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Chapter One The Process of Portfolio Management

The Internet exercises are also useful homework problems or group activities following
each chapter.

2
Chapter One The Process of Portfolio Management

TEACHING CONSIDERATIONS

This first chapter is an overview of the material to be covered in the text. Most of the text
is directed to the portfolio management process while very little relates to individual
security selection or analysis. It is important that students understand this focus so that their
expectations for the course are realistic. This is also a good place to stress the idea that the
portfolio management process is primarily involved with the reduction of risk while
maintaining a desired expected return.

The following paragraphs provide a brief overview of the text.

Part One of the text establishes a review and background for the investment process.
The second chapter provides a brief review of basic finance concepts and the statistical
foundations that will be utilized in developing the Modern Portfolio Theory in future
chapters. Chapters 3 and 4 introduce portfolio objectives and policies. Investment policy
statement preparation is a major theme of Level III of the Chartered Financial Analyst
program. Many textbooks give this topic only limited coverage. I think it is important and
recommend you spend some time on this.

Part Two provides a review of general investment concepts. The heart of the
quantitative foundation of Modern Portfolio Theory is presented in Chapters 5 and 6.
Chapters 7 and 8 cover international investments and the efficient market concept.
Preliminaries about stocks are covered in Chapter 9. Chapter 10 is new to the fifth edition.
This chapter on equity valuation is in response to some long-time users of the book who
wanted more on security selection. Chapter 11 covers security screening. Bond basics are
covered in Chapter 12. Chapter 13 introduces real assets. Chapter 14 on alternative assets
is also new to this edition. This asset class has become quite important in institutional
portfolios.

Part Three covers many issues in the practice of portfolio management. Chapter 15
covers stock portfolios, and Chapter 16 covers bond portfolios. Chapters 17 and 18 provide
a foundation on options and option overwriting. Performance evaluation techniques are
presented in Chapter 19, and fiduciary duties are covered in Chapter 20. This topic is also
one that is quite important in the world of money management, and is an area that many
instructors have not historically covered in their course. I find that students like this
material; don’t skip it.

Part Four covers portfolio hedging using derivatives. Chapter 21 provides a

foundation about the futures market. Hedging techniques for stock and bond portfolios are
presented in Chapters 22 and 23. Chapter 24 puts the whole process together with specific
examples. Finally, Chapter 25 discusses several current issues concerning portfolio
management.

3
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of A treatise on
the art of making good wholesome bread of
wheat, oats, rye, barley and other farinaceous
grains
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Title: A treatise on the art of making good wholesome bread of

wheat, oats, rye, barley and other farinaceous grains

Author: Friedrich Christian Accum

Release date: October 4, 2019 [eBook #60424]

Most recently updated: October 17, 2024

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON

THE ART OF MAKING GOOD WHOLESOME BREAD OF WHEAT, OATS,
RYE, BARLEY AND OTHER FARINACEOUS GRAINS ***
The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the
public domain.
 A TREATISE

ON THE ART OF

MAKING GOOD AND WHOLESOME

BREAD
OF

WHEAT, OATS, RYE, BARLEY,

AND

OTHER FARINACEOUS GRAIN

EXHIBITING

THE ALIMENTARY PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF BREAD CORN, AND OF THE
VARIOUS SUBSTITUTES USED FOR BREAD, IN
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD.
 By FREDRICK ACCUM,
OPERATIVE CHEMIST,
Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on Chemistry applied to the
Arts and
Manufactures; Member of the Royal Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan Society;
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society
of Arts of Berlin, &c. &c.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR THOMAS BOYS, 7, LUDGATE HILL,

By C. Green, Leicester Street, Leicester Square.
1821.
 PREFACE.

LONDON,
COMPTON STREET, SOHO.

The object of this Treatise is to exhibit the chemical principles of

the art of making good and wholesome Bread, of Wheat, Oats, Rye,
Barley, Rice, Potatoes, and other farinaceous substances used for
this purpose in different parts of the world.
I have first taken a view of the chemical constitution of the
Alimentary Substances derived from the vegetable kingdom, and
have added an Historical Sketch of the Art of Making Bread. I have
elucidated the chemical constitution of the substances of which
Bread is made among civilized nations, as well as of various nutritive
materials, besides Bread Corn, which are used in different countries
as substitutes for Bread.
I have described the chemical analysis of Bread Flour, its
immediate constituent parts, their proportions in different kinds of
grain, and the method of separating them. I have pointed out the
materials more particularly fitted for the fabrication of Bread; I have
explained the reason why a variety of Alimentary Farinaceous Seeds,
in common use, cannot be made into light and porous loaf-bread,
although they are well calculated, under other forms, of being
converted into highly nutritious food.
I have explained the chemical distinction which exists between
bread made with yeast, as well as with leaven, and bread made
without either of these species of ferment; and, lastly, I have given
specific directions for making the different kinds of Bread prepared
from Wheat, Oats, Rye, Barley, Rice, Maize, Buck-wheat, Potatoes,
and other farinaceous substances, as practised in various countries.

