewrite eqn. (2.4) as

(I1+I2) /2-Q1/2+S1/t = Q2/2 + S2/

(I1+I2) /2- Q1+(Q1/2+S1/t)=(Q2/2+S2/t)

Let (I1+I2) /2=Im and (Q2/2+S2/t)=G

Then Im-Q1+G1=G2
Or G2=G1+Im-Q1 (2.5)

5.3 Channel routing

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 Surface water hydrology

In reservoir routing presented in the previous section, the storage was a unique function of the
outflow discharge, S=f(Q). but for a river channel reach where the water surface cannot be
assumed horizontal, the stored volume becomes a function of the stages at both ends of the reach,
and not at the downstream (outflow) end only . i.e., S=f(I,Q)

Again, the continuity equation holds at any given time:-

I-Q=ds/dt (2.6)

Where the total storage , S, is the sum of prism storage and wedge storage.

Prism Storage is the volume that would exist if uniform flow occurred at the downstream depth,
i.e. the volume formed by an imaginary plane parallel to the channel bottom drawn at a direct
function of the stage at the downstream end of the reach; the simple assumption ignores the
effects of the slope of the water surface and takes the downstream stage and the outflow to be
uniquely related, and thus the prism storage to be a function of the outflow, Q.

Wedge Storage is the wedge-like volume formed b/n the actual water surface profile and the top
surface of the prism storage. It exists because the inflow, I, differs from Q and so may be
assumed to be a function of the difference b/n inflow and outflow, (I-Q).

At a fixed depth at a d/s section of a river reach prism storage is constant while the wedge storage
changes from a positive value at the advancing flood wave to a negative value during a receding
flood.

The total storage in the channel reach can be generally represented by:

S=f1(Q)+f2(I-Q)
And this can then be expressed as

(2.7)
Where K and x are coefficients and m is a constant exponent. It has been found that the value of
m varies from 0.6 for rectangular channels to value of about 1.0 for natural channels.

5.3.1 Muskingum Method of Routing

Using m=1 in eqn. (2.7), it will be reduced to a linear relationship for S in terms of I and Q as
S= K(xI+(1-x)Q (2.8)

This relationship is known as the Muskingum Equation. In this the parameter A is known as
weighing factor. When x=0, obviously the storage is *** discharge only andeqn. (2.8) ***

S=KQ (2.9)

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 Surface water hydrology

Such a storage is known as linear storage or linear reservoir. When x= 0.5 both the inflow and
out flow are equally important in determining the storage.

The coefficient K is known as storage-time constant and have dimensions of time. K is

approximately equal to the time of travel of a flood wave through the channel reach.

X is a dimensionless weighing factor indicating the relative importance of I and Q in determining

the storage in the reach. The value of x has limits of zero and 0.5, with typical values in the range
0.2 to 0.4

As before, writing equation (2.6) in finite difference form, we can write as eqn. (2.3)

i.e., S2-S1=(I1+I2)t/2-(Q1+Q2) t/2 (2.10)

for a given channel reach by selecting a routing interval t and using the Muskingum equation,
the change in storage is

S2-S1=K[x(I2)+(1-x) Q2-(xI1+(1-x)Q1)]
Or S2-S1=K[x(I2-I1)+(1-x)(Q2-Q1)] (2.11)

Equating eqns. (2.10 and (2.11), we have

(t/2)[I1+I2-Q1 -Q2]=K[x(I2-I1)+(1-x) (Q2-Q1)]

(t/2)Q2+K(1-x)Q2=(t/2) (I1+I2-Q1)-K[x(I2-I1)-(I-x)Q1]]
[t+2K-sKx]Q2=[t+2Kx]I1+[t+2Kx]I2+[t+2K-2kx]Q1

Δt +2 kx Δt−2 kx
⇒ Q2 = I 1+ Q
Δt + 2k −2 kx Δt +2 k−2kx 1

Hence, Q2=C1I1+C2I2+C3Q1 (2.12)

Where

Δt+ 2 kx
C1= Δt +2 k−2 kx

Δt −2 kx
C2= Δt +2 k−2 kx

− Δt +2 kx
C3= Δt +2 k−2 kx

Note that C=1 and thus when C1 and C2 have been found C3=C1-C2. Thus the outflow at the end
of a time step is the weighted sum of the starting inflow and outflow and the ending inflow. It has

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 Surface water hydrology

been found that best results will be obtained when routing interval should be so chosen that
K>t>2kx. If t <2kx, the coefficient C2 will be negative.

