THEME: EARTH AND SPACE SYSTEM

TOPIC: THE SOLAR SYSTEM

What to you should know.
• How the Earth orbits around the sun and the moon around the Earth and the time taken for these
orbits.
• The cause of day and night.
• Why the shape of the moon appears to change over a period of time when viewed from the Earth.
• How the tilt of the Earth gives rise to seasons in some parts of the world.
• The implications of the above for activities on Earth.
• Use a model to explain how the earth and moon move relative to the sun and use it to explain
eclipses.
• The connection between the moon and ocean tides.
• The components of the solar system, and make a scale model of the planets and place them in
order showing their relative distance from the Sun.
• The main characteristics of the inner four and outer four planets.
• Why the Earth is the only planet which supports life.
• The asteroid belt and where it is found in the Solar System.
• The origin and structure of the universe.

The Earths’ orbit about the sun & Moons’ orbit about the earth.
The Earth revolves in an orbit around the Sun in 365.25 days, with reference to the stars, at a speed
ranging from 29.29 to 30.29 kms-1. The 6 hours, 9 minutes (0.25 days) adds up to about an extra day
every fourth year, which is designated in a leap year, an extra day added as February 29th.

The Moon takes about one month to orbit the Earth (27.3 days to complete a revolution, but 29.5 days
to change from the present Moon to New Moon). As the Moon completes each 27.3-day orbit around
Earth, both Earth and the Moon are moving around the Sun. The Earth and the Moon’s orbits are
maintained by a gravitational force that attracts and keeps them in the orbit.

Day and night

Day and night are due to the Earth rotating on its axis, not its orbiting around the sun. The term 'one
day' is determined by the time the Earth takes to rotate once on its axis and includes both day time and
night time. When the Earth rotates a given part facing the sun, that part experiences day and when that
Earth’s part faces away from the sun, then that part experiences night.

Daytime is when you can see the sun from where you are, and its light and heat can reach you.
Nighttime is when the sun is on the other side of the Earth from you, and its light and heat don’t
get to you.

We get day and night because the Earth spins (or rotates) on an imaginary line called its axis and
different parts of the planet are facing towards the Sun or away from it.

It takes 24 hours for the world to turn all the way around, and we call this a day. Over a year, the
length of the daytime in the part of the Earth where you live changes. Days are longer in the
summer and shorter in the winter. It’s summarized as below;

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 1. It takes 24 hours for the Earth to turn all the way around (rotation). That makes one day
and one night.
2. At any moment, half of the world is in daytime and half is in nighttime.
3. The world is like a ball. We call the top half the Northern hemisphere and the bottom half
the Southern hemisphere. The (imaginary) line between them is called the equator.
4. In the Northern hemisphere, we have summer in June, July and August and winter is in
December, January and February.
5. In summer the days are longer than they are in winter. In London, the longest day is
about 16 hours and 39 minutes and the shortest is 7 hours and 45 minutes.
6. In the Southern hemisphere the seasons are the other way around. When it is summer in
Europe, it is winter in Australia. Imagine celebrating Christmas on a long, hot summer
day.
7. The (imaginary) line between the Eastern and Western hemispheres is called the ‘Prime
Meridian’ and it goes through Greenwich Royal Observatory in London.
8. The world is split into time zones. Continental Europe is in the time zone to the east of
Britain, so time is one hour ahead there; when it is 1pm in Britain it is 2pm in France.

Changes in the shape of the Moon

The Moon doesn't emit (give off) light itself, the 'moonlight' we see is actually the Sun's light reflected
off the lunar surface. So, as the Moon orbits the Earth, the Sun lights up different parts of it, making it
seem as if the Moon is changing shape. In actual fact, it's just our view of it that's altering…

1. It is a universal fact the Moon does not produce light itself. It is the Sun who produces
the light and the Moon brights from the Sun's light.
2. Because of the Moon's changing position as it orbits our planet, the Sun's light focus on
different parts of it, giving the illusion that the Moon is changing shape over time.
3. But the fact is that the Moon never changes its shape. The shape of the Moon that appears
at night, is the only part of the Moon which is facing us and in sunlight.
4. There are eight total phases of the moon cycle, four primary phases, and four secondary
phases.
5. The primary phases are the new moon, first quarter, full moon, and last quarter.
6. The secondary phases are waxing crescent, waxing gibbous, waning crescent, and waning
gibbous. The term waxing refers to the growth of the moon's image, while the term
waning refers to a shrinking image.
7. The moon changes its shape every day. The day on which the whole of the moon is
visible is known as the full moon day. Thereafter every night the size of the bright part of
the moon appears to become thinner day by day.
8. On the fifteenth day, the moon is not visible. This day is known as the “new moon day”.
On most days only a small portion of the moon appears in the sky. This is known as the
crescent moon. Then again moon grows larger every day.
9. On the fifteenth day, once again we get a full view of the moon. The time period between
one full moon to the next full moon is slightly longer than 29 days (~29.5 days). The
various shapes of the bright part of the moon as seen during a month are called phases of
the moon.

Seasons in some parts of the earth

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As the earth spins on its axis, producing night and day, it also moves about the sun in an elliptical
(elongated circle) orbit that requires about 365 1/4 days to complete. The earth's spin axis is tilted with
respect to its orbital plane. This is what causes the seasons. When the earth's axis points towards the
sun, it is summer for that hemisphere. When the earth's axis points away, winter can be expected.

Throughout the year, different parts of Earth receive the Sun's most direct rays. So, when the North Pole
tilts toward the Sun, it's summer in the Northern Hemisphere. And when the South Pole tilts toward the
Sun, it's winter in the Northern Hemisphere.

Implication of season on activities on earth.

The season on earth affects the various activities conducted by human beings. This ranges from
human activities, agricultural activities and human life. These activities are all affected by the
seasons which arises from the changes in seasons.

Question.

Asses the impact and implications of changing seasons to the human and other activities on
Earth.

Relative motion of the sun and moon and eclipse.

The Sun is the largest of the sun, Earth and Moon. The earth rotates about the sun and revolves
about its own axis. The moon rotates about the Earth and the sun concurrently. When the Sun,
Earth and the Moon are in a straight line, the shadow of the sun is cast either on the Earth or the
Moon. This is referred to as an eclipse.

During a solar eclipse, the moon moves between the Earth and the sun and blocks the sunlight.
The shadow is formed on Earth.

During a lunar eclipse, the Earth blocks the sun's light from reaching the moon. The shadow is
formed on the moon as the Earth blocks light from reaching the moon. Since we are standing on
Earth, what we see is that the moon gets dark. Other kinds of eclipses happen too.

Characteristics of inner and outer planets.

Density: Inner planets are denser than outer planets.

Composition: Outer planets are made of gas, ice, and rocks, whereas the inner planets are made
of iron, nickel, and silicates.

Moons: Inner planets have very few to no moons around them, whereas the outer planets have
dozens of moons orbiting them.

Why earth is the only planet that supports life.

The Earth has the right distance from the Sun, it is protected from harmful solar radiation by its
magnetic field. It is also kept warm by an insulating atmosphere, and it has the right chemical
ingredients for life, including water and carbon.

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Earth is able to support life because it has a suitable temperature for living organisms along with
the presence of oxygen and water that is required for the survival of all life forms

The Earth appears to be the only planet in the solar system with living creatures. In the solar
system, the planets orbit around the Sun. Earth is the third planet from the Sun. It is one of the
inner planets. As far as we know, Earth is also the only planet that has liquid water. Earth's
atmosphere has oxygen. The water and oxygen are crucial to life as we know it. Therefore ethe
Earth is able to support life in it.

Asteroid belt and where it's found

The asteroid belt is a region within the solar system occupied by asteroids that are sparsely held
together by gravity and occupying a region taking the shape of a gradient ring orbiting the Sun.
Asteroids are small rocky bodies sometimes composed of iron and nickel, which orbit the Sun.
The asteroid belt exists between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, between 330 million and 480
million kilometers from the Sun.

Is the asteroid belt a failed planet?

Astronomers once thought that the asteroid belt was a failed planet that fragmented during the
solar system's development. However, this hypothesis has largely been abandoned. Astronomers
now believe the asteroid belt never gravitationally accreted into a planet, but was kept from
doing so because of the massive gravity from Jupiter's mass.

Origin and structure universe

The big-bang theory proposes the universe was formed from an infinitely dense and hot core of
the material. The bang in the title suggests there was an explosive, outward expansion of all
matter and space that created atoms. Spectroscopy confirms that hydrogen makes up about 74%
of all matter in the universe

The universe appears to have an infinite number of galaxies and solar systems and our solar
system occupies a small section of this vast entirety. The origins of the universe and solar system
set the context for conceptualizing the Earth’s origin and early history.

The mysterious details of events prior to and during the origin of the universe are subject to great
scientific debate. The prevailing idea about how the universe was created is called the big-bang
theory. Although the ideas behind the big-bang theory feel almost mystical, they are supported
by Einstein’s theory of general relativity.

The big-bang theory proposes the universe was formed from an infinitely dense and hot core of
the material. The bang in the title suggests there was an explosive, outward expansion of all
matter and space that created atoms. Spectroscopy confirms that hydrogen makes up about 74%
of all matter in the universe. Since its creation, the universe has been expanding for 13.8 billion
years and recent observations suggest the rate of this expansion is increasing

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 THEME: EARTH AND SPACE PHYICS

TOPIC: STARS AND GALAXIES

The sky is clear at night with some bright twinkling objects in it. These objects appear as fixed points of
light due to their great distance from the earth, but in real sense they are large and are in motion.

Some of these bodies are called stars. Stars exist in groups, known as galaxies, held together by gravity. The
sun is also a star and it produces a huge amount of energy daily.

A galaxy is a collection of a large number of stars that are held together by the force of gravity.

The galaxy that comprises of our solar system is known as the Milky Way Galaxy. The nearest galaxy to us
is the Andromeda galaxy. Other galaxies include Ciger galaxy, Pinwheel galaxy, the Sombrero galaxy and
others.

The Milky way galaxy can be seen in the night sky with naked eyes either as not being cloudy, with no
strong lights nearby or no moonlight, during some time in the year.

Measurement in the stars and galaxies.

Physical quantities such as mass and distance of the stars and galaxies are very huge. This makes it hard to
measure them with the conventional (S.I) units of the quantities. For this reason, the scientists came up with
other larger units that can easily accommodate these large quantities as shown below;

Unit Abbreviation What it is used to measure

Light year Ly A light year is a unit of astronomical distance
equivalent to the distance light travels in one year.
1 ly = 3.0x108365.25x24x3600 = 9.5x1015 m
Astronomical year Au This is a unit of length roughly the distance from the
Earth to the sun, about 150 million kilometres
Solar mass - The mass of a star is measured in terms of the mass the
sun, with one solar mass unit being equal to the mass
of sun. eg a star whose mass is twice that of the sun is
said to have two solar masses.
Solar radius - The radius of stars is also measured with respect to the
radius of the sun, with one solar radius being equal to
the radius of the sun. eg a star whose radius is three
times that of the sun is said to have a radius of three
solar radii.

Assignment

Convert the following;

(a) 7 au to m (b) 6x108 km to au (c) 5 ly to km (d) 19x1012 to ly

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How the sun produces the energy needed for life to survive on Earth.

Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun. Fusion occurs when protons of
hydrogen atoms violently collide in the sun's core and fuse to create a helium atom. This process emits an
enormous amount of energy.

Energy from the Sun makes life possible on Earth. It is responsible for photosynthesis in plants, vision in
animals and many other natural processes, such as the movements of air and water that create weather.

Most plants need at least some sunlight to grow, so without light, there would be no plants, and without
plants, there would not be oxygen for us to breathe. Infrared radiation from the Sun is responsible for
heating the Earth’s atmosphere and surface. Without energy from the Sun, the Earth would freeze. There
would be no winds, ocean currents, or clouds to transport water.