FREDRICK ACCUM.
 CONTENTS.

PAGE

PREFACE i

CONTENTS 1

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, CHIEFLY WITH 7

REGARD TO THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND
NUTRITIVE QUALITY OF THE SUBSTANCES OF
FOOD DERIVED FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ART OF MAKING 25

BREAD

BREAD CORN 30

THE BREAD-FRUIT 39

SAGO BREAD, and SAGO 41

CASAVA BREAD, and TAPIOCA 43

PLANTAIN BREAD 45

BANANA BREAD 46

BREAD OF DRIED FISH 47

BREAD MADE OF MOSS 49

BREAD MADE OF EARTH 50

———————

ANALYSIS OF BREAD FLOUR 52

QUANTITY OF FLOUR OBTAINABLE FROM VARIOUS 55

KINDS OF CEREAL AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS
EMPLOYED IN THE FABRICATION OF BREAD, AND
DIFFERENT KINDS OF FLOUR MANUFACTURED
FROM WHEAT

REASON WHY OATS, PEASE, BEANS, RICE, MAIZE, 58

MILLET, BUCKWHEAT, AND OTHER NUTRITIVE
GRAINS CANNOT BE MADE INTO LIGHT AND
POROUS BREAD

THEORY OF THE PANIFICATION OF BREAD FLOUR 61

———————

UNLEAVENED BREAD 66
OATMEAL CAKES 68

MIXED OATMEAL AND PEASE BREAD 69

UNLEAVENED MAIZE BREAD 70

UNLEAVENED BEAN-FLOUR BREAD 71

UNLEAVENED BUCKWHEAT BREAD 71

UNLEAVENED ACORN BREAD 72

SEA BISCUIT 73

———————

LEAVENED BREAD 79

LEAVENED RYE BREAD 83

HUNGARIAN RYE BREAD 85

———————

BREAD MADE WITH YEAST 88

METHOD OF MAKING WHEATEN BREAD, AS 93

PRACTISED BY THE LONDON BAKERS

QUANTITY OF BREAD OBTAINABLE FROM A GIVEN 97

QUANTITY OF WHEATEN FLOUR
HOME-MADE WHEATEN BREAD 100

TO MAKE PAN-BREAD 102

BROWN WHEATEN BREAD 103

MIXED WHEATEN BREAD 104

ROLLS 105

FRENCH BREAD 105

MUFFINS AND CRUMPETS 105

BARLEY BREAD 109

MIXED BARLEY BREAD 111

RYE BREAD 112

TURNIP BREAD 114

RICE BREAD 116

POTATOE BREAD 121

POTATOE ROLLS 124

APPLE BREAD 125

DOMESTIC OVEN FOR BAKING BREAD 126

POPULAR ERRORS CONCERNING THE QUALITY OF 133

BREAD

LAWS PROHIBITING THE ADULTERATION OF BREAD 149

AND BREAD FLOUR

ECONOMICAL APPLICATION OF YEAST 162

ECONOMICAL PREPARATION OF YEAST 165

ECONOMICAL METHOD OF MAKING YEAST, 165

RECOMMENDED BY DR. LETTSOM

POTATOE YEAST 166

METHOD OF PRESERVING YEAST 167

 A

TREATISE
ON THE ART OF MAKING

Good and Wholesome Bread.