5.3.2.1 Estimation of K and x

In order to use equation (3.12) for Q 2, it is necessary to know K and x for calculating the
coefficients, C. Using recorded hydrographs of a flood at the beginning and end of the river
reach, trial values of x are taken, and for each trial the weighted flows in the reach, [xI+(1-x)Q],
are plotted against the actual storages determined from the inflow and out flow hydrographs as
indicated in the following figure.

Fig Determining storage in a river reach.

Fig Trial plots for Muskingum x values.

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 Surface water hydrology

The correct value for x will be the one giving the best approximate to the straight line plot as
implied by eqn. (3.8). for natural channels, the best plot is often curved, making a straight line
slope difficult to estimate.

6. Reservoirs

6.1 Introduction

A river does not carry the same quantity of water throughout the year. It may carry little or no
water during portions of the year &large quantities(which even, after heavy rains be hazard to all
activities along its banks) in the other part of the year. A water supply, irrigation, or hydropower
project drawing water directly from a river may, therefore, be unable to satisfy the demands of its
consumes during low flows. Such problems can be overcome by constructing a dam across a
river to create reservoirs.

Reservoirs are man-made lakes created to store water during times of excess flow & supply it
from storage when the demand exceeds the inflow. In addition to conserving water for later use,
reservoirs can also serve for flood control, recreation, navigation & low flow augmentation.

Beside the above uses, the creation of reservoirs by damming a river a river has the following
environmental & socio-economic impacts.

Environmental impacts:

- changes in ground water level in the region,

- changes in the sediment transport& river morphology d/s of the dam,
- changes in fauna & flora in the region,
- changes in water quality,
- changes in landscape,
- etc.

Socio-economic impacts:

 displacement of peoples,
 loss of land,
 health problems,
 etc.

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 Surface water hydrology

6.2 Reservoir site selection

The selection of site for a reservoir depends up on the following factors:

(i) A suitable dam site exist. The cost of the dam is often a controlling factor in selection
of a site.
(ii) The reservoir site must have a adequate capacity with small submergency of land &
other properties.
A deep reservoir is preferable to a shallow one because of
- lower cost of land submergence per unit of capacity
- less evaporation loss,&
- less likelihood of weed growth.

(iii) The cost of real estate for the reservoir (including road, railroad, cemetery, & dwelling
relocation) must be as small as possible.
(iv) Tributary areas which are unusually productive of sediment should be avoided if
possible.
(v) The quality of stored water must be satisfactory for its intended use.
(vi) The reservoir banks & adjacent hill slopes should be stable. Unstable banks will
contribute large amounts of soil materials to the reservoir.
(vii) The reservoir basin should be water tight.

6.2.1 Reservoir physical characteristics

Since the primary function of reservoir is to provide storage, their most important physical
characteristic is storage capacity. Capacity of reservoirs on natural sites must usually be
determined from topographic surveys. An area-elevation curve is constructed by plan imetering
the area enclosed within each contour within the reservoir site. The integral of the area-elevation
curve is the elevation-storage curve for the reservoir. The increment of storage b/n two elevations
is usually computed by multiplying the average of the areas at the two elevations by the elevation
difference. The summation of this increments below any elevation is the storage volume below
that level.

Area

Maximum-
El Volume operating level
ev area
ati
on
Minimum
operating

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 Surface water hydrology

Fig. Elevation-area & elevation-storage curves.

The maximum level to which water will rise in the reservoir during ordinary operating condition
is called normal pool level. This level corresponds to either the spillway crest level, or the top of
the level of the spillway gates. The lowest elevation to which the water in the reservoir is to be
drawn under ordinary operating condition is known as the minimum poll level. This level may be
fixed by the elevation of the lowest outlet in the dam. The storage volume b/n the minimum &
normal pool level is the useful storage where as water held below minimum pool level is dead
storage. During floods, discharge over the spillway may cause the water level to rise above
normal pool level. This surcharge storage is normally uncontrolled, i.e., it exists only while a
flood is occurring & can not be retained for later use.

Pool level during

design flood

Surcharge storage

Normal pool
level
Useful storage
Spillway
Minimum pool
level Sluiceway
(bottom outlet)

Dead storage

Fig. Zones of storage in a reservoir.