Appearance of the sun

Scattering of radiations from the sun affects the color of light coming from the sun and sky. The short-
wavelength blue and violet are scattered by molecules in the atmosphere much more than other colors of the
spectrum. This is why blue and violet light reaches our eyes from all directions on a clear day. But because
we can’t see violet very well, the sky appears blue.

Scattering also explains the colors of the sunrise and sunset. Because the sun is low on the horizon, sunlight
passes through more air (atmosphere) at sunset and sunrise than during the day, when the sun is higher in the
sky. More atmosphere means more molecules to scatter the violet and blue light away from your eyes. If the
path is long enough, all of the blue and violet light scatters out of your sight. The other colors continue on
their way to your eyes. This is why sunsets are often yellow, orange, and red.

And because red has the longest wavelength of any visible light, the sun is red when it’s on the horizon,
where its extremely long path through the atmosphere blocks all other colors.

Our sun’s surface temperature is about 600 k. In the Earth’s atmosphere, the sun looks white, shining, with
about equal amounts of blue and red light. It looks somehow also yellow as seen on Earth’s surface because
our planet scatters some of the blue light making the sky appear blue and the sun appears yellow.

Amount of energy produced by the sun.

Sunlight is the largest energy source to reach the Earth but, despite this, the intensity of the energy that
reaches the Earth’s surface is relatively low due to the radial spreading of solar radiation as it travels from
the distant Sun. More of this sunlight is lost in the Earth’s atmosphere and due to clouds, which between
them scatter as much as 54% of the incoming light. As a result, the sunlight that reaches the ground is
around 50% visible light and 45% infrared radiation with the rest being made up of small amounts of
ultraviolet and other types of electromagnetic radiation.

Therefore, The sun produces a large amount of energy. However, only a small fraction of this energy
reaches the earth, because most of it is reflected and scattered from other surfaces and absorbed by other
molecules, which convert it to heat.

The amount of heat reaching the Earth is about 1338 watts per square metre. This is known as the solar
constant.

Solar constant is the amount of solar energy received on Earth per unit area.

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In addition to heat and light, the sun also emits a low-density stream of charged particles (mostly electrons
and protons) known as the solar wind, which travels throughout the solar system at about 450 kms-1. The
solar wind and the much higher energy particles released by the sun can cause challenges on earth such as
power surges and disturbance of radio waves.

The variation in color and brightness of the stars in the Milky way in terms of their size and distance
from Earth.

Stars have a wide range of apparent brightness measured here on Earth. The variation in their brightness is
caused by both variations in their surface temperature and variations in their distance.

Just like a burning flame, there are different colors seen and they are associated to the temperature of that
region.

Also, the bigger the star, the brighter it is. The apparent brightness of stars varies with their size and distance
from the observer. Anear by faint star can appear to be just as bright to us on Earth as a distant star.

Sirus, also called the Dog star is the brightest star in the night sky. The bright component of the blue-white
Sirus star is 25.4 times as bright as the sun

The different stages in the life cycle of a star.

Stars are large celestial bodies that mainly consist of hydrogen and helium, the two lightest elements. They
can have different sizes and temperatures and produce energy through continuous nuclear fusion reactions
occurring in their core.

We benefit from the energy released by our local star, the sun, as it heats and illuminates the earth. Stars are
formed in a nebula and go through different stages in their life cycle depending on their mass. These stages
will be explained in more detail below.

The life cycle of a star is the sequence of events that takes place in the life of a star from its formation to its
end. The life cycle of stars depends on their mass. All stars, regardless of their mass, are formed and behave
similarly until they reach their main sequence stage. The initial three stages that occur for a star to enter its
main sequence are described below

Stage 1: Formation of a star

A star is formed from a nebula, which is a huge cloud of interstellar dust and a mixture of gases, mostly
comprising hydrogen (the most abundant element in the universe). The nebula is so vast that the weight of
the dust and gases start to cause the nebula to contract under its own gravity

Stage 2: Protostar

Gravity pulls the dust and gas particles together to form clusters in the nebula, which results in particles
gaining kinetic energy and colliding with each other. This process is known as accretion. The kinetic energy
of the gas and dust particles increases the temperature of matter in the nebula clusters to millions of degrees
Celsius. This forms a protostar, an infant star.

Stage 3: Main sequence of a star

Once a protostar has reached a high enough temperature through accretion, nuclear fusion of hydrogen to
helium begins in its core. This main sequence begins once the temperature of the protostar core reaches
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around 15 million degrees Celsius. The nuclear fusion reactions release energy, which produces heat and
Light, maintaining the core temperature so the fusion reaction is self-sustaining.

During the main sequence stage, an equilibrium is achieved in the star. The outward Force created from the
expanding Pressure due to nuclear reactions is balanced with the inward gravitational force trying to
collapse the star under its own mass. This is the most stable stage in a star's life cycle, as the star reaches a
constant size where the outward pressure balances the gravitational contraction.

If the protostar mass is not large enough, it never gets hot enough for nuclear fusion to occur - therefore the
star does not emit Light or heat and forms what we call a brown dwarf, which is a substellar object.

All stars follow a similar initial lifecycle, however, a star's behaviour following the main sequence is highly
dependent on its mass. We consider two general mass categories of stars; sun-like stars (average stars) and
massive stars, that is;

 If the mass of a star is at least 8 to 10 times the mass of the Sun, the star is considered to be a
massive star.
 If the mass of a star is more similar to the size of the Sun, the star is considered to be a sun-like star
(average star).

Stars with larger masses are much hotter, appearing brighter in the sky - however, they also burn through
their hydrogen fuel much faster, meaning their lifespans are much shorter than average stars. Because of
this, large hot stars are also the rarest.

Stage 4; Red giant.

When the star hydrogen responsible for the nuclear reactions runs down, the star expands, cools and
becomes a red giant. The massive stars become red supergiants since they are extremely massive. After this
the star then dies out by becoming a black dwarf with no more luminous characteristics.

In summary, all stars are formed out of clouds of gas and dust, known as nebulae. Nuclear reactions
occurring at the centre of the stars make them shine brightly for many years. Small stars burn their fuels
slower than massive stars, therefore they last for several billion years. When the hydrogen responsible for
the nuclear reactions begins to run out with time, they expand, cool and change colour to become red giants.
From this stage, they undergo a death phase that sees them pass through a planetary nebulae phase to a white
dwarf which cools down with time and stops glowing to become a black dwarf.

What a supernova is and how it a rise.

When the pressure drops low enough in a massive star, gravity suddenly takes over and the star collapses in
just seconds. This collapse produces the explosion we call a supernova. Supernovae are so powerful they
create new atomic nuclei.

A supernova is a violent explosion that takes place at the end of a star's life cycle - and considered as the
biggest explosion in space that humans can ever witness.

Supernovas are so bright that their peak luminosity can be compared to that of the entire galaxy before
fading off over several weeks or months. This explosion then leaves behind either a black hole or a neutron
star.

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What are neutron stars and black holes are and how are they were formed.

Neutron stars are formed when a massive star runs out of fuel and collapses. The very central region of the
star – the core – collapses, crushing together every proton and electron into a neutron.

Throughout much of their lives, stars maintain a delicate balancing act. Gravity tries to compress the star
while the star’s internal pressure exerts an outward push. And nuclear fusion at the star’s core causes the
outer pressure. In fact, this fusion burning is the process by which stars shine.

A neutron star has an abnormally strong magnetic field known as a magnetar, this can pull any metallic
material from your pocket from as far away as the moon.

A black hole is an area of such immense gravity that nothing—not even light—can escape from it. Black
holes form at the end of some stars' lives. The energy that held the star together disappears and it collapses
in on itself producing a magnificent explosion.

TOPIC: SATELLITES AND COMMUNICATION

Topic outline
Types of artificial satellite, particularly geostationary satellites
Explain:
• how they are used in GPS navigation systems
• the value of photographs such as those taken by the Hubble Space Telescope.
• the purpose of the International Space Station and its role in space exploration

Satellite
A satellite is a body moving around a larger body in a curved path.
This path is called orbit.
The earth revolves around the sun (which is bigger than the earth), so it is a satellite .
The moon revolves around the earth so it is a satellite.

NB
A satellite that revolves around a star is called a planet , while that which revolves around a planet is called
a moon.

Classification of satellites
Satellites are classified into two i.e
(i) Artificial satellites e.g
(ii) Natural satellites e.g moon, earth , Mars, Saturn, Neptune, Pluto, Uranus etc

Artificial satellites
Artificial satellites are machines that are launched into space and orbit around a body in space to do a specific
purpose.
Artificial satellites are classified according to their function.

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Examples of artificial satellites
1. A communications satellite

is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals via a transponder; it creates
a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth.
Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. Many
communications satellites are in geostationary orbit 22,300

2. Weather satellites, such as GOES and Landsat, for monitoring the Earth's atmosphere and climate.

3. Navigation satellites, such as GPS and GLONASS, for providing location and timing
information.

4. Scientific satellites, such as TERRIERS and Hubble Space Telescope, for conducting
research and exploration.

SATELLITE ORBITS
Orbit is the curved path that an object (satellite) takes a round another satellite due to gravity.

Satellites orbiting the earth are placed in three orbits i.e

(i) Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

It is an orbit that is relatively close to the earth’s surface, It is normally at an altitude of less than 1000 km
but could be as low as 160 km above Earth above the earth’s surface.
Satellites in this orbit are visible at a point on earth for a very short time , usually ranging from about 15 to
20 minutes.

(ii) Medium, Earth Orbit (MEO)

Is an Earth-centered orbit with an altitude above a low Earth orbit (LEO) and below a high Earth orbit
(GEO).
It starts at roughly an altitude of 2,000 km (1,243 mi) above sea level and extends up to an altitude of 35,786
km (22,236 mi) above sea level and the time for one orbit is 12hours.
MEO is used for Global Navigation Satellite System spacecraft, such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou.
It is also used by a variety of satellites with many different applications, including navigatiopn satelites like
European Galileo System.

(iii) Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

This orbit also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO), is a circular geosynchronous
orbit 35,786 km in altitude above Earth's equator, 42,164 km in radius from Earth's center, and following
the direction of Earth's rotation.
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An object in such an orbit has an orbital period equal to Earth's rotational period, one sidereal day, and so to
ground observers it appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky.

Communications satellites are often placed in a geostationary orbit so that Earth-based satellite antennas do
not have to rotate to track them but can be pointed permanently at the position in the sky where the satellites
are located. Weather satellites are also placed in this orbit for real-time monitoring and data collection, and
navigation satellites to provide a known calibration point and enhance GPS accuracy.

Geostationary satellites are launched via a temporary orbit, and placed in a slot above a particular point on
the Earth's surface. The orbit requires some stationkeeping to keep its position, and modern retired satellites
are placed in a higher graveyard orbit to avoid collisions

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Telecommunications use artificial satellite communication links to transmit information between various
points on earth.

Artificial satellites orbiting the earth relay analog and digital signals that carry voices, videos and data from
one location to different location worldwide.

How communication satellites work

It has two major components i.e

(i) the space component, which includes the satellite
(ii) the ground components, which includes the transmitter and the receiver

NB
(i) Uplink refers to sending of communication signals from the ground transmitter to the communication
satellite.
(ii) Downlink refers to sending of reflected signals from the satellite to the ground receivers.

Global positioning system (GPS)

A global positioning system (GPS) is a network of satellites and receiving devices used to determine the
location of something on Earth. Some GPS receivers are so accurate they can establish their location within
1 centimeter.
GPS receivers provide location in latitude, longitude, and altitude. They also provide the accurate time.
GPS is a system made up of three parts i.e satellite, ground stations and receivers.
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satellites act like stars in constellations to help know where we are supposed to be at any given time.