 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

To most animals nature has designed a limited range of aliment,

when compared to the extensive choice allotted to man. If we look
into the history of the human race, inhabiting the different parts of
the globe, as far as we are acquainted with it, we find, that man
appears to be designed by nature to eat of all substances that are
capable of nourishing him: fruits, grains, roots, herbs, flesh, fish,
reptiles, and fowls, all contribute to his sustenance. He can even
subsist on every variety of these substances, under every mode of
preparation, dried, preserved in salt, hardened in smoke, pickled in
vegetable acids, &c.
The Author of Nature has so constructed our organs of digestion,
that we can accommodate ourselves to every species of aliment; no
kind of food injures us; we are capable of being habituated to every
species, and of converting into nutriment almost every production of
nature.
When we enquire more minutely into the chemical constitution of
the different alimentary materials, which promote the growth,
support the strength, and renew the waste of our body, we find that
animal substances are not suited to form the whole of our daily
food; and that, in fact, if long and extensively used, their stimulating
effects at length exhausts and debilitates the system, which it at first
invigorated and supported. Those, accordingly, who have lived for
any great length of time on a diet composed entirely of animal
matter, become oppressed, heavy, and indolent, the tone and
excitability of their frame are impaired, they are affected with
indigestion, the breathing is hurried on the smallest exercise, the
gums become spongy, the breath is fœtid, and the limbs swell. We
recognize in this description the approach of scurvy, a disease
familiar to sailors, to the inhabitants of besieged towns, and, in
general, to all who are wholly deprived of a just proportion of
vegetable aliment.
On the other hand, vegetable food being less stimulating is also
less nourishing; besides, this kind of aliment is, upon the whole, of
more difficult assimilation than the food derived from the animal
kingdom. Hence it is, perhaps, that nature has provided a greater
extent of digestive organs for animals wholly herbivorous. It is
insufficient to raise the human system to all the strength and vigour
of which it is susceptible. Flatulency of the stomach, muscular and
nervous debility, and a long series of disorders, are not unfrequently
the consequences of this too sparing diet. Some Eastern nations,
indeed, live almost entirely on vegetable substances; but these, it is
remarked, are seldom so robust, so active, or so brave, as men who
live on a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food. Few, at least, in
the countries of Europe can be sufficiently nourished by vegetable
food alone; and even those nations, and individuals, who are said to
live exclusively on vegetables, because they do not eat the flesh of
animals, generally make use of milk at least, of eggs, and butter and
cheese.
Food composed of animal and vegetable materials is, in truth, that
which is best suited to the nature and condition of man. The
proportions in which these should be used it is not easy to
determine, but generally the quantity of vegetables should exceed
that of animal food. “On this head,” says Dr. Fothergill, “I have only
one short caution to give. Those who think it necessary to pay any
attention to their health, at table, should take care that the quantity
of bread, of meat, and of pudding, and of greens, should not
compose, each of them, a meal, as if some only were thrown in to
make weight, but carefully to observe that the sum of, altogether, do
not exceed due bounds or incroach upon the first feeling of satiety.”
 All the products of the vegetable kingdom, used as aliment, are
not equally nutritious. When we contemplate with a chemical eye
the nutritive principles contained in vegetable substances, we soon
perceive that they are but few in number, namely, starch, gluten,
mucilage, jelly, fixed oil, sugar, and acids; and the different
vegetable parts of them are nutritious, wholesome, and digestible,
according to the nature and proportion of their principles contained
in them. The starch and gluten appear the most nutritious, and
together with mucilage at the same time, the most abundant
ingredients contained in those vegetables from which man derives
his subsistence. Hence, from time immemorial, and in all parts of the
earth, man has used farinaceous seeds as part of his food, for they
contain the above-mentioned materials in the greatest abundance.
Of these the most nutritive are the seeds of the Cerealia, under
which title are commonly comprehended the Gramineæ, or
Culminiferous plants. Whilst the seeds of the Gramineæ supply the
most important part of food furnished by the vegetable kingdom, in
almost every part of the world, their leaves and young shoots
support that class of animals hence called graminivorous, whose
flesh is most generally eaten.
These vegetables are distributed so universally over the face of
the earth, and have become to such a degree the object of culture,
that they are very generally made into bread, or are employed
instead of it; and, upon the whole, it appears that they are nutritive
merely in the proportion to the quantity of farinaceous matter
contained in them; but this substance exists in different
combinations in different cereal and leguminous seeds. It is
combined with gluten in wheat, with a saccharine matter in oats,
and in many leguminous seeds, such as Harricot beans and pease,
and with viscous mucilage in rye and Windsor beans.
Next to the Cerealia and Leguminosæ may be ranged the oily
farinaceous seeds, such as almonds, walnuts, filberts, &c. These
abound in starch and mucilage. The use of chocolate, which is
prepared from the chocolate nut, growing in the West Indies, ground
into a paste, with or without sugar, is in itself a nutritious substance,
and to those with whom it agrees, it may be considered as a
wholesome nutritious aliment. Yet the vegetable farina, in this state
of existence, though highly nutritious, and to many palates very
agreeable, is more difficult of digestion, and does not, upon the
whole, afford a very wholesome alimentary substance. When too
freely used, those kinds of seeds are sure to disagree, more
especially if from age the oil has become rancid. They must be
considered rather as a delicacy than as fitted to form a portion of
our daily food, and with some particular stomachs they never agree.
Of the alimentary farinaceous roots, the potatoe, boiled or
roasted, is one of the most useful, and perhaps after the Cerealia,
one of the most wholesome and most nutritious vegetables in
common use; its nourishing powers, there can be no doubt, depend
upon the amylaceous fecula of which it is chiefly composed. The
Jerusalem artichoke deserves likewise to be noticed here, as being a
highly alimentary root, chiefly composed of farinaceous matter. Of
the fruits rich in farinaceous and mucilaginous matter, few are