6.3 Determination of required reservoir capacity

There are different methods of determining storage size.

6.3.1Mass-Curve (Ripple) Method

From the historic record, the sequences of months having the lowest flows are abstracted and for
each sequence the cumulative amounts plotted against time.

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 Surface water hydrology

The flow mass curve (Ripple’s mass curve) is a plot of the cumulative discharge volume against
time plotted in chronological order.

Fig. flow mass curve

The slope of the Mass curve at any point represents dV/dt=Q=rate of flow at that instant. If points
M and N are connected by straight line, the slope of the line represents the average rate of flow
that can be maintained b/n the times tm and tn if a reservoir of adequate storage is available. Thus
the slope of the line Abebe Bekle joining the first and the last points of a mass curve represents
the average discharge over the whole period of plotted record.

Calculation of storage Volume

Consider a reservoir on the stream whose mass curve is plotted in the above figure. If it is
assumed that the reservoir is full at the beginning of a dry period, i.e. When the inflow rater is
less than the withdrawal (demand) rate, the maximum amount of water drawn from the storage is
the cumulative difference b/n supply and demand volumes from the beginning of the dry season.
Thus the storage required S is

S=max imum of ( ∑ V D−∑ V S )

Where

VD=Demand volume
VS= Supply volume

The storage, S which is the maximum cumulative deficiency in any dry season is obtained as the
maximum difference in the ordinate between mass curves of supply and demand. The minimum
storage volume required by a reservoir is the largest of such S values over different dry periods.

Consider the line CD of slope Qd drawn tangential to the mass curve at a high point on a ridge.
This represents a constant rate of withdrawal Qd from a reservoir and is called Demand line. If the
reservoir is full at C (at time tc), then from point C to E the demand is larger than the supply rate
as the slope of the flow mass is smaller than the demand line CD. Thus the reservoir will be
depleting and the lowest capacity is reached at E. the difference in the ordinates between the
demand line CD and a line EF drawn parallel to it and tangential to the mass curve at E (S1)
represents the volume of water needed as large time period is available, the demand lines are
drawn tangentionlly at various other storage required by reservoir.

Sleps in the procedure of Mass curve Method are:

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 Surface water hydrology

1. For the proposed dam site, construct amass of cumulative curve of the historical stream
flows.
2. Super impose on the mass curve the cumulative draft line for the reservoir such that it is
tangential to each lump of the mass inflow curve.
3. Measure the largest intercept between the mass inflow curve and the cumulative draft
line. This gives the storage capacity desired.

Calculation of Maintainable Demand

The converse problem of determining the maximum demand rate that can be maintained by a
given storage volume can also be solved by using a mass curve. In this case tangents are drawn
from the “ridges” of the mass curves across the next Valley” at various slopes. The demand line
that requires just the4 given storage is the proper demand that can be sustained by the reservoir in
that dry period. Similar demand lines are drawn at other “Valleys” in the mass curve and the
demand rates determined. The smallest of various demand rates thus found denotes the maximum
firm demand that can be sustained by the given storage. It may be noted that this problem
involves a trial and error procedure for its solution.

Note:

1. The vertical distance b/n two successive tangents to mass curve at the ridges represent
the water “Wasted” over the spillway.
2. A demand line must intersect the mass curve if the reservoir is to refill. Non
intersection of the demand line and mass curve indicates insufficient inflow.
3. In analyzing reservoir capacity the following should be taken in to account:

- loss due to evaporation & seepage from the reservoir

- precipitation on the reservoir
- d/s water requirement

6.3.2 Sequent peak Algorithm

The mass curve method of estimating the minimum storage capacity to met a specified demand
pattern has a number of different forms of use in its practical application. However, the following
basic assumptions are made in all the adoptions of the mass curve method of storage analysis.

1. If N year of data are available. The inflows and demands are assumed to repeat in
cyclic progression of N year c ycles, It is to be noted that in historical data this
leads to an implicit assumption that future flows will not contain a more sever drought
than what has already been included in the data.

2. The reservoir is assumed to be full at the beginning of a dray period. Thus, while
using the mass curve method the beginning of the dry period should be noted and the
minim storage required to pass each drought period calculated.

