UNIT 2

Introduction

• Human beings are good at understanding,

reasoning and interpreting knowledge.
• And using this knowledge, they are able to
perform various actions in the real world. But
how do machines perform the same?
 What is Knowledge Representation?

• Knowledge Representation in AI describes the

representation of knowledge.
• Basically, it is a study of how the beliefs,
intentions, and judgments of an intelligent
agent can be expressed suitably for automated
reasoning.
• One of the primary purposes of Knowledge
Representation includes modeling intelligent
behavior for an agent.
 What is Knowledge Representation?

• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR,

KRR) represents information from the real world
for a computer to understand and then utilize this
knowledge to solve complex real-life problems like
communicating with human beings in natural
language.
• Knowledge representation in AI is not just about
storing data in a database, it allows a machine to
learn from that knowledge and behave intelligently
like a human being.
 What is Knowledge Representation?

• The different kinds of knowledge that need to

be represented in AI include:
– Objects
– Events
– Performance
– Facts
– Meta-Knowledge
– Knowledge-base
Types of Knowledge
 Types of Knowledge
• Declarative Knowledge – It includes concepts, facts, and
objects and expressed in a declarative sentence.
• Structural Knowledge – It is a basic problem-solving
knowledge that describes the relationship between
concepts and objects.
• Procedural Knowledge – This is responsible for knowing
how to do something and includes rules, strategies,
procedures, etc.
• Meta Knowledge – Meta Knowledge defines knowledge
about other types of Knowledge.
• Heuristic Knowledge – This represents some expert
knowledge in the field or subject.
 Cycle of Knowledge Representation in AI

• Artificial Intelligent Systems usually consist of

various components to display their intelligent
behavior. Some of these components include:
– Perception
– Learning
– Knowledge Representation & Reasoning
– Planning
– Execution
Example:
 Example

• The Perception component retrieves data or

information from the environment.
• with the help of this component, you can
retrieve data from the environment, find out
the source of noises and check if the AI was
damaged by anything.
• Also, it defines how to respond when any sense
has been detected.
 Example

• Then, there is the Learning Component that learns

from the captured data by the perception
component.
• The goal is to build computers that can be taught
instead of programming them. Learning focuses on
the process of self-improvement.
• In order to learn new things, the system requires
knowledge acquisition, inference, acquisition of
heuristics, faster searches, etc.
 Example

• The main component in the cycle is Knowledge

Representation and Reasoning which shows the human-
like intelligence in the machines.
• Knowledge representation is all about understanding
intelligence.
• Instead of trying to understand or build brains from the
bottom up, its goal is to understand and build intelligent
behavior from the top-down and focus on what an agent
needs to know in order to behave intelligently.
• Also, it defines how automated reasoning procedures
can make this knowledge available as needed.
 Example

• The Planning and Execution components

depend on the analysis of knowledge
representation and reasoning.
• Here, planning includes giving an initial state,
finding their preconditions and effects, and a
sequence of actions to achieve a state in which
a particular goal holds.
• Now once the planning is completed, the final
stage is the execution of the entire process.
Relation between Knowledge & Intelligence

• In the real world, knowledge plays a vital role in

intelligence as well as creating artificial
intelligence.
• It demonstrates the intelligent behavior in AI
agents or systems.
• It is possible for an agent or system to act
accurately on some input only when it has the
knowledge or experience about the input.
Example
 Example

• In this example, there is one decision-maker whose

actions are justified by sensing the environment
and using knowledge.
• But, if we remove the knowledge part here, it will
not be able to display any intelligent behavior.
• Now that you know the relationship between
knowledge and intelligence, let’s move on to the
techniques of Knowledge Representation in AI.
Knowledge Representation in AI
 Logical Representation

• Logical representation is a language with some

definite rules which deal with propositions and has
no ambiguity in representation.
• It represents a conclusion based on various
conditions and lays down some important
communication rules.
• Also, it consists of precisely defined syntax and
semantics which supports the sound inference.
• Each sentence can be translated into logics using
syntax and semantics.
Logical Representation
 Logical Representation

• Advantages:
– Logical representation helps to perform logical
reasoning.
– This representation is the basis for the
programming languages.
• Disadvantages:
– Logical representations have some restrictions
and are challenging to work with.
– This technique may not be very natural, and
inference may not be very efficient.
 Semantic Network Representation

• Semantic networks work as an alternative of predicate

logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic
networks, you can represent your knowledge in the
form of graphical networks.
• This network consists of nodes representing objects
and arcs which describe the relationship between
those objects. Also, it categorizes the object in
different forms and links those objects.
• This representation consist of two types of relations:
– IS-A relation (Inheritance)
– Kind-of-relation
Semantic Network Representation
 Semantic Network Representation

• Advantages:
– Semantic networks are a natural representation of
knowledge.
– Also, it conveys meaning in a transparent manner.
– These networks are simple and easy to understand.
• Disadvantages:
– Semantic networks take more computational time at
runtime.
– Also, these are inadequate as they do not have any
equivalent quantifiers.
– These networks are not intelligent and depend on the
creator of the system.
 Frame Representation

• A frame is a record like structure that consists of

a collection of attributes and values to describe
an entity in the world.
• These are the AI data structure that divides
knowledge into substructures by representing
stereotypes situations.
• Basically, it consists of a collection of slots and
slot values of any type and size.
• Slots have names and values which are called
facets.
 Frame Representation
• Advantages:
– It makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.
– Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
– It is very easy to add slots for new attributes and relations.
– Also, it is easy to include default data and search for missing
values.
• Disadvantages:
– In frame system inference, the mechanism cannot be easily
processed.
– The inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by
frame representation.
– It has a very generalized approach.
 Production Rules