The Hubble Space Telescope

The Hubble Space Telescope (often referred to as HST or Hubble) is a space telescope that was launched
into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation.
It was not the first space telescope, but it is one of the largest and most versatile, renowned as a vital
research tool and as a public relations boon for astronomy. The Hubble telescope is named after astronomer
Edwin Hubble and is one of NASA's Great Observatories.
Hubble's orbit outside the distortion of Earth's atmosphere allows it to capture extremely high-resolution
images with substantially lower background light than ground-based telescopes. It has recorded some of the
most detailed visible light images, allowing a deep view into space.

Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as determining the rate of
expansion of the universe.

The International Space Station (ISS)

Is the largest structure the humans have ever put in space.
It is at an altitude of 400km, and travels at a speed of about 28000kmh -1 and orbits the earth
every 92minutes.
It is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies: NASA (United States),
Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), CSA (Canada), and their contractors.

Operationally the station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment assembled by Roscosmos
and the US Orbital Segment assembled by NASA, JAXA, ESA and CSA.

Its primary purpose is performing microgravity and space environment experiments.

In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial,
diplomatic, and educational purposes.

Importance of space exploration

Scientists believe that there is likely to be life on other planets other than on earth , it is the only way to find
out if it is true or not.

Following the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope, the telescope has revealed a number of stars with
planets known as exoplanets which are in the habitable zone of their star.( a zone with similar conditions to
those of earth). thus , there is possibility of life existing somewhere else in the universe.

Reading assignment
 Space exploration today
 Uganda’s Space initiative

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 PHYSICS
ELECTRONICS
Activity

In your groups, can you site some of the activities in the world that electronics has aided?

Possible answers

• Storing money
• Monitoring heart beat
• Carrying sound of people’s voices into other peoples through phone calls
• Bringing air planes onto land etc.

NOTE: The world of electronics is easier to understand if it is divided into two distinct
categories i.e.

i) The digital world

ii) The analogue world.

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

SCENARIO

Mr. Okello is a technician. He opened a computer that had a fault to mechanize it.

TASK

a) What as some of component devices he saw in the computer.

b) State the function of each component.
c) How are the electric components combined in the electrical circuit?

Soln

Resistors

• Used in current limiting devices like LED to provide light and protect components from
damage
• Used in potentiometers for volume control and speed control in motors.
• Used in heating elements like electric heaters and ovens to turn current into heat.
• Applied in most electronics to damp out unwanted signals called noise.
• Applied in power supply units and filter circuit networks.

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Diodes

• Applied in communication systems as clippers o cut off unwanted signals.

• Applied in limiters to limit certain kinds of frequencies of signals to some tolerable values.
• Used in clampers and voltage multipliers for increasing voltage of the circuit.
• Used in rectifiers to connect a.c to d.c
• Used in logic gates to perform digital logical operations like NAND, AND, OR, NOR etc.
• Used in solar cells to provide solar electricity.

Transistors

• Used in electronic circuits as electronic switches having only two states ON or OFF.
• Used in power amplification circuits e.g., the audio amplifier for public address
systems.

Capacitors

• Applied for charge storage and release when required in electronic circuits
• Used for smoothening, filtering and by passing of A.C
• Used for power factor correction during electricity transmission.

These pieces of electronic components do perform different functions or jobs. They are linked
together by cables or printed mental connections to form an electronic equipment (circuit) that
performs a particular function.

POTENTIAL DIVIDERS

A potential divider is a simple circuit that uses resistors to supply a variable potential
difference.

A potential divider in its simplest form consists of two resistors in series connected across
source of voltage.

Where,

Vin – Input voltage

Vout – Output Voltage

𝑅1
NOTE: Vout = (𝑅 ) Vin
1 + 𝑅2

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Trials

1. Calculate the output voltage in each of the following.

2. Find the missing values

Applications of potential dividers.

• Used to control audio volume.

• Used to control the temperature in a freezer.
• Used to monitor changes of light intensity in a room.
•
A. Digital signal and analog signal
1. Analogue signal
• The term analogue refers to any wave form. If the wave form is able to convey
information, then it is an analogue signal.
• Therefore, an analogue signal is a continuous signal where by one-time varying quantity
varies with another time-based variable e.g., frequency of sound from human voice,
voltage of electricity through a wire, temperature of a day etc.
i.e.

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Examples of analog signals include

• Temperature sensors
• FM radio signals
• Photocells
• Light sensors etc.

2. Digital signal

A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence of separate values at any
point in a time.

In the digital world, there are only wo states that are important ON or OFF e.g. when you switch
the light on in your classroom, you know that there are only two possible positions, the light
switch can be ON or OFF

Examples of digital signals include

• Computers
• CDs
• DVDs etc.

Advantages of digital signals

• Digital circuits can convey information with less noise, distortion and interference
• Digital signals are easy to design than analogue circuits
• Digital signals are cheaper than analogue circuits
• Digital circuits can be reproduced easily in mass quantities comparatively at low costs.

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 ELEMENTARY LOGIC GATES AND MEMORY CIRCUITS

Digital circuits are designed to process digital signal and the building blocks for this digital
circuit are called a logic gate

Activity

a) Why do you think schools must have a gate?

b) What challenges are related to lack of a gate in school?
c) Why do you think school gates are mostly constructed in front of the administration
block?
d) Relating the experience of your school to an electric circuit, do you think a circuit at
some point may need a gate? Explain your answer.

In an electric circuit, a switch acts like a gate for the school.

It can allow current to flow in the circuit or not.

In electronics we assign the number “1” to indicate that current is flowing and the number “0”
to indicate the current is not flowing. If a switch uses “1” to indicate flow of current and “0”
to indicate no flow of current in a circuit, then such a switch is called a logic gate.

This system of using “1” for a true value and “0” for a false value is called binary system and
the resulting algebra is known as Boolean algebra.

Activity.

What you need?

• A cell
• A battery
• Connecting wires
• A bulb

What to do?

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a) Arrange the circuit as shown above
b) Close switch K; What happens?
c) Open switch K; What happens?
d) Use “1” or “0” to describe your observations.
e) Make conclusion about use of the binary digits “0” and “1” in an electric circuit using
the table below.
State of switch State of bulb

The above table is called a truth table;

Truth table helps to show how a logic gate functions.

NOTE: In digital circuits, the “ON” or “1” state can be represented as a high voltage
and the “OFF” or “0” can be represented as low voltage. In this way, digital signals or
numbers in binary can be recorded in a circuit without confusion.

TYPES OF BASIC LOGIC GATES

There are several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital systems.
The common ones are;
1. NOT gate (Inverter)
2. AND gate
3. NAND / NOT AND gate
4. OR Gate
5. NOR / NOT OR gate

NOT Gate / INVERTER

This is the simplest of all logic gates and has only one input and one output.

It changes a “1” input and becomes “0” output and a “0” input and becomes a “1”
output

i.e.

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 The Boolean expression is Y= A, read as Y equals NOT A

The truth table of NOT gate is as follows;

INPUT OUTPUT
A Y=A
0 1
1 0

AND Gate

• The AND gate can have a number of inputs but only one output.
• For simplicity, we can deal with a two input AND gate.
• An AND gate gives a “1” (high output) if all the inputs A and B are both “1” (high
input) otherwise the output is “0” (low).

• The Boolean expression of AND gate is Y = A.B

• The truth table of a two input AND gate is as shown below;

INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y = A. B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

NAND (NOT AND GATE)

• The symbol for a NAND gate is the same as for the AND gate but with a small circle
at the output.
• This small circle is always taken to indicate a NOT OR INVERTER operation,

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 • The Boolean expression of a NAND gate is Y = A.B.
• The truth table of a two input NAND gate is as shown;

INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y = A. B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

OR GATE

• An OR gate can have any number of inputs but for simplicity we consider a two input
OR gate
• AN OR gate gives an output “1” (high Output) if either input A or B or both are high
otherwise the output is “0” (low output).

• The Boolean expression of an OR gate is Y = A+B.

Its truth table is as below;

INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

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 The NOT OR gate (NOT gate)

• A NOR gate is equivalent to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate (INVERTER) that is

all the output of the OR gate are inverted.

• The Boolean expression of a two input NOR gate is Y = A + B

• The truth table truth table for a two input NOR gate is as follows

INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y = A+B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Trials

1. The combination of logic gates in the figure below is suggested for use in a certain logic
system

i) Name the logic gate K.

ii) Construct the truth table to determine output X.

Soln

i) NAND gate

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ii) A B Y1 = AB Y2 = A+B X
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0

2. Construct the truth table to determine the output in combination of the logic gates below

Soln
A B Y1 = A Y2 = B Y = AB
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1

USE OF LOGIC GATES IN CONTROL CIRCUITS

Many electronic systems are designed in three or four parts. These include;

a) The input sensor

b) The processor (electronic system)
c) The memory (absent in some systems)
d) The output (Transducer)

INPUT SENSORS PROCESSOR OUTPUT SENSORS

Example is a calculator. If it is considered as an electronic system, we can identify the parts of

the calculator as;

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11
 INPUT is the data fed PROCESSOR OUTPUT is the
in the calculator performs screen which
when buttons are calculations displays the results
pressed according to the
instructions given

Trials

1. The circuit diagram below shows an automatic switch for a fan for cooling in the house

a) Under what condition does the system turn on the fan?

b) What is the disadvantage of the switch?
2. Draw the logic circuit for an alarm that will ring if either smoke is detected or a high
temperature is detected construct its truth table.
3. Draw a logic circuit which will automatically switch on security lights when it is dark
and construct its truth table.
4. A school gate is designed to open automatically when it detects a learner has washed
his hands either with sanitizer or soap. Draw a logic circuit you can use to operate the
gate. Construct the truth table for the circuit.

STABLE AND BISTABLE SWITCHES

Assignment
1. In your graphs, research and make presentations on how bistable switches can be
constructed from two NOR gates.
2. State the applications of stable and bistable switches.

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11
 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MODERN PHYSICS
The structure of an atom:

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔/𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔

𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑵𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒖𝒔 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. An
atom consists of three particles namely;
▪ Electrons
▪ Neutrons
▪ Protons
An atom is made of a central part called the nucleus around which electrons revolve.
The nucleus is positively charged because it consists of protons which are positively charged
and neutrons which have no charge. The properties of the particles of an atom are as shown
in the table below.
Name Symbol Mass Charge
Protons P 1 Positive
Neutrons n 1 No charge
Electrons e 0 Negative
Note: The number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number electrons around the nucleus
and since they have opposite charges the atom has no charge.
Likely question: Describe the model/structure of an atom
Atomic number, Z:
This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑍 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠

Mass number [atomic mass], A: (nucleon number):

This is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑛
If an atom of an element X is represented as
𝑨 where A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number
𝑍𝑿

Examples:
1. Given a chloride atom 35
17𝑪𝒍. Find the number of electrons in the atom.
𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 35, 𝑍 = 17
𝑛 = 35 − 17
𝑛 = 𝟏𝟖 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑍 = 𝟏𝟕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. State the composition of the atom 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝑼
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 92
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 235
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 235 − 92 = 143
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 92
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 92

ISOTOPES:
These are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Therefore, isotopes of an element have the same number of protons and electrons and different
number of neutrons

Examples of isotopes are:

35 36 37
Chlorine; 17𝐶𝑙 , 17𝐶𝑙 , 17𝐶𝑙
12 13 14
Carbon; 6𝐶 , 6𝐶 , 6𝐶
1 2 3
Hydrogen; 1 , 1𝐻 , 1𝐻
𝐻

RADIOACTIVITY:
This is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus of an atom to form a stable nucleus
with emission of radiations.
There are three radiations emitted by radioactive nucleus namely:
▪ Alpha particles, 𝛼.
▪ Beta particles, 𝛽.
▪ Gamma rays, 𝛾.

Elements that undergo radioactivity are called radioactive elements/nuclides.