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 Surface water hydrology

The mass-curve method is widely used for the analysis of reservoir capacity-demand problems.
However, there are many variations of the basic method to facilitate graphical plotting, handling
of large data, etc. A variations of the arithmetical calculation described in example 2 called the
sequent peak algorithm is particularly suited for the analysis of large data with the help of a
computer.

Algorithm:

Let the data be available for N consecutive periods not necessarily of uniform length. These
periods can be year, month, day or hours depending upon the problem.

In the ith period let Xi=inflow volume and Di=demand volume

The surplus or deficit of storage in that period in that period is the net-flow volume given by
Net-flow volume =In flow volume-out flow volume
=Xi-Di
In the sequent peak algorithm a mass curve of cumulative net-flow volume against chronological
time is used. This curve will have peaks (local maximums) and troughs (local minimums). For
any peak pi the next following peak of magnitude greater than Pi is called a sequent peak. Using
two cycles of N periods, where N is the number of periods of the data series, the required storage
volume is calculated by the following procedure:

1. Calculate the cumulative net flow volumes.

ZN
∑ ( X i −Di ) for i =1 , 2 N
t=1
2. Locate the first peak P1 and the sequent peak P2 which is the next peak of greater
magnitude than P1
3. find the lowest trough T1 between and P1 and P2 and calculate (P1-T1).
4. Starting with P2 find the next sequent peak P 3 and the lowest through P2 and calculate (P2-
T2)
5. Repeat the procedure for all the sequent peaks available in the 2N periods, i.e., determine
the sequent peak Pj, the corresponding Tj and the Jth storage (Pj-Tj) for all values.
6. The required storage capacity of reservoir is S= max of (Pj-Tj) values.

Fig. Illustration of sequent-peak algorithm.

6.3.3 Residual Mass curve Method

i. Subtract the mean flow from each flow value of the record. The resulting flow is
called residua values.

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 Surface water hydrology

ii. Plot the residual mass curve (cumulative value) and superimpose the cumulative
draft line (expressed a residual) such that the draft line is tangential to each hump
of the residual curve.

iii. Measure the largest intercept between the mass inflow curve and the draft lines.

6.4 Reservoir Sedimentation

Sedimentation in reservoirs is a difficult problem for which an economical solution has not yet
been discovered, except by providing a “dead Storage” to accommodate the deposits during the
life of a dam. Disintegration, erosion, transportation and sedimentation are the different stages
leading to silting of reservoirs.

The stream spreads out on entering the reservoir and loses its identity. Both the velocity and
sediment carrying capacity decrease rapidly with distance from the entry pint.
Consequently, some or most of the sediment brought in by the stream is deposited in the
reservoir. How the sediment is deposited, and how much of it, depends on the size and shape of
the reservoir and the characteristics of the sediment. In alluvial or non-cohesive soils the size &
weight of individual particles are the dominant parameters for sediment movement and transport.
In cohesive soils the elector-chemical interactions dominate and the size and weight of an
individual particle may be little importance. Cohesive soils form a coherat mass.

6.4.1 Effects of Sedimentation on Reservoir function

1. Loss of storage and Services:

Sedimentation impairs the useful life of a reservoir and directly affects the services
dependent upon the water storage.
2. Deposition at outlet gates:
Distribution of sediments is an important consideration in the location of gates or outlets
to avoid area where rapid sedimentation might occur. Deposition may also occur at gates
located at the dam particularly during period of heavy draw down.

3. Aggradation above Reservoirs:

Deposition in delta and above crest elevation of reservoirs may cause serious aggradation
u/s from the reservoir. Such aggradation results in reduced capacity of upstream channels
to contain flows which create more frequent or permanent flooding elevating of ground
water tables and swamping of lands in the valleys and may actually bury under sediments.

4. Degradation below Reservoirs:-

Where the outflow has sufficient tractive force to initiate movement of materials in the
channel below the structure, channel degradation takes places. Numerous and prolonged
outflows of clear water from reservoirs into channels with unlimited depths and reaches of

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 Surface water hydrology

transportable materials result in rapid degradation, which may extend for many Km
downstream.

6.4.2 Mechanism of Sedimentation (in Reservoirs)

The sediment arrives both in suspension and as bed load. In many respects deposits in a reservoir
resemble those in a delta, made by a stream where it discharges into a lake or sea. The reservoir is
basically a large settling basin but, due to its geometry and widely varying inflow rates, a
complex one.

