SELF-ESTEEM

DEFINITION
Rosenberg (1965), one of the pioneers in this domain, stated that self-esteem refers to an
individual overall positive evaluation to the self. He added, that high self-esteem consists of an
individual respecting himself and considering himself worthy.
Sedikides and Gress (2003) stated that self-esteem refers to individual’s perception or
subjective appraisal of one’s own self-worth, one’s feelings of self-respect and self-confidence
and the extent to which the individual holds positive or negative views about self. Self-esteem
is related to personal beliefs about skills, abilities, and social relationships.
Self-esteem is also defined as a global barometer of self-evaluation involving cognitive
appraisals about general self-worth and affective experiences of the self that are linked to these
global appraisals (Murphy, Stosny and Morrel, 2005).
Wang and Ollendick (2001) stated that self-esteem involves an evaluation of oneself followed
by an emotional reaction towards oneself. The evaluative and affective elements are present in
all extant definitions and theories of self-esteem.
Brown, Dutton, and Cook (2001) distinguished three ways in which the term “self-esteem” is
used: (a) global or trait self-esteem to refer to the way people characteristically feel about
themselves, i.e., feelings of affection for oneself; (b) self-evaluation to refer to the way people
evaluate their various abilities and attributes, and (c) feelings of self-esteem to refer to
momentary emotional states, e.g., a person might say her self-esteem was sky-high after
getting a big promotion, or a person might say his self-esteem plummeted after a divorce.
Self-esteem could be defined as the self-evaluation and descriptive conceptualization that
individuals make and maintain with regard to themselves.
DIMENSIONS AND COMPONENTS
Self-esteem can refer to the overall self or to specific aspects of the self, such as how people
feel about their social standing, racial or ethnic group, physical features, athletic skills, job or
school performance. Theorists have made many distinctions concerning different types of self-
esteem, e.g., contingent vs. noncontingent; explicit vs. implicit; authentic vs. false; stable vs.
unstable; global vs. domain specific. Regarding the dimensionality of self-esteem, some authors
conceptualized it as a unitary global trait, whereas others view it as a multidimensional trait
with independent subcomponents (performance, social, and physical self-esteem) (Heatherton
and Wyland,2003).
Branden (1969) maintained that self-esteem consists of two components: (a) to consider
oneself effective, to trust in one’s ability to think, learn, choose and make correct decisions, and
to overcome challenges and produce changes, and (b) to respect oneself, the confidence in
one’s right to be happy, and the confidence that people are worthy of the respect, love and
self-fulfillment appearing in their lives.
Reasoner (2005) viewed self-esteem as composed of two distinct dimensions: competence and
worth. On the basis of these two components, he defines self-esteem as “the experience of
being capable of meeting life challenges and being worthy of happiness”.
In personality psychology, there is a well-known distinction between traits and states first
introduced by Cattell (1966) and elaborated by Spielberger and his colleagues (1983). Based on
this distinction, some authors distinguish between trait self-esteem, i.e., stable in time as it is a
part of the personality and the state self-esteem, which is more labile, being affected by events,
situations, and emotions (Gilovich, Keltner and Nisbett, 2006).
Deci and Ryan (1995) distinguished between contingent and true self-esteem. Contingent self-
esteem refers to feelings about oneself that result from, and dependent on, matching some
standards of excellence or living up to some interpersonal or intrapsychic expectations. It is a
kind of aggrandizement of oneself associated with being ego-involved in some types of
outcomes and dutifully achieving them. it is often involving social comparison and tends to be
associated with a kind of narcissism. In contrast, true self-esteem is more stable and based in a
solid and secure sense of self. Their worth would be an integrated aspect of one’s self and
would be reflected in agency, proactivity, and vitality.
As for the assessment of self-esteem, some authors distinguished between explicit self-esteem
(questionnaires) and implicit self-esteem, i.e., the introspectively unidentified (or inaccurately
identified) effect of the self attitude on evaluation of self-associated and self-dissociated object
(Greenwald and Banaji, 1995).
FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The formation of self-esteem implies a long process. It is correlated with the formation of self-
image and self-conscience. Its evolution in time involves also downfall periods especially during
transition periods from one stage to another, from one status to another, e.g., in adolescence
(due to the psychosomatic changes), or grand age, as a consequence of the change in status,
retirement and the change in tasks and responsibilities (Orth, Trzesniewski and Robins, 2010).
While self-esteem appears to decline during adolescence, it increases during young adulthood
(Tsai, Ying and Lee, 2001).
The affective model of self-esteem development assumes that: (a) self-esteem forms early in
life in response to relational and temperamental factors; and (b) once formed, endows high
self-esteem people with the ability to promote, protect and restore feelings of self-worth
(Brown et al., 2001).
Many studies have underlined the essential role of the family environment in the formation of
personality especially in the early childhood (Talib, Mohamad and Mamat, 2011). Early studies
by Rosenberg (1965) and Coopersmith (1967) showed that parental involvement and
willingness to give adolescents autonomy and freedom are positively correlated to high self-
esteem in adolescents.
The period of adolescence is important for the process of self-esteem formation. The formation
of self-esteem can be stimulated, encouraged both by parents and teachers. The level of self-
esteem is mirrored in the adolescent’s attitude and behavior, both at home and at school
(Mogonea and Mogonea, 2014). The adolescents with a high level of self-esteem have the
following characteristics: they are capable of influencing positively the opinion and behavior of
others; they tackle new situations positively and confidently; they have a high level of tolerance
towards frustration; they accept early responsibilities, they asses correctly situations; they
communicate positive feelings about themselves; they succeed in having a good self-control
and the belief that the things they are undergoing are the result of their own behavior and
actions (Lavoie, 2012). Therefore, adolescence is the critical period for the development of self-
esteem and self-identity, and low self-esteem may endanger adolescent’s emotional regulation
(Lin, Tang, Yen, Ko, Huang, Liu et al., 2008). On the other hand, high self-esteem serving as a
role of resilience or positive adaptation (Moksnes and Espnes, 2012).
POSITIVE EFFECS OF HIGH SELF-ESTEEM
Studies have identified self-esteem as an important determinant of emotional well-being
(Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger and Vohs, 2003). As early as 1890, William James, one of the
founding fathers of Western psychology, argued that self-esteem is an important aspect of
mental health. People with high self-esteem experience more happiness, optimism, and
motivation than those with low self-esteem, as well as less depression, anxiety, and negative
mood.
A high level of self-esteem supplies individuals with the ability to accept happy moments, to
handle unpleasant situations, to cope effectively with challenges, to engage in close
relationships and to improve their strengths. High self-esteem is also considered to positively
moderate the expression of dysfunctional schemata and depressive symptoms at the
experience of negative life events (Stavropoulos, Lazaratou, Marini and Dikeos, 2015).
Several studies have found that high self-esteem individuals are more persistent in the face of
failure than the low self-esteem individuals. High self-esteem individuals also appear more
effective in self-regulating goal-directed behavior (Di Paula and Campbell, 2002). Self-esteem is
important for self-regulation and quality of life, and the relevance of self-esteem for positive
psychology. Self-esteem provides the energy to mobilize human behavior as well as
contributing to its direction (Mackinnon, 2015, p. 18).
Previous research has shown that self-esteem rises when a person succeeds, is praised, or
experiences another’s love, making self-esteem dependent on not only one’s perceptions of
himself but also other’s perceptions of him (Schmidt and Padilla, 2003). Self-esteem is a major
key to success in life. The development of healthy self-esteem is extremely important for good
personal and social adjustment.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF LOW SELF-ESTEEM