Heavy nuclides are generally unstable hence radioactivity ensures that they reach a stable state.

Examples of radioactive elements are:

▪ Uranium (U)
▪ Radium (Ra)
▪ Polonium (Po),
▪ Protactinium (Pa)
▪ Etc.

Radioisotopes:
These are radioactive atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different
mass number.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TYPES OF RADIATIONS
Alpha particle, 𝜶:
Alpha particle is a high speed helium nucleus ( 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆)
Alpha particles have a mass number of 4 and atomic number of 2 i.e. two protons and two neutrons
and they carry a positive charge. They have no electrons to balance the two positively charged
protons.

Properties of alpha particles:

▪ They are helium nuclei
▪ They are slightly deflected by both magnetic and electric fields because of their large mass.
▪ They are positively charged.
▪ They have the greatest ionizing power.
▪ They have the least penetrating power.
▪ They are stopped by a thick sheet of paper.
▪ They have a very short range in air.
▪ They affect the photographic films.
▪ They have speed less than the speed of light.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescent substance.

Alpha decay:
When a nuclide undergoes an alpha decay, it loses two protons and two neutrons.
Therefore its mass number reduces by four and its atomic number reduces by two and the daughter
nuclide is two steps to the left in the periodic table.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨𝒁𝑿 undergoes an alpha decay to form element Y. Then the
nuclear reaction equation is given by;
𝑨 𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝑍𝑿 𝑍−2𝒀 + 2𝑯𝒆 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Alpha particle)

Examples:
1. Radium (Ra) decays to become radon (Rn) according to the equation
226 222
88𝑅𝑎 86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝐻𝑒

2. Uranium (U) decays to become thorium (Th) according to the equation

238 234
92𝑈 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒

Question 1:
A radioactive substance 226𝑋 undergoes decay and emits an alpha particle to form nuclide Y. Write
an equation for the process.
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟖 𝟒
𝟔𝑿 𝟒𝒀 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Beta particle, β:
A beta particle is a high-speed electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive element.
Beta particles have no mass number and carry a negative charge ( −10𝒆).
A beta particle is produced as a result of one of the neutrons changing to a proton.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎𝒏 𝟏𝑷 + −𝟏𝒆
Properties of beta particles:
▪ They are negatively charged.
▪ They are lighter since they have negligible mass
▪ They are easily deflected by both magnetic and electric fields
▪ They have greater penetrating power than alpha particles because of their high speed.
▪ They have less ionizing power than alpha particle.
▪ They can be stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium.
▪ They have a greater range in air than alpha particles.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescent substance.
▪ They are electrons.

Beta decay:
When a nuclide undergoes beta decay its mass number does not change but its atomic number
increases by one. The daughter nuclide is one step to the right in the periodic table.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨

𝒁𝑿 undergoes a beta decay to form element Y. Then the
nuclear reaction equation is given by:
𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
𝑍𝑿 𝑍+1𝒀 + −1𝒆 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Beta particle)

Examples:
1. Carbon-14 decays to Nitrogen according to the equation
𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟒
𝟔𝑪 𝟕𝑵 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆
𝟐𝟑𝟓
2. 𝟗𝟐𝑈 decays by emitting 3 beta particles to form a daughter nuclide P. Find the atomic
and mass nummber of P.
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼 𝟗𝟓𝑷 + 𝟑 −𝟏𝟎𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟓

Gamma rays, γ:
Gamma ray is an electromagnetic radiation with a very short-wave length.
Gamma rays have no mass number and carry no charge.
Gamma rays are produced when an excited atomic nucleus loses energy and the energy is given
out as gamma rays.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Properties of gamma rays:

▪ They are not charged.
▪ They travel at a speed of light since they are electromagnetic radiations.
▪ They are not deflected by both magnetic and electric fields since they are not charged.
▪ They have the least ionizing power.
▪ They have the greatest penetrating power.
▪ They undergo interference and diffraction.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescence substances.
▪ They have the greatest range in air.
▪ They are stopped by thick block of lead.

Gamma decay:
Gamma rays are not particles, therefore when nuclide emits gamma rays its atomic number and
its mass number do not change but the nucleus becomes more stable.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨

𝒁𝑿 undergoes a gamma decay to form a stable element X.
Then the nuclear reaction equation is given by:
𝑨 𝑨
𝑍𝑿 𝑍𝒀 + 𝛾 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Beta particle)
Note:
The change of an element to another element is called Transmutation.

Examples:
1. Radium 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 loses 5 alpha particles and 4 beta particles and is converted into a new
stable element, an isotope of lead 𝑃𝑏. Find the mass number and atomic number of this
isotope.
226 𝐴 4 0
88𝑅𝑎 𝑍𝑃𝑏 + 5( 2𝐻𝑒) + 4( −1𝑒)
226 = 𝐴 + (5 × 4) + (4 × 0) = 𝐴 + 20
𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝟔
Also, 88 = 𝑍 + (5 × 2) + (4 × −1) = 𝑍 + 10 − 4
𝒁 = 𝟖𝟐

2. Thorium 232 224

90𝑇ℎ is converted into Radium 88𝑅𝑎 by radioactivity transformation below.
How many α and β emissions have taken place?
232 224 4 0
90Th 88Ra + x( 2He) + y( −1e)
90 = 88 + 2x − y
y − 2x = 2 ……………………………………..(eqn 1)
232 = 224 + 4x
𝒙 = 𝟐, therefore, 𝒚 = 𝟐.
There are 2𝛼 – 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 and 2𝛽 – 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Penetrating power of the radiations:

Alpha particles have the least penetrating power and can be stopped by a thick sheet of paper.
Beta particles have a greater penetrating power than alpha particles and can be stopped by a thin
sheet of aluminium while gamma rays have the greatest penetrating power and can be stopped by
thick block of lead.
𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸 𝜷, 𝜸 𝜸

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅
𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕

Ionizing power of the radiations:

Alpha particles produce straight traces because they are heavy and they cause greater ionization
of the air through which they pass.
Beta particles produce irregular and light traces.
Gamma rays do not traces but leave hairy traces after colliding with the air molecules since they
have a least ionization power.

(Alpha particle) (Beta particle) (Gamma ray)

Deflection of the radiations in an electric field:

When the radiations from a radioactive nucleus are passed through a strong electric field;
• The beta particles are deflected towards a positive plate showing that they carry a negative
charge.
• Alpha particles are deflected towards a negative plate in the direction opposite to that of
beta particles showing that alpha particles carry a positive plate.
• The gamma rays are not deflected at all showing that they carry no charge.

𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Deflection of the radiations in a magnetic field:

Alpha particles are deflected in a direction towards the South Pole while beta particles are
deflected towards the North Pole.
Alpha particles are less deflected than beta particles implying that alpha articles are heavier than
beta particles. The gamma rays are not deflected in the magnetic field implying that they have no
charge. 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆
Differences between alpha and beta particles
ALPHA PARTICLES BETA PARTICLES
▪ Are helium atoms. ▪ Are electrons.
▪ They are positively charged. ▪ They are negatively charged.
▪ Deflected towards the negative plate in ▪ Deflected towards positive plate in an
electric field. electric field.
▪ Deflected towards south pole in magnetic ▪ Deflected towards the north pole in a
field. magnetic field.
▪ Stopped by thick sheet of paper. ▪ Stopped by thin sheet of aluminium.
▪ They are heavier. ▪ They are lighter.

Similarities between Alpha and Beta particles

▪ Both cause ionization of gases
▪ Both have charges.
▪ Both are deflected by electric field.
▪ Both are deflected by magnetic field.
▪ Both penetrate matter.

Uses of radioactivity:
a) Medical uses:
✓ Detection of broken bones.
✓ Detection of cancer cells and treating them.
✓ Used for sterilization of medical instruments
✓ Detection of brain tumors
✓ Detecting amount of blood in a patient

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) Industrial uses:
✓ Used to measure fluid flow in pipes in industries.
✓ Used to provide source of energy [electricity].
✓ Used in hardening polythene and petroleum.
✓ Used in food preservation.
✓ Used in detecting oil leakages in oil pipes.
✓ Used to measure the thickness of the metal sheet.

c) Agricultural uses:
✓ Used to produce new varieties of plants with new characteristics.
✓ Used to study the rate of uptake of fertilizers by plants.
✓ Used in pest control.

d) Archeological uses
✓ Used in determining the age of fossils (carbon-dating)
❖ Every living thing (plant or animal) has a certain constant quantity of carbon -14
elements (isotope). When the plant or animal dies this isotope begins decaying and
the rate of disintegration decreases with time. So, when a fossil is obtained the rate
of disintegration is determined, and this is used to calculate the age of the fossil. i.e.
when the plant or animal died, which would show when that type of plant or animal
existed.

HEALTH HAZARDS / DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY:

▪ Radiations cause skin burns.
▪ Radiations cause blood cancer.
▪ Radiations cause sterility [inability to produce].
▪ Radiations cause low body resistance to normal diseases.
▪ Radiations cause genetic changes [mutation].
▪ Radiations destroy body cells.
▪ Radiations damage eye sight and body tissues.

Safety precautions when handling radioactive elements:

▪ They should be handled using long pair of tongs.
▪ They should be transported in thick lead containers.
▪ You should avoid unnecessary exposure to the radiations.
▪ You should wear protective clothing when handling radioactive elements.
▪ You should not eat or drink where radioactive sources are in use.
▪ You should cover any wound before using radioactive source.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Background radiations:
These are ionizing radiations from a variety of natural and artificial sources that are always
present in the environment.

Natural sources of background radiations:

Natural sources of background radiation include the following:
Cosmic Radiation:
These are radiations that reach the Earth from space.
The sun is a major source of cosmic rays. Cosmic rays originating from the sun, stars and other
major events in outer space are continuously striking the Earth. The majority of these cosmic
rays are absorbed by the Earth atmosphere but the more energetic radiations interact with the
atoms in the atmosphere creating energetic neutrons.

Terrestrial Radiation:
These are radiations from radioactive materials that exist naturally in soil and rock.
E.g. radiations from uranium, thorium, and radium. Some rocks are radioactive and give off
radioactive radon gas. Essentially all air contains radon. In addition, water contains small
amounts of dissolved uranium and thorium, and all organic matter (both plant and animal)
contains radioactive carbon and potassium. Some of these materials are ingested with food and
water, while others (such as radon) are taken in.

Internal Radiation:
These are radiations from radioactive materials which are present in the human body. These
come from natural radioactive sources such as Carbon-14 in the air we breathe. Fruits and
crops take in radioactive materials from the soil as well as Carbon-14 from the air.

Artificial sources of background radiations:

These are mainly from human activities. They include:
Nuclear power stations:
Major incidents from nuclear power stations have released radiations into the environment.
Nuclear waste from power station also accounts for a proportion of artificial background
radiation.

Nuclear weapons:
Nuclear weapon testing resulted in an increase of radiation in the environment
because of radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing.

Medical sources:
Humans are exposed to radiations by medical procedures such as x-rays and radiotherapy.
Nearly all artificial background radiation comes from medical procedures such as receiving
X-rays for X-ray photographs.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Detecting the radiation:

The following can be used to detect radiations;
Photographic film:
Photographic film goes darker when it absorbs radiations. The more radiation the film absorbs,
the darker it becomes. People, who work with radiation, wear film badges which are checked
regularly to monitor the levels of radiation absorbed.

Geiger-Muller tube and Cloud Chamber:

The Geiger-Muller tube or cloud chamber detects radiation and each time it absorbs radiation, it
transmits an electrical pulse to a counting machine. This makes a clicking sound or displays the
count rate. The greater the frequency of clicks, the higher the count rate and the more radiation
the Geiger-Muller tube or cloud chamber is absorbing.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS:
This is a process in which energy is produced. A nuclear reaction takes place in a nuclear reactor.
There are two types of nuclear reactions and these are
▪ Nuclear fusion.
▪ Nuclear fission.