A coarser sediment that arrives as bed load settles out at the u/s end of the reservoir and creates a
delta. The discrete non-flocculating particles of the suspended sediment load settle according to
their fall velocity. The coarser grains settle first and lead, together with some finer particles, to
the formation of the delta. The finer particles are deposited over a much wider area of the
reservoir. The very fine particles are distributed more or less uniformly over the whole floor of
the reservoir. Some colloidal fraction may not settle at all during the residence time of water in
the reservoir.

The distribution of deposits in the reservoir and the amount of sediment retained depends on
sediment size and grading, size and shape of the reservoir, inflow and outflow rates, relative
locations of inflow and outflow and type of outflow structure.

An inflow heavily laden with suspended sediment can also continue as density current through
the reservoir. A density current is the flow of a fluid of slightly different density under, through
or over another fluid with out loss of identify through mixing at the interfaces, even through the
two fluids are miscible. The density differences may arise from sediment concentration,
temperature or salinity.

The sediment lader stream entering the nearly static water in a reservoir has higher density. It
penetrates a distance into the reservoir and then plunges under the lighter water of the reservoir. It
may continue to flow along the bed. Such a flow exhibits most of the features of open channel
flow. (The major differences, apart from small density differences, and the much grater surface
drag at the interface, compared to that between water and air, and the mixing across the interface.
The flow continues until its velocity is reduced to zero and its sediment load is deposited or it
stopped by the dam.

The primary task for the designer of a reservoir is to assure the economic life expectancy of the
reservoir, i.e., to assure that the silting-up does not seriously reduce the benefits the reservoir was
designed to deliver.

The loss of reservoir capacity can be rapid, particularly in semiarid regions where seasonally
heavy rainfall on soils with sparse vegetation can lead to severe erosion and very high sediment
loads in streams.

The rate of loss of storage (sedimentation) depends on factors like.

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 Surface water hydrology

-Sediment Yield and transport form catchment:

-Sediment characteristics;
-Land usage
-Sediment control measures in the catchment;
-Reservoir geometry;
-Mode of deposition;
-Operating procedure for reservoir
-Rehabilitation procedures (removal of sediment from the reservoir)

the most dominant single factor affecting the loss of storage is the rainfall. The distribution over
the climatic cycle and the intensities of rainfall control both the erosion process and the inflow
hydrograph to the reservoir.

Incoming Sediment

One of the more reliable methods of sediment prediction is the one based on a measured
sediment-rating curve of the river (s) feeding the reservoir. From concurrent measurements of
flow and sediment load, a sediment-rating curve can be established that, combined of with the
flow duration curve, yields the annual sediment yield. However, such rating curves usually cover
only the suspended sediment load. Bad load is much more difficult to measure and data on it are
rare. Another major concern is that the field data seldom reflect the sediment transport during
high flows. Measurements during floods are practically impossible. Hence, the rating curve must
be extrapolated & this process can introduce a large degree of uncertainty, particularly if only
few no data points are available for high flows. In general, the reliability of the sediment-rating
curve is questionable if the record in short.

Inmost cases the bed load yield (usually<10% of the suspended load yield) has to be estimated
with the aid of a suitable formula for sediment transport. If both bed load and suspended load
data are scarce, the sediment load can be simulated and the measured data can be then be used to
test the results. The annual yield can then be calculated with the aid of the flow duration curve.

The computed sediment yield can be much greater than actual one. The computed yield is that of
the stream’s transport capacity without reference to the availability of sediment.

The methods described above lead to predictions of the sediment yield from catchments as they
were when the data where taken. If the catchment conditions change with time. E.g. due to
deforestation, conversion into arable land, etc., the sediment yilds may change drastically. For
these cases, mathematical models are useful. They also serve to complement the computations
sediment yield. The models are designed to help in estimating the sediment yields with the aid to
topographic, geologic and land-use data augmented by aerial photographs and field surveys. The
major advantage of the model is that they allow one to simulate sediment yields under a variety
of assumed catchment conditions and land usages.

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Trap Efficiency of Reservoirs

The actual rate of silting of a reservoir depends on many other factors, in addition to the rate of
sediment production in the catchment area; they are trap efficiency of the reservoir ratio of
reservoir capacity to total runoff, gradation of silt, method of reservoir operation, etc.