indigenous. The chesnut, when roasted, affords an alimentary food,
but in the East and West Indies the bread fruit, bananas, and the
fruit of the plantain tree, are the substitutes for bread.
Scarcely any of the various alimentary substances employed by
man are consumed in the raw and crude state in which they are
presented to us by nature. Almost all of them are previously
subjected to some kind of preparation, or change, by which for the
most part they are rendered more wholesome and more digestible,
and sometimes more nutritive. Accordingly, the observations we
have made on the properties of different vegetable aliments, are to
be considered as applied to them in the state in which they are
commonly used among us.
When in the preparation of bread a baking heat is applied to the
flour dough, a complete change is produced in the constitution of
the mass. The new substance of bread differs materially from flour, it
no longer forms a tenacious mass with water, nor can starch and
gluten be any more separated from it.
 By the application of heat to vegetables the more volatile and
watery parts are in some cases dissipated. The different principles,
according to their peculiar properties, are extracted, softened,
dissolved, or coagulated; but most commonly they are changed into
new combinations, so as to be no longer distinguishable by the
forms and chemical properties which they originally possessed.
In like manner the leguminous seeds, and farinaceous roots are
greatly altered by the chemical action of heat. The raw potatoe is ill-
flavoured, extremely indigestible, and even unwholesome. By
roasting, or boiling, it becomes farinaceous, sweet, and agreeable to
the taste, wholesome, digestible, and highly nutritious. Little is lost,
and nothing is added to the potatoe by this process, yet its
properties are greatly changed; its principles, in short, have suffered
very remarkable chemical changes.
Even in the simple boiling of the various leguminous seeds, pot-
herbs, and esculent roots, the effect does not seem confined to the
mere softening of the fibres, the solution of some, and coagulation
of other of their juices and principles; not only their texture, but
their flavour, and other sensible qualities have undergone a change,
by which their alimentary properties have been improved; the
farinaceous matter by boiling is rendered soluble, the vegetable fibre
softened. Saccharine matter is often formed, mucilage and jelly
extracted and combined, and the product is rendered more
palatable, wholesome, and nourishing. And, although every country
has its own favourite articles of food, and modes of preparing them,
and there is perhaps no subject in regard to which local prejudices
are so strong, yet there can be no reason why the farinaceous
matter of cereal seeds should always be consumed in the state of
bread; many of them are not less agreeable, and not less
wholesome in other forms of food.
In Scotland nine-tenths of those in the more humble walks of life
live upon barleybroth, and there are not more healthy people to be
found any where.—Cullen’s Materia Medica, v. I. p. 287.
 It is chiefly to save the trouble of dressing any other kind of food,
and that bread, from its portability and convenience of always being
ready, has become the principal sustenance, but it is far from being
the most economical method of using farinaceous grain. There can
be no doubt that the same quantity of farinaceous matter made into
bread might, in other forms, be used to a much greater advantage;
for the great art of preparing good and wholesome food is to convert
the alimentary matter into such a substance as to fill up the stomach
and alimentary canal without overcharging it with more nutritive
matter than is requisite for the support of the animal, and this may
be done either by bread, or by converting the mealy substance of
which it is composed into other forms, of which there is a great
variety.
Persons who have travelled much on the continent are well aware
that our neighbours have the art of throwing much more variety and
gratification of the palate into the article of subsistence which has
been emphatically called the staff of life, than we possess. The
French and Germans convert the farinaceous flour of vegetables into
a variety of excellent articles of food, and not serving, like our own,
as a mere companion to pair off with so many mouthfuls of meat.
In speaking thus of the use of bread, I do not mean to deny that
bread is highly alimentary, its nourishing powers are undoubtedly
very great.
The finest bread, says an eminent physician (Dr. Buchan), is not
always the best adapted for answering the purposes of nutrition.
Household bread, which is made by grinding the whole grain, and
only separating the coarse bran, is, without doubt, the most
wholesome.
The people of South Britain generally prefer bread made of the
finest wheat flour, while those of the Northern countries eat a
mixture of flour and oatmeal, or rye bread. The common people of
Scotland also eat a mixed bread, but more frequently bread made of
oatmeal only.
 In Germany the common bread is made of rye. The flour of millet
is made in France, Spain, and Italy, into wholesome and nourishing
pastry and puddings. The American and West Indian labourer thinks
no bread so strengthening as that which is made of Indian corn.
The inhabitants of Westphalia, who are a hardy and robust people,
capable of enduring the greatest fatigues, live on a coarse brown rye
bread, which still retains the opprobrious name once given to it by a
French traveller, “Bon pour Nicole—good for his horse Nichol.”
The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be
obvious; but bread is often spoiled to please the eye. I have
elsewhere[1] shewn, that in the making of bread, more especially in
London, various ingredients are occasionally mingled with the
dough. The baker is obliged to suit the caprice of his customers, to
have his bread light and porous, and of a pure white colour. It is
impossible to produce this sort of bread from flour alone, unless it
be of the finest quality. The best flour, however, being mostly used
by the biscuit bakers and pastry cooks, it is only from the inferior
sorts that bread is made; and it becomes necessary, in order to have
it of that light and porous quality, and of a fine white, to mix alum
with the dough. Without this ingredient the flour used by the London
bakers would not yield so white a bread as that sold in this
metropolis, and herein consists the fraud, that the baker is enabled
by the use of this ingredient to produce, from bad materials, bread
that is light, white, and porous, but of which the quality does not
correspond to the appearance, and thus to impose upon the public.
1. Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons, 2nd Edit. 1820, p. 130.
In the following pages I have enumerated the methods by which
all the different kinds of farinaceous substances are made into good
and wholesome bread, and are used in different countries as articles
of daily sustenance.
Art of making Bread.
 HISTORICAL SKETCH