Nuclear fusion:
This is a process by which two light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus with release of
energy.
It takes place at the sun, stars and in the hydrogen bomb.
The process results into three products i.e. one heavy atom, neutron and energy.

Example:
Two Deuterium nuclei (heavy hydrogen) combine to form Helium -3 and a neutron with release
of energy
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝑯 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟎𝒏 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

Conditions for nuclear fusion to occur:

• It occurs at very high temperature
• The light nuclei should be moving at a very high speed

Nuclear fission:
This is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei with release of energy.
This process is started by bombardment of a heavy nucleus with a slow-moving neutron.
The four products of the process are two light atom and more neutrons which can make the
process continue and energy.

Example:
𝟐𝟑𝟔
Splitting of uranium-236 𝟗𝟐𝑼 to form Barium (Ba) and Krypton (Kr) with release of energy.
236 1 141 92 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Conditions for nuclear fission:

• It occurs at very low temperature.
• It requires a slow moving neutron.
• Presence of a heavy nucleus.

Uses of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

▪ Used to produce hydrogen.
▪ Nuclear fusion is used to make hydrogen bombs.
▪ Used to produce electricity.
▪ Used to produce heat energy on large scale.
▪ Nuclear fission is used to make atomic bombs.

Differences between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
▪ Is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two ▪ Is the combining of two lighter nuclei to
lighter nuclei. form a heavy nucleus.
▪ Requires a low temperature. ▪ Requires a high temperature.
▪ Requires neutrons for bombardment. ▪ Neutrons are not required.
▪ Results into four products. ▪ Results into three products.
▪ Energy released is high. ▪ Energy released is low.

Example:
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝒚
𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝑼
𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝒙𝑩𝒂 + 𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝒏
Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the above nuclear fission reaction.
236 = 144 + 𝑦 + 2 92 = 𝑥 + 36 + 0
236 = 146 + 𝑦 92 = 𝑥 + 36
𝒚 = 𝟗𝟎 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟔

HALF LIFE:
This is the time taken for a radioactive element to decay to half its original mass.
Half-life is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months and years.
Half-life is not affected by physical factors like temperature and pressure and half-life is different
for different radioactive nuclides.
If 𝑀𝑜 is the original mass of a radioactive element and 𝑀𝑇 is the mass of a radioactive element at
any time, t, then
𝑀𝑜 𝑡
=2 ½ 𝑇
𝑀𝑇
Where 𝑇½ is the half-life of a radioactive element.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. If a radioactive element of mass 32𝑔 decays to 2𝑔 in 96 days. Calculate the half-life.
Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
32𝑔 16𝑔 8𝑔 4𝑔 2𝑔
𝟒𝑻½ = 𝟗𝟔
𝟗𝟔
𝑻½ =
𝟒
𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

Method 2:
32 96
𝑀𝑜 = 32𝑔,
𝑀𝑇 = 2𝑔, = 2𝑇½
2
96
𝑡 = 96𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠,
𝑇½ =? 16 = 2𝑇½
96
𝑡
𝑀𝑜 24 = 2𝑇½
=2 𝑇½
96
𝑀𝑇
4=
𝑇½
𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

2. A radioactive element of mass 9.6𝑔 has a mass of 0.15𝑔 after 24hours.

Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
9.6𝑔 4.8𝑔 2.4𝑔 1.2𝑔 0.6𝑔 0.3𝑔 0.15𝑔
𝟔𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒
𝟐𝟒
𝑻½ =
𝟔
𝑻½ = 𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

Method 2:
9.6 24
𝑀𝑜 = 9.6𝑔,
𝑀𝑇 = 0.15𝑔, = 2𝑇½
0.15
24
𝑡 = 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠,
𝑇½ =? 64 = 2𝑇½
24
𝑡
𝑀𝑜 26 = 2𝑇½
=2 𝑇½
24
𝑀𝑇
6=
𝑇½
𝑻½ = 𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. A radioactive element of mass 12𝑔 has a half-life of 7years. Find the time taken for the
element to decay to 0.75𝑔.
Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
12𝑔 6𝑔 3𝑔 1.5𝑔 0.75𝑔
𝟒𝑻½ = 𝒕
𝟒×𝟕=𝒕
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
Method 2:

𝑀𝑜 = 12𝑔, 12 𝑡
= 27
𝑀𝑇 = 0.75𝑔, 0.75
𝑡
𝑡 =?, 16 = 27
𝑇½ = 7𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑡

𝑀𝑜
𝑡 24 = 27
𝑡
=2 𝑇½
4= 𝟕
𝑀𝑇
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
4. A certain mass of a radioactive material contains 2.7 × 1024 atoms, how many atoms
decayed after 3200 years if the half-life of material is 1600 years.

𝑴𝑶 = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 , 𝑻½ = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔, 𝒕 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 = 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 − 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑴𝑫 = 𝑴𝑶 − 𝑴𝑻
𝒕
𝑴𝒐 𝑴𝑫 = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 − 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
= 𝟐𝑻½
𝑴𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 Mass decayed = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒈
= 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
= 𝟐𝟐
𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 = 𝟒𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
= 𝑴𝑻
𝟒
𝑴𝑻 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒈

Half-life from the graph:

• The graph of amount of an element, N against time, 𝒕 is plotted.
• Draw a horizontal line from half of the original amount to meet the curve.
• Draw a vertical line from the point on the curve to meet the time axis.
• Read the half-life from where the vertical line meets the time axis.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑨𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕
𝑵𝟎

𝑵𝟎
𝟐

𝟎 𝑻½ 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Example:
The table below shows results obtained in an experiment to determine the half-life of a
radioactive substance.
Count rate 250 140 76 38 25
Time (min.) 0 5 10 15 20
Draw a graph of count rate against time and use it to determine the half-life of the radioactive
substance.

𝑨 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉,
𝑵𝟎 𝟐𝟓𝟎
= = 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑻½ = 𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔

𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝟓𝟎

𝟎
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Exercise:
The following values obtained from the readings of a rate meter from a radioactive isotope of
iodine.
Time (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 5 10 15 20
−1 295 158 86 47 25
Count rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Plot a suitable graph and find the half-life of the radioactive iodine.

EXERCISE:
1. a) Define the following terms
(i) Atomic number
(ii) Mass number
b) State the composition of elements 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟒
𝟖𝟔𝑿 and 𝟖𝟔𝒀
c) i) What is meant by the term radioactivity
ii) Name the radiations emitted by radioactive materials
iii)State the properties of the radiations named in (b) (ii) above
d) What dangers may arise when one is exposed to radioactive materials?
2. a) What is a radioactive nuclide
b) State the changes that take place in the nucleus of an atom if it emits
i) Alpha particle ii) Beta particle iii) Gamma ray
c) Explain the origin of beta particles and gamma rays.
d) Explain why
(i) Alpha particles are more ionizing than beta particles
(ii) Alpha particles have a short range in air than beta particles
(iii) Beta particles are deflected more than alpha particles by the same magnetic field
3. a) The nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟖𝟔𝑿 decays to nuclide Y by emission of alpha particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of Y.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟖𝟕]
b) The nuclide 𝟐𝟒 𝟏𝟏𝑨 decays to nuclide P by emission of beta particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of P.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐]
c) The nuclide 𝟐𝟏𝟒 𝟖𝟐𝑿 decays to nuclide M by emission of beta particle and gamma ray.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of M.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟖𝟑]
d) The nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 decays to nuclide Y by emission of two alpha particles and one beta
particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of Y.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. Given that R and H decay as shown below

(i) 𝟐𝟑𝟐
𝟗𝟐𝑹
𝟐𝟐𝟒
𝟗𝟏𝒀 + 𝒎𝜶 + 𝒏𝜷
𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟖
(ii) 𝟖𝟔𝑯 𝟖𝟒𝑷 + 𝑫
Find 𝑚, 𝑛 and identify particle D
Ans: [𝒎 = 𝟐, 𝒏 = 𝟑]
5. Given that Ra decays to Y according to the equation
𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝑨
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 𝒁𝒀 + 𝟐𝜶 + 𝜷
Find the values of 𝐴 and 𝑍.
Ans: [𝑨 = 𝟐𝟏𝟖, 𝒁 = 𝟖𝟓]
6. a) Define the term half-life.
b) A radioactive sample of mass 60𝑔 has half-life of 8 minutes. Determine how much of it remains
after 40 minutes.
Ans: [𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝒈]
c) An element 𝑋 of mass 64𝑔 decays to 4𝑔 in 96 days. Calculate
(i) The half-life of 𝑋.
(ii) The mass that decays in 120 days.
3
(iii) How long does it take for 4 of the sample to decay?
Ans: i) [𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔] ii) [𝟐𝒈] iii) [𝟒𝟖 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
7. a) Define the terms
(i) Nuclear fusion
(ii) Nuclear fission
b) i) State the conditions necessary for each to take place
ii) Give two examples where each takes place
c) i) 235 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛
𝑥 92
56𝐵𝑎 + 𝑦𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛
1

Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦

ii) 21𝐻 + 31𝐻 𝑄 + 10𝑛
Find the atomic number and mass number of 𝑄
Ans: i) [𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏, 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟔] ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐]
8. a) What is background radiation.
b) i) Describe the structure and action of Geiger-Muller tube.
ii) Describe the structure and action of diffusion cloud chamber.
c) Draw diagrams to show tracks of each of the radioactive radiations appear in the Geiger-
Muller tube.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

THERMIONIC EMISSION:
This is the process by which electrons are emitted from a hot metal surface.

Production of electrons
Electrons can be produced by;
▪ Thermionic emission
▪ Photo electric emission

Kinetic theory explanation of thermionic emission:

When a metal surface is heated to a certain temperature, the free electrons at the surface gain
kinetic energy and they overcome the forces of attraction by the nucleus hence escaping from the
metal surface.

Applications of thermionic emission:

Thermionic emission can be applied in the following devices;

• Diode valves.
• Cathode ray tube.
• Cathode ray oscilloscope.
• X-ray tube.

PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION:

This is the process by which electrons are emitted from the metal surface when exposed to
electromagnetic waves of sufficient frequency.

Photo electric emission occurs in phototubes [photoelectric cells].

The electrons emitted are referred to as photoelectrons and the electromagnetic waves used are
called ultra violet radiations.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Photoelectric cell:
• Photoelectric cell is composed of the cathode coated with a photo-sensitive material and the
anode enclosed in a vacuum tube.
• The glass tube is evacuated in order to avoid collision of cathode rays with air molecules
which may lead to low current flowing due to loss in kinetic energy of cathode rays.
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

Mechanism of a photoelectric cell:
▪ Electromagnetic radiation is directed onto the cathode and supplies sufficient energy that
causes the liberation of electrons.
▪ The electrons emitted are then attracted to the anode and the flow of electrons generates a
current around the circuit and the ammeter deflects.
▪ The amount of the current produced is proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
▪ The stream of electrons flowing from the cathode to the anode is referred to as cathode
rays.

NOTE:
If a gas is introduced into the tube, the current decreases slowly because the gas particles
collide with the electrons, hence reducing the number of electrons reaching the anode.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒁𝒊𝒏𝒄
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑮𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

When Ultra violet light is incident on a clean zinc plate placed on the cap of a gold leaf
electroscope:
▪ If the electroscope is negatively charged, the leaf divergence slowly decreases indicating
that it is losing charge. This is because since radiations fall on a zinc plate, electrons are emitted
from leaving it with no electrons. So this makes the electrons to move from the leaf and gold
plate to the zinc to replace the lost electrons.
▪ If the electroscope is positively charged, there is no change in divergence
of the leaf. This is because the emitted electrons after ionization in air are attracted
back by the positively charged zinc hence no loss of charge.
Conclusion:
The Zinc plate emits photoelectrons when ultra violet radiation falls on it.