• In production rules, agent checks for the condition and if the

condition exists then production rule fires and corresponding
action is carried out.
• The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be
applied to a problem. Whereas, the action part carries out the
associated problem-solving steps. This complete process is
called a recognize-act cycle.
• The production rules system consists of three main parts:
– The set of production rules
– Working Memory
– The recognize-act-cycle
 Production Rules

• Advantages:
– The production rules are expressed in natural
language.
– The production rules are highly modular and can be
easily removed or modified.
• Disadvantages:
– It does not exhibit any learning capabilities and does
not store the result of the problem for future uses.
– During the execution of the program, many rules may
be active. Thus, rule-based production systems are
inefficient.
 Representation Requirements
• A good knowledge representation system must have
properties such as:
– Representational Accuracy: It should represent all kinds
of required knowledge.
– Inferential Adequacy: It should be able to manipulate the
representational structures to produce new knowledge
corresponding to the existing structure.
– Inferential Efficiency: The ability to direct the inferential
knowledge mechanism into the most productive
directions by storing appropriate guides.
– Acquisitional efficiency: The ability to acquire new
knowledge easily using automatic methods.
 Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI

• Simple Relational Knowledge

– It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses
the relational method. Here, all the facts about a
set of the object are set out systematically in
columns.
– Also, this approach of knowledge representation
is famous in database systems where the
relationship between different entities is
represented.
– Thus, there is little opportunity for inference.
Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI
 Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI

• Inheritable Knowledge
– In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data
must be stored into a hierarchy of classes and
should be arranged in a generalized form or a
hierarchal manner.
– Also, this approach contains inheritable
knowledge which shows a relation between
instance and class, and it is called instance
relation.
– In this approach, objects and values are
represented in Boxed nodes.
 Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI

• Inheritable Knowledge
 Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI

• Inferential Knowledge
• The inferential knowledge approach represents
knowledge in the form of formal logic. Thus, it can be
used to derive more facts. Also, it guarantees
correctness.
• Example:
Statement 1: John is a cricketer.
Statement 2: All cricketers are athletes.
Then it can be represented as;
– Cricketer(John)
– ∀x = Cricketer (x) — — — - > Athelete (x)s
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• The fundamental goal of knowledge Representation is

to facilitate inference (conclusions) from knowledge.
• The issues that arise while using KR techniques are
many. Some of these are explained below.
• Important Attributed:
– Any attribute of objects so basic that they occur in
almost every problem domain?
– There are two attributed “instance” and “isa”, that are
general significance. These attributes are important
because they support property inheritance.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• Relationship among attributes:

– Any important relationship that exists among object
attributed?
– The attributes we use to describe objects are
themselves entities that we represent.
– The relationship between the attributes of an
object, independent of specific knowledge they
encode, may hold properties like:
• Inverse — This is about consistency check, while a
value is added to one attribute. The entities are
related to each other in many different ways.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• Existence in an isa hierarchy —

– This is about generalization-specification, like,
classes of objects and specialized subsets of those
classes, there are attributes and specialization of
attributes.
– For example, the attribute height is a specialization
of general attribute physical-size which is, in turn, a
specialization of physical-attribute.
– These generalization-specialization relationships
are important for attributes because they support
inheritance.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• Technique for reasoning about values —

– This is about reasoning values of attributes
not given explicitly.
– Several kinds of information are used in
reasoning, like, height: must be in a unit of
length, Age: of a person cannot be greater
than the age of person’s parents.
– The values are often specified when a
knowledge base is created.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• Single valued attributes —

– This is about a specific attribute that is
guaranteed to take a unique value.
– For example, a baseball player can at time
have only a single height and be a member of
only one team.
– KR systems take different approaches to
provide support for single valued attributes.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• Choosing Granularity:
– At what level of detail should the knowledge be
represented?
– Regardless of the KR formalism, it is necessary to know:
• At what level should the knowledge be represented
and what are the primitives?
• Should there be a small number or should there be a
large number of low-level primitives or High-level
facts.
• High-level facts may not be adequate for inference
while Low-level primitives may require a lot of storage.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation
• Example of Granularity:
Suppose we are interested in following facts:
John spotted Sue.
This could be represented as
Spotted (agent(John),object (Sue))
• Such a representation would make it easy to answer questions such are:
Who spotted Sue?
• Suppose we want to know:
Did John see Sue?
• Given only one fact, we cannot discover that answer.
• We can add other facts, such as
Spotted(x, y) -> saw(x, y)
• We can now infer the answer to the question.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• Set of objects:
• How should sets of objects be represented?
• There are certain properties of objects that are true as
member of a set but not as individual;
• Example: Consider the assertion made in the sentences:
“there are more sheep than people in Australia”, and
“English speakers can be found all over the world.”
• To describe these facts, the only way is to attach
assertion to the sets representing people, sheep, and
English.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• The reason to represent sets of objects is: if a

property is true for all or most elements of a set,
then it is more efficient to associate it once with the
set rather than to associate it explicitly with every
elements of the set.
• This is done,
– in logical representation through the use of
universal quantifier, and
– in hierarchical structure where node represent
sets and inheritance propagate set level assertion
down to individual.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• Finding Right structure:

– Given a large amount of knowledge stored in
a database, how can relevant parts are
accessed when they are needed?
– This is about access to right structure for
describing a particular situation.
– This requires, selecting an initial structure
and then revising the choice.
 Issues in Knowledge Representation

• While doing so, it is necessary to solve following

problems:
– How to perform an initial selection of the most
appropriate structure.
– How to fill in appropriate details from the current
situations.
– How to find a better structure if the one chosen
initially turns out not to be appropriate.
– What to do if none of the available structures is
appropriate.
– When to create and remember a new structure.