OF

THE ART OF MAKING BREAD.

Nothing appears so easy at first sight, as to grind corn, or other

farinaceous substances, to knead the flour with water into dough,
and to convert it, by baking, into porous bread. But, simple as these
operations may now appear to us, the art of making loaf-bread was
by no means one of the earliest among human inventions.
For, however essential this species of food may be considered
among us as an article of primary subsistence, it is perfectly certain,
that men had long existed in a state of civilization, before bread was
known among them.
It is evident that every species of corn must have been originally
the spontaneous production of the earth; but as the grain, previous
to cultivation, would grow but scantily, its importance as food might
long escape observation, and mankind would naturally derive a more
obvious, though less nutritive subsistence, from acorns, berries, and
other fruits which were within their reach. Ages elapsed ere Ceres,
according to the Grecian mythology, descended from heaven to
teach mankind the use of agriculture.
In the early ages of society, according to some historians, men
were satisfied with parching their corn for immediate use as food.
The next advance appears to have been, to pulverize the grain in a
mortar or handmill, and to form it, by the addition of water or milk,
into a kind of porridge; or to make the bruised grain into dough,
which was rendered eatable by baking on embers.
Even after the method of grinding corn into meal, and separating
the bran by sifting, had become known, it was long before the art of
fermenting the dough, in order to produce bread full of eyes and of
a soft consistence, was discovered.
Like most other operations of primary importance, the origin of
the art of making bread is lost in the darkness of ages past.
We are, however, certain that the Jews practised this art in the
time of Moses; for we find in the Book of Exodus, chap. xii. v. 18, a
prohibition to make use of leavened, that is, fermented bread,
during the celebration of the Passover. But it does not appear that
loaf-bread was known to Abraham, for in his history we read
frequently of cakes, but not of fermented bread. It is, therefore, very
probable, that the art of making fermented bread took its rise in the
East, and that the Jews learned it from the Egyptians.
The Greeks attribute the art of making bread to the god Pan.
Bakers were unknown in Rome till the year of the city 850, or
about 200 years before the Christian era. The Roman bakers,
according to Pliny, came from Greece with the Macedonian army.
Before this period, the Romans were often distinguished by the
appellation of eaters of pap.
At the time of Augustus, there were upwards of 300 baking
houses in Rome, almost the whole of which were occupied by
Greeks. The bakers enjoyed in ancient Rome great privileges. The
public granaries were entrusted to their care; they formed a
corporation, or kind of college, from which neither they nor their
children were permitted to withdraw. They were exempted from
guardianships and public services, which might interfere with their
occupation. They were eligible to become Senators; and those who
married the daughters of bakers, became members of the college.
 From the establishment of bakers in Rome, the art of making loaf,
or fermented bread, spread amongst the ancient Gauls; but its
progress in the northern countries of Europe was slow, and in some
northern districts, the luxury of eating fermented, or loaf-bread, is at
this day not in general use. Some of the modern Italians consume
the greatest part of their bread-flour in the state of macaroni and
vermicelli, and in other forms of polenta, or soft pudding; and even
at present millions of people neither sow nor reap, but content
themselves with enjoying the spontaneous productions of the earth.