Note: Radio waves can’t be used because they don’t have sufficient energy to emit electrons
from zinc.

Applications of photoelectric effect:

Photoelectric effect is applied in:
1) Burglar alarms.
2) Automatic lighting systems
3) In solar calculators.
4) Television cameras.
5) Automatic door system.
6) Sound track on a film.

CATHODE RAYS:
These are streams of fast-moving electrons.
They are produced from the cathode by thermionic emission. Cathode rays carry energy since
they possess speed.

Production of cathode rays:

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ The cathode is heated by a low voltage applied across the heater.

▪ The cathode then emits electrons by thermionic emission.
▪ The emitted electrons are then accelerated by a high voltage applied between the heater
and the anode so that they move with a very high speed hence forming cathode rays.
▪ Some of the electrons (cathode rays) pass through the anode and a parallel beam of
electrons is obtained which is received as spot on the fluorescent screen.

Note: The tube is evacuated to prevent cathode rays from colliding with air particles hence
free movement of cathode rays.

Properties of cathode rays:

▪ They travel in straight lines.
▪ They are negatively charged since they are electrons.
▪ They produce X-rays when stopped by a heavy metal.
▪ They are deflected by magnetic fields i.e. towards the north pole.
▪ They are deflected by electric fields i.e. towards positive plate.
▪ They possess momentum and kinetic energy.
▪ They cause fluorescence when they strike matter i.e. they cause other materials to give off
light.
▪ They ionize air and gas molecules.

Experiment to show that cathode rays travel in straight line (Thermionic tube).

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒐𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔

When cathode rays are directed towards the Maltese cross in a cathode ray tube.
A shadow of the cross is formed on the fluorescent screen. The formation of the shadow verifies
that cathode rays travels in a straight line.

Applications of cathode rays:

Cathode rays are applied in the following devices;
• Cathode ray oscilloscope.
• X – ray tube.
• Diode.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope [C.R.O]:

It is an instrument used to study current and voltage wave forms.
It has three main parts and these are
▪ Electron gun.
▪ Deflecting system.
▪ Fluorescent screen. 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒈𝒖𝒏 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒅 𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝒀 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑿 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎
𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

Functions of the parts:

(a) Electron gun:
It consists of a heater, cathode, grid and Anode.
(i) The heater: This heats the cathode electrically.
(ii) The cathode: It emits electrons by thermionic emission i.e. when heated electrically by
the heater.
(iii)The control grid: It controls the brightness of the spot on the screen by controlling the
number of electrons reaching the anode and screen.
(iv) The anode: It is used to accelerate the electrons produced by the cathode.

(b) Deflecting system:

It consists of the X – plates and Y – plates.
The Y – plates deflect the beam of electrons vertically.
The X – plates deflect the beam of electrons horizontally.

(c) Fluorescent screen:

This is where the bright spot of electrons is formed.

NOTE:
▪ The inner walls of the cathode ray oscilloscope are coated with graphite to trap stray
electrons emitted from the screen.
▪ The cathode ray oscilloscope is evacuated to minimize loss of energy of electrons due to
collision with air molecules.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(d) Time base:

This is a special circuit that generates p.d which rises steadily to a certain value and falls rapidly
to zero. It is connected across the X-plates.
The time base is used to generate a saw-toothed voltage.
𝑷. 𝒅 (𝑽)
𝑭𝒍𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒑

Note:
The time base is connected to the X – plates and causes the spot to move from left to right
which is called linear sweep and the spot returns to the left before it starts the next sweep
which is called fly back.

Wave forms on C.R.O screen.

(i) No A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (ii) A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time
base on base off

(iii) A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (iv) D.C voltage on the Y-plates only and
base on time base off

(v) No D.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (vi) D.C voltage on the Y-plates and time
base on base on

(vii) No potential difference is applied to the Y-plates and time base off

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

USES OF C.R.O:
▪ It is used to measure potential difference.
▪ It is used to study wave forms.
▪ It is used to measure the frequency of the wave.
▪ It is used to measure the wave length of the wave.
▪ It is used to measure phase difference between two voltages.
▪ It is used as a timing device.
▪ It is used to measure the peak value of alternating and direct current.
▪ It is used to display pictures in TV sets.

Advantages of C.R.O over ordinary ammeter or voltmeter:

▪ It has infinite resistance therefore draws no current from the circuit.
▪ It is not affected by high voltages/currents.
▪ It measures both alternating and direct voltages.
▪ It is very accurate.
▪ It has no coil to burn out.
▪ It responds very fast.

Disadvantages of C.R.O over ordinary ammeter or voltmeter:

▪ It is not portable.
▪ It requires skilled personnel.
▪ It is expensive.
▪ It takes a lot of time to measure voltages.
▪ It does not give direct readings.

MEASURING VOLTAGE ON A C.R.O SCREEN

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = [𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑐𝑚] × [𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒(𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) ]
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 𝒅

Also, root mean square voltage is given by;

𝑽
𝑽𝒓.𝒎.𝒔 =
√𝟐

Also, period;
𝑻 = [𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈/𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏] × [𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A cathode oscilloscope CRO with time base switched on is connected across a power supply.
The wave form shown in figure below is obtained. Length between each line is 1𝑐𝑚.
a) Identify the type of voltage generated by the
power supply.
b) Find the maximum voltage (amplitude of
𝑨 𝑩 voltage) generated if the voltage gain is
5𝑉𝑐𝑚−1.
c) Calculate the frequency of the power source,
lf the time base setting on the C.R.O is
5 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1 .

Solutions:
(a) 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

(b) (c)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 3𝑐𝑚 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 = 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 × 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑉 = 5×3 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 4𝑐𝑚
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝑽 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 5 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1
𝑇 = 5 × 10−3 × 4
𝑇 = 0.02𝑠
1 1
𝑓= ⟹ 𝑓=
𝑇 0.02
𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛

2. A CRO with the time base switched on is connected across a power supply. The wave form
shown below is obtained. Distance between each line is 1𝑐𝑚.
𝟏𝒄𝒎

𝟏𝒄𝒎

a) Identify the type of voltage generated by the power supply.

𝑨𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

b) Find the maximum value of the voltage generated if he voltage gain is 10𝑉𝑐𝑚−1 .
𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒅 = 𝟏 𝒄𝒎
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏/𝒄𝒎 × 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 𝒅
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽𝒄𝒎−𝟏 × 𝟏 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) Calculate the frequency of the power source if the time base setting on the CRO is
10.0 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1.
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 × 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇= , 𝒇=
𝑻 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕𝑯𝒛

X-RAYS:
These are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength which are produced when cathode
rays are stopped by a metal surface.

Production of X-Rays (X-Ray Tube):

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒕

𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑭𝒐𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒑

𝑪𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑿 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
Mode of operation:
▪ The cathode is heated by a low voltage and electrons are emitted from it by thermionic
emission.
▪ The electrons are accelerated to the anode by the high voltage supply connected across the
cathode and anode.
▪ And on reaching the metal target, 99% of the kinetic energy of electrons is converted into
heat and 1% of kinetic energy of elections is converted into X-rays.
▪ The heat generated at the target is cooled down by means of cooling fins and then conducted.
▪ The X – ray tube is evacuated to prevent cathode rays from colliding with air molecules
hence allowing free movement of electrons in the tube.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
✓ The tungsten is used because it has a high melting point that can withstand the heat
generated when electrons hit the target.
✓ The curvature of the cathode helps to focus emitted electrons onto the anode.
✓ The cooling fins are painted black to radiate the heat quickly.
✓ The lead shield absorbs stray X-rays

In the X – ray tube the following energy changes take place;

𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲

PROPERTIES OF X – RAYS:
▪ They carry no charge.
▪ They are not deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.
▪ They readily penetrate matter. Penetration is least with materials of high density.
▪ They cause ionization of gases.
▪ They affect photographic films.
▪ They travel in a straight line.
▪ They travel at a speed of light.
▪ They undergo reflection, refraction and diffraction by atoms.
▪ They are electromagnetic waves of very short wave length.
▪ They cause fluorescence when they strike matter.
▪ They can produce photoelectric emission

Intensity of X- Rays (Quantity):

Intensity is the strength or power of X-rays.
The intensity of X-rays in an X-ray tube is proportional to the number of electrons reaching the
target. The number of electrons produced is determined by the filament current. Therefore, the
higher the filament current the higher the intensity of the X-rays since more electrons are emitted
with high filament current.

Question: Describe how the intensity of X-rays can be improved/increased.

This is done by increasing the filament current which increase the temperature of the filament
cathode thus increasing the number of electrons emitted thermionically. Hence the number of
electrons hitting the target will increase.

Penetration power of X-Rays (Quality):

Penetration power is the ability of X-rays to enter matter.
The penetration power of X-rays depends on the kinetic energy of electrons reaching the target.
The penetration power of X-rays is determined by the high potential difference across the X-ray
tube.
The higher the accelerating voltage the faster the electrons produced and the greater the kinetic
energy of electrons hence the higher the penetration power of X-rays produced.

Question: Describe how the penetrating power of X-rays is increased.

This is done by increasing the accelerating voltage between the anode and cathode which
makes electrons to move with a faster speed hence increasing the kinetic energy. This
increases the penetrating power of X-rays.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TYPES OF X-RAYS
There are two types namely;
▪ Hard X-rays
▪ Soft X-rays.
SOFT X-RAYS:
These are X-rays of low penetrating power.

Properties of soft X-rays:

▪ They produced by low accelerating voltages.
▪ They have a low penetration power.
▪ They have low kinetic energy.
▪ They have a long wave length.
▪ They have a low frequency

HARD X-RAYS:
These are X-rays of high penetrating power.

Properties of hard X-rays:

▪ They produced by high accelerating voltages
▪ They have a high penetration power.
▪ They have high kinetic energy.
▪ They have a short wave length.

Differences between soft X-rays and hard X-rays

HARD X-RAYS SOFT X-RAYS
• Produced by a high voltage. • Produced by low voltage.
• They have a shorter wavelength. • They have a longer wavelength.
• They are more penetrative. • They are less penetrative.
• They have a high frequency. • They have a low frequency.
• They have high kinetic energy. • They have low kinetic energy.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

▪ They are both electromagnetic waves.
▪ They both pass through a vacuum.
▪ Both are not deflected in both electric and magnetic fields.
▪ They both have no charge.
▪ They both travel with a speed of light.
▪ They are both transverse waves.

USES OF X-RAYS:
Medical uses:
• They are used to investigate the broken bones in X – ray photography.
• They are used to treat cancer cells.
• They used to detect the complicated organs of the body.
• They are used to detect tuberculosis of the lungs.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

• They are used to diagnose stomach ulcers.

How x-rays are used to locate broken parts of a bone.

❖ When X-rays are passed through the body onto the photographic plate or film,
The bones which are composed of a much denser material than the flesh absorb most of
the X-rays and appear white on the photographic plate or film.
The flesh which is composed of less dense material allows most of the X-rays to pass
through it hence darkening the photographic film or plate.
These shadows are studied in order to locate the broken part.

Industrial uses:
• They are used to detect cracks in metal castings and welded joints.
• They are used to study the structure of crystals [crystallography].
• They are used to detect faults in motor tyres.
• They are used to detect defects in paints.

Dangers of X-rays:
▪ They destroy living cells in the body.
▪ They damage blood cells and eye sight.
▪ They cause genetic changes [mutation].
▪ They skin burns due to their greater penetration power.
▪ They cause cancer after excessive exposure.

Safety precautions taken when using X-rays:

• Avoid unnecessary exposure to X-rays.
• The X-ray apparatus should be shielded using thick lead.
• The person should wear protective clothing made of thick lead.
• Keep large distance between X-ray source and people.
• Soft X-rays should always be used on human tissues

THE DIODE:
This is an electrical device that conducts electricity in one direction only.
There are two types of diodes and these are
▪ Semi-conductor diode.
▪ Vacuum diode.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Thermionic diode (vacuum diode):

This is a device used to change alternating current to direct current.
𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

It consists of the following;

▪ The heater which heats the cathode electrically.
▪ The cathode which emits electrons thermionically.
▪ The anode which accelerates electrons emitted from the heated cathode.
▪ Evacuated glass envelope helps to prevent electrons from colliding with air molecules.