The trap efficiency of a reservoir is defined as the ratio of the deposited sediment to the total
sediment inflow. It depends mainly on the sediment characteristics, the detention time of water in
the reservoir and the degree of reservoir siltation. A number of empirical relationships have been
developed for the for the trap efficiency of large reservoirs. Among the various methods, that by
Brune (1953) is the most widely used. If expresses the efficiency interims of the ration of
capacity of the reservoir to annual inflow of water (m3/m3).

Note:

- the upper enveloping curve is to be used when inflowing sediment is highly

flocullating or coarse.
- The lower enveloping curve is to be used when inflowing sediment is colloidal or fine.

6.4.2.1Sediment distribution in reservoirs

There was a time when it was believed that sediment always deposited in the bottom elevations
of a reservoir rather than depositing throughout the full range of reservoir depth. It is now fully
realized that sediment deposits spread throughout the reservoir reducing the incremental capacity
at all elevation.

Major design considerations due to distributed sediment deposits include:-

1. Elevation to which sediment will accumulate at the dam in a given period of time. This
information is useful in deciding the elevation of the river outlet and power penstock sills.

2. Reduction of the live storage capacity. It this loss can be predicted, the structure height
can be set to provide the required water supply storage.

3. Deposits of the sediment in the upper reaches of the reservoir. These deposits can result in
a significant increase in the water surface elevations u/s.

4. Effect on recreational developments around the reservoir. The sediment deposits could
influence the location of such facilities especially when the reservoir is one that will have
considerable draw down exposing sediment deposits.

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5. Reservoir planned solely for sediment accumulation. A considerable portion of the total
sediment stored may be above crest elevation of the reservoir.

The consistency of the deposits varies extensively over the reservoir floor. The delta region
consists of coarser sediment, arriving mainly as bed load, whereas large areas further away
are covered by fine grained sediments form suspension. These latter deposits can be strongly
cohesive.

6.4.3 Reservoir sedimentation control

Sediment deposition in reservoirs cannot be actually prevented, but it can be retarded by adopting
some of the following measures:

(i) Minimizing the sediment input to the reservoir by

- Preventing soil erosion in the catchment using soil conservation methods:

- Terracing, Strip cropping, contour plowing, afforestation , etc.
ii) Maximizing the discharge of the sediment through flow by
- Providing sluice gates in the dam at various levels operating them Permitting the
discharge of fine sediments without giving them tome to settle to the bottom.
*The sediment-laden inflow moves through the reservoir as a density current towards the dam,
where it can be drawn-off suitably located & operated outlets.

(iii) the recovery of storage (Rehabilitation of Reservoirs)

In locations where the reservoir traps large volumes of sediment, the accumulated silt can
impare its effectiveness. In those cases the question of removal of sediment from the reservoir
becomes important.

The methods of removal can be divided into two groups.

1. Those without external energy requirement, and

2. Those requiring external energy input.

The former are various flushing techniques, and the latter the numerous methods of mechanical
excavation and dredging.

The flushing of deposits by opening a bottom outlet of the dam is widely used practice but often
with limited success. Flushing without first lowering the reservoir level scours only an erosion of
the material. If done in conjunction with a lowering of the reservoir level, the scouring can move
progressively up the valley; finally, even the original stream bed can be exposed . However, the
process tends to scour a narrow gully in the cohesive deposits and, unless the deposits on the side
slopes are bulldozed down during the scouring process, only a small amount of the deposit is
removed at the cost of all the water in storage. If assisted by bulldozing, the scouring can be very

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effective, but the heavy sediment load downstream in the river often loads to severe
environmental problems.

The flushing is most advantageous during floods when the sediment inflow is high, and it may
even lead to a density current. Passing the sediment-laden water near the bottom through the
reservoir and on d/s through the outlets, rather than over the spillway reduces significantly the
amount of sediment trapped in the reservoir. For effective sluicing of sediment, the reservoir
valley should be nearly straight and have a steep slope at the u/s part of the reservoir. The water
in the reservoir should also be deep.

An alternative method of sediment removal is by siphoning. It is effective with non-cohesive or

weakly cohesive sediments.

The other group, that requiring external energy, involves all of the mechanical excavation
techniques as well as the various methods of dredging. The disadvantage of mechanical
excavation and dredging is the release of fine sediments into the water of the reservoir.

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