RECTIFICATION:
This is a process of changing alternating current to direct current.
This is done by use of a diode (rectifier).

The arrow head in the diode or rectifier shows the direction of flow of current.
There are two types of rectification and these are;
• Half wave rectification
• Full wave rectification

Half wave rectification:

𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑨
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑩

▪ During the first half of the cycle when A is positive and B is negative, the diode conducts
current and it flows through the resistor R.
▪ During the next half cycle when B is positive and A is negative, the diode doesn’t conduct
current to flow through the resistor R.
▪ Hence current flows through R during only one half of the cycle when A is positive with
respect to B.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

The graph of current/voltage against time for half wave is as shown below.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Full wave rectification:

𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝟏

𝑫𝟑 𝑫𝟒
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

▪ During the first half cycle when A is positive and B is negative, diodes D1and D3 conduct
current and it flows though the resistor R. Diode D3 takes back current to the source.
Diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct current.
▪ During the next half cycle when B is positive and A is negative, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
current and it flows through the resistor R. Diode D4 takes back current to the source.
Diodes D1 and D3 do not conduct current.
▪ Hence current flows through R during both cycles and therefore both cycles are rectified
giving a full wave rectification.

The graph of current/voltage against time for full wave rectification is as shown below.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. a) What is a diode?
(i) Draw a graph of current against p.d across the diode and explain the features of
your graph.
(ii) What is rectification?

𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

b) The diagram above shows a diode in a circuit that can be used to change a.c to d.c.
Draw a graph for the variation of voltage against time.
c) What is meant by the term photo electric emission?
d) Give applications of photo cells
2. a) What are cathode rays
b) Give the properties of cathode rays
c) Draw a well labeled diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) and give the function
of each part.
3. a) i) Draw a well labeled diagram of an X-ray tube and describe how X-rays are produced.
b) State the effect on X-rays produce when
i) The filament current is increased ii) The anode is made more positive
c) Explain how the intensity and penetrating power of X-rays in an X-ray tube may be
varied.
4. a) i) State and explain what happens when X-rays are passed above the cap of a positively
charged gold leaf electroscope.
b) Would your observation and explanation in (a) (i) above be different if the gold
leaf electroscope is negatively charged.
c) Briefly explain how X-rays may be used to locate the broken part of a bone.
d) State and explain what happens when X-rays are directed into a metal block like
that of lead.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS:
1. a) What is meant by the following;
(i) Radioactivity
(ii) Half-life
b) The following figures were obtained from the reading of a rate metre for the alpha
particle emission from Thoron – 220.
Time(s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Average Counts 96 72 55 45 36 26 20 15
Plot a suitable graph from the readings and obtain the half-life of Thoron – 220
Ans: [𝟓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔]
c) i) Distinguish between soft x-rays and hard x-rays
ii) Mention two uses of x-rays and briefly describe how they are applied.
2. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number
ii) Mass number
b) When lithium is bombarded by Neutrons, a nuclear reaction occurs which is represented
by the following reaction.
6 3
3𝐿𝑖 + 10𝑛 1𝐻 +𝑃
Complete the equation and name P
c) i) Describe the application of radioactivity in determining the age of foils.
(ii) Give two harmful effects of radioactivity.
d) The half-life of Uranium is 24 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠. Calculate the mass of Uranium which remains
after 120 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 if the initial mass is 64𝑔
Ans: [𝟐𝒈]
e) State three differences between alpha particles and gamma rays
3. a) Draw a labeled diagram of x-ray tube.
b) i) Using the diagram in (a) above, explain how x-rays are produced
ii) What adjustments will you make while using the x-ray tube to obtain hard x-rays
instead of soft x-rays?
c) i) Explain the use of a cooling system in an x-ray tube
ii) What special property has a metal target in the x-ray tube and why
iii) Why are x-rays used in study of crystals?
iv) If x-rays have wave lengths ranging from 10−8 𝑚 and 10−10 𝑚. What is the
frequency of the hardest x-rays that can be obtained?
Ans: [𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝑯𝒛]
4. a) Give two methods of producing electrons from the metal surface.
b) State the effect of each of the following on a fine beam of electrons
i) Electric field
ii) Magnetic field
c) i) Explain briefly how x-rays are produced (diagram not necessary)
ii) Distinguish between soft x-rays and hard x-rays
iii) What precaution should be taken in order to minimize x-rays health hazards

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. a) Define radioactivity
b) i) Name any two particles emitted by radioactive nuclides
ii) State the three differences between the two particles named in (b) (i) above
c) The table below gives the count produced by a radioactive isotope at different times
during an experiment
Time (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) 0.0 1.0 1.8 2.5 3.0 3.8 4.5 5.5
Counts rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛−1) 1816 1376 1096 896 776 616 516 416
i) Given that a back-ground count of 16 counts per minute was recorded
throughout the experiment, plot a suitable graph and use it to determine the
half-life of the isotope
ii) What is the count rate after 9.6 hours?
Ans: i) [𝟐. 𝟔 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔] ii) [𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆]
6. The diagram in the figure below shows the main parts of a cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O)
𝑨 𝑩

a) i) Name the parts labeled A, B and C

ii) Why is a C.R.O evacuated?
b) i) Describe briefly the principle of operation of C.R.O
ii) How is the bright spot formed on the screen of a C.R.O?
c) Use diagrams to show what is observed on the screen of a C.R.O when
i) The C.R.O is switched on and no signal is applied on the Y-plates
ii) The time base is switched on and no signal is applied to the Y-plates
iii) An alternating signal is applied to the Y-plates while the time base is switched off
d) Give two uses of C.R.O
7. a) i) State the necessary conditions for production of x-rays
ii) Distinguish between hard x-rays and soft x-rays
b) i) Draw a labeled diagram of an x-ray tube
ii) Describe how the penetration power of the x-rays produced by the tube may be
adjusted
iii) Mention two applications of x-rays
c) What is meant by the following?
i) Radioactivity
ii) Half-life
d) A radioactive substance is found to have a half-life of 5 days. If after 15 days, 125g
of it is remaining, what amount was present at the beginning?
Ans: [𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒈]
8. a) What are x-rays
b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the structure and operation of x-ray tube
c) Explain briefly how each of the following can be increased in an x-ray tube
i) Intensity of x-rays
ii) Penetrating power of x-rays

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

d) State four ways in which x-rays are similar to gamma rays

e) Give two biological uses of x-rays
9. a) i) Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
ii) State one example where nuclear fusion occurs naturally
b) State one use of nuclear fission
c) The following nuclear reaction takes place when a neutron bombards a sulphur atom
34 𝑎
6𝑆 + 10𝑛 𝑏𝑌
i) Describe the composition of the nuclide, Y formed
ii) The nuclide, Y decays by emission of an 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 and a 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦. Find
the changes in mass number and atomic number of the nuclide, Y
iii) State two properties of 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
d) The half-life of the isotope, Cobalt-60, is 5 years. What fraction of the isotope remains
after 15 years?
𝟏
Ans: [ 𝟖 ]
e) State i) One medical use of radioisotopes
ii) Two ways of minimizing the hazardous effects of radiation from radioactive
materials
10. a) Define half-life of a radioactive substance
1 𝑡ℎ
b) The mass of a radioactive substance decays to of its original mass after 16 days.
16
What is
i) its half-life
ii) Fraction of the original mass will have decayed after 20 days
Ans: i) [𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
232 228 228 228
c) 90𝑋 88𝑌 89𝑍 89𝑍
𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
i) Identify the particles or radiations A, B and C emitted in the decay process shown
above
ii) State two differences between radiations A and B
iii) Name two health hazards of radioactivity
d) What is the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?
11. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number ii) Mass number iii) Isotopes
b) A radioactive nucleus decays by emission of alpha particles
i) What is an alpha particle?
ii) What changes occur in mass number and atomic number when an alpha particle
is emitted?
iii) State any three differences between alpha particles and beta particles
c) The table shows the count rates of a certain radioactive material
Time (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) 0 1 3 4 7 9
−1
Counts rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 6400 5380 3810 2700 1910 1350
Plot a suitable graph and use it to find half-life of the material.
Ans: [𝟑. 𝟐 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

12. a) What is meant by the terms;

i) Isotopes
ii) Atomic number
b) i) Name and state the nature of emissions from radioactive nuclides
ii) What effect does each of the emissions have on the parent nuclide?
c) A radioactive sample has a half-life of 3 × 103 years
i) What does the statement half-life of 3 × 103 years mean?
ii) How long does it take for three-quarters of the sample to decay?
Ans: ii) [𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔]
d) Give two uses of radioactivity.
13. a) A radioactive nuclide decays by emission of two alpha particles and two beta particles
to nuclide, Y
i) What is meant by radioactive nuclide?
ii) Give three differences between alpha and beta alpha particles
iii) State atomic number and mass number of Y
b) What precautions would have to be taken when handling radioactive materials?
c) A certain radioactive material contains 2.7 x 1024 atoms. How many atoms will have
decayed after 32000 years if the half- life of the material is 800years?
Ans: [𝟐. 𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔]
d) Explain briefly one industrial application of radioactivity.
14. The figure below shows the main parts of an x-ray tube
𝑫
𝑪 𝑨 𝑩

a) Name the parts labeled A, B, C and D

b) List in order the energy changes which occur in the x-ray tube
c) Describe one industrial use of x-rays
d) i) What is meant by the half-life of a radioactive material
ii) The activity of a radioactive source decreases from 4000 counts per minute to
250 counts per minute in 40 minutes. What is the half-life of the source?
iii) A carbon source of half-life 6 days initially contains 8 × 106 atoms. Calculate the
time taken for 7.75 × 106 atoms to decay.
Ans: ii) [𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔] iii) [𝟑𝟎 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
15. a) Define the following terms as used in nuclear reactions
i) Fusion
ii) Fission
iii) Activity
b) Describe a simple model of an atom

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 35

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) Uranium, U has a mass number of 238 and atomic number of 92. It undergoes
radioactive decay by emission of an alpha particle to form element X.
i) Write down a nuclear equation reaction that takes place
ii) State the mass number and atomic number of X
Ans: ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎]
d) i) What is meant by half-life of radioactive substance
ii) The count rate of a radioactive isotope fall from 600 counts per second to 75
counts per second in 75 minutes. Calculate the half-life of the radioactive
isotope.
Ans: ii) [𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔]
16. a) A radioactive nuclide 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝟗𝟐𝑼 decays by emission of two alpha particles and two
beta particles to a nuclide Y
i) What is meant by a radioactive nuclide?
ii) State the mass number and atomic number of Y
iii) Give four differences between alpha and beta particles
Ans: ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎]
b) State four precautions that would have to be taken when handling radioactive materials
c) A certain mass of radioactive material contains 2.4 × 1012 radioactive atoms. How
many atoms will have decayed after 3200 years if the half-life of the material is 800 years?
Ans: [𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔]
d) Explain briefly one industrial application of radioactivity
e) Briefly describe how full wave rectification can be achieved
17. a) i) What is meant by cathode rays
ii) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how cathode rays are produced by
thermionic effect
b) With reference to the cathode ray oscilloscope, describe
i) The function of the time base
ii) How the brightness is regulated
c) A cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) with time base switched on is connected across a
power supply. The waveform shown in the figure below is obtained

The distance between the lines is 1cm

i) Identify the voltage generated by the power supply
ii) Find the amplitude of the voltage generated if the voltage gain is 5𝑉𝑐𝑚−1
iii) Calculate the frequency of the power source if the time base setting
on the C.R.O is 5.0 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1
Ans: i) [𝟏𝟎𝑽] ii) [𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 36

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

18. a) Describe a simple model of the atom

b) Define the following
i) Isotopes of an element
ii) Atomic number
c) State two differences between an alpha particle and a beta particle
d) i) What is meant by nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
ii) Give one example of where each one occurs
e) The half-life of radioactive substance is 24 days. Calculate the mass of the substance
which has decayed after 72 days if the original mass is 0.64𝑔.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝒈]
19. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number
ii) Mass number
b) A radioactive nuclide 𝟒𝟐 𝟏𝟗𝒀 decays by emission of both alpha & gamma radiations to a
nuclide X
i) Write a balanced equation for the nuclear reaction
ii) Give three differences between beta and alpha particles
c) State conditions required for each of the following to occur
i) Fission
ii) Fusion
20. a) i) Name the particles emitted by radioactive nuclides
ii) Give two properties common to the particles named in (i) above
b) A stream of particles from a radioactive source passes through a magnetic field
directed into the plane of the paper as show below

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

i) Identify the particles in the stream

ii) Sketch a diagram to show the path of the particles in an electric field

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 37

 DIGITAL ELCETRONICS
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
➢ Understand how resistors are used to make potential dividers in control and logic
circuits.
➢ Understand elementary logic and memory circuits that exploits devices such as bistable
and astable switches, logic gates and resistors as potential dividers.
➢ Know that logic circuits are able to store and process binary information and that this can
be exploited in an increasingly wide variety of digital instruments.
KEY WORDS
✓ Astable switches
✓ Binary information
✓ Bistable switches
✓ Logic gates
✓ Potential dividers
POTENTIAL DIVIDERS

A potential divider, also known as a voltage divider, is an electrical circuit arrangement used to
produce an output voltage that is a fraction of the input voltage. It typically consists of two
resistors connected in series across a voltage source, such as a battery or power supply. The
output voltage is taken from the connection between the two resistors.
The output voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 of a potential divider can be calculated using the voltage divider
formula:

𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Where:
• 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the output voltage.
• 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is the input voltage (across the entire potential divider).
• 𝑅1 is the resistance of the first resistor.
• 𝑅2 is the resistance of the second resistor.
APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
Potential dividers have a wide range of applications across various fields. Here are some
common applications:
1. Voltage Regulation: Potential dividers are often used in voltage regulation circuits to
provide a stable output voltage regardless of fluctuations in the input voltage. This is
essential in many electronic devices to ensure consistent performance.
2. Sensor Interfaces: In sensor circuits, potential dividers are used to interface sensors with
microcontrollers or other electronic systems. They help in scaling down the sensor output
voltage to a suitable range for processing.
3. Signal Conditioning: Potential dividers are employed in signal conditioning circuits to
adjust the amplitude or level of analog signals before further processing. This is useful in
applications such as audio amplification and instrumentation.
4. Battery Monitoring: Potential dividers are utilized in battery monitoring circuits to
measure the voltage of batteries. By scaling down the battery voltage to a suitable level, it
can be accurately measured using analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
5. Temperature Sensing: In temperature sensing applications, potential dividers are often
combined with temperature-sensitive resistors (thermistors) or integrated temperature
sensors to measure temperature-dependent voltage changes.
6. Light Sensing: Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) can be incorporated into potential
divider circuits to create light sensors. The output voltage varies depending on the
intensity of light falling on the LDR, making it useful in applications such as automatic
lighting control and solar tracking systems.
7. Feedback Networks: In electronic amplifier circuits, potential dividers are used in
feedback networks to set the gain or provide biasing. This helps in stabilizing the
amplifier's operating point and achieving the desired amplification characteristics.
8. Reference Voltage Generation: Potential dividers can be employed to generate
reference voltages for comparison purposes in circuits like voltage comparators or
precision voltage sources.
Consider a potential divider circuit as shown below. A sensory device can be placed in the
position of 𝑅2
The voltage across sensory device (𝑉2on 𝑅2 ) can be mathematically written as:

𝑅2
𝑉2 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Example
A potential divider circuit can be used inside a refrigerator to switch on the cooling circuit when
the temperature is high (more than 30℃ )

The characteristics of the thermistor are given in the table below. Let the voltage across the
cooling circuit be 𝑉𝑐𝑐 and the resistance of the cooling circuit is 5kῼ. In order for the cooling
circuit to operate, it needs a potential difference of 5V or more.
Temperature Resistance of the thermistor
2℃ 1500ῼ
3℃ 1000ῼ
4℃ 500ῼ

Solution
Let the resistance of the thermistor be 𝑅1 and that of the cooling circuit be 𝑅2 and 𝑉𝑐𝑐 is the
voltage across the cooling circuit.
𝑅2
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Therefore at 2℃,
5000
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥 6 = 4.6 𝑉
1500 + 5000
At 3℃
5000
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥 6 = 5.0 𝑉
1000 + 5000
At 4℃,
5000
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥 6 = 5.5 𝑉
500 + 5000
Therefore, the sensory circuit switches on the cooling circuit when the voltage is 5 V or more.
The above circuit can be modified to suit different applications. For example: switching off a
heater when the temperature is above a certain temperature. This circuit can also be used for
switching off lights in the daytime and switching them on at night (using LDR).
EXERCISE
Calculate the value of 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 for the circuit shown in the figure below,

Find the missing values in the figure below.

BINARY SYSTEM AND LOGIC GATES

A gate is a logic circuit with one output and one or more input. The output occurs only for certain
combination of the inputs.
The various logic gates are “OR”, “AND”, “NOT”, “NOR”, “EXCLUSIVE-OR” gates,
“NAND”.
Logic circuits can be classified into combinational and sequential logic circuit.
Combinational logic circuit is one where the output at any instant is a function of only the input
at that instant.
Example: Gates like “AND”, “OR”, “NOT”, etc.
A sequential circuit can consist of a combinational circuit and memory which stores past inputs
over a long period of time.
These combinational and sequential circuits are based on Boolean Algebra which is a way of
analysing and designing logic circuit.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
It is an algebra where the variables are constrained and permitted to have only one of the two
positive values. The possible two values may stand for “Truth” or “False” of a statement or
“ON” or “OFF”. State in a switch or “PRESENCE” or “ABSENCE” of one of the two voltage
values.
These Boolean variables are binary in nature. The binary values are designated “0” or “1”. Either
of these binary values are denoted by “Bits”. Bit is derived from binary digits.
Logic gate:
Definition:
A gate is a logic circuit with one output and two or more inputs. The output signal occurs only
for certain combinations of input variables.
The various logic gates are “OR”, “AND”, “NOT”, “NOR”, “EXCLUSIVE-OR” gates,
“NAND”.
Truth-table:
Is a table which shows all the input and output possibilities for logic circuits. It gives what
combinations of input that will produce outputs (Independent variables producing dependent
variables).
Logic equation:
It is the relationship between independent logic input binary variables and logic output variables.
Basic gates:

1. OR-gate symbol

The logic equation: F = A+B

Truth Table Circuit Analogy

In the circuit analogy there is a parallel

combination of the switches.

2. AND-gate symbol

The logic equation: F = ABC

Circuit analogy

In this circuit analogy, there is series

combination of switches.

3.NOT-gate:
This is an inverter. It has a single input and a single output. It inverts the input.
Symbol
 Truth table for NOT gate
Input Output
0 1
1 0

Truth Table for the AND gate

input input input Output
A B C Y
4. When a NOT-gate is combined with the
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 OR-gate in a cascade the result is known as a
0 1 0 0 NOR-gate and the symbol is
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

Truth Table for NOR gate

input input input Output
A B C Y
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
5. NAND-gate
When the AND-gate is combined with a NOT-gate in a cascade, the resulting gate is known as a
NAND gate.

Exercise

Draw the truth table for the above NAND equation

6. Exclusive-OR gate
The output of two inputs (Exclusive-OR gate) assumes state 1 if and only if, one variable
assumes the state 1 but not both. Its logic equation is given by;

Exercise
Draw the truth table for the above Exclusive-OR gate equation.

APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

Logic gates are fundamental building blocks of digital circuits, and they find applications in
various fields. Here are some common applications of logic gates:

1. Digital Computers: Logic gates form the basis of all digital computers. They are used
extensively in the central processing unit (CPU) to perform arithmetic and logical
operations, control the flow of data, and execute instructions.

2. Digital Signal Processing (DSP): Logic gates are used in DSP systems for tasks such as
filtering, modulation, demodulation, and encoding/decoding of digital signals. They play
 a crucial role in implementing algorithms for audio and video processing,
telecommunications, and data compression.

3. Memory Units: Logic gates are utilized in memory units such as registers, flip-flops, and
memory cells to store and retrieve digital data. They enable the implementation of
various types of memory architectures, including random-access memory (RAM), read-
only memory (ROM), and cache memory.

4. Arithmetic and Logic Units (ALU): ALUs are key components of CPUs responsible for
performing arithmetic and logical operations on binary data. Logic gates are used
extensively in ALUs to implement operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, comparison, and bitwise manipulation.

5. Control Units: Logic gates are employed in control units to decode instructions, generate
control signals, and coordinate the execution of operations within a CPU. They enable the
fetch-decode-execute cycle and facilitate the proper sequencing of operations in a
computer system.

6. Digital Communication Systems: Logic gates are essential in digital communication

systems for tasks such as encoding, decoding, multiplexing, demultiplexing, and error
detection/correction. They are used in devices like modems, codecs, encoders, decoders,
and error-correcting codes (ECC).

7. Industrial Automation: Logic gates are widely used in industrial automation systems for
controlling processes, monitoring sensors, and implementing logic-based decision-
making. They are employed in programmable logic controllers (PLCs), motor control
systems, robotic systems, and process control units.

8. Consumer Electronics: Logic gates are found in various consumer electronics products
such as smartphones, tablets, digital cameras, televisions, gaming consoles, and home
appliances. They enable functions like user interface interactions, data processing, signal
conditioning, and control logic implementation.

9. Security Systems: Logic gates are used in security systems for tasks such as access
control, authentication, encryption/decryption, and intrusion detection. They are
employed in devices like keypads, biometric sensors, security cameras, and alarm
systems.

10. Automotive Electronics: Logic gates are utilized in automotive electronics for functions
like engine control, vehicle diagnostics, navigation systems, entertainment systems, and
safety features (e.g., airbag deployment, anti-lock braking systems).
Logic Circuits
A logic circuit is a circuit that executes a processing or controlling function in a computer. This
circuit implements logical operations on information to process it. It utilises two values for a
given physical quantity for example voltage to denote the Boolean values true and false or 1 and
0 respectively. They have inputs with the corresponding outputs, which can be dependent on the
inputs.

Types of logic circuits

1. Astable: This is a free running multivibrator that has No stable states but switches
continuously between two states, this action produces a train of square wave pulses at a
fixed known frequency.
2. Monostable: This is a one short multivibrator that has only ONE stable state as once
externally triggered it turns to its stable state.
3. Bistable: This is a flip-flop that has TWO stable states producing a single pulse either
HIGH or LOW in value.

Terms used in logic Circuitry.

1. Active HIGH: If the states change occurs from a LOW to a HIGH on clock’s pulse rising
edge or during the clock width.
2. Active LOW: If the states change occurs from a HIGH to a LOW on the clock’s pulses
falling edge.
3. Clock width: This is the time during which the value of the clock signal is equal to a logic
1 or HIGH.
4. Clock Period: This is the time between successive transition is the same direction i.e.
between two rising or two falling edges.
5. Duty Cycle: This is the ratio of the clock width to the clock period.
6. Clock Frequency: This is the reciprocal of the clock period.

𝟏 𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = =
𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝑻

Compiled and prepared by Tr Moses Kusiima

Contact (0789298144) for any Facilitation in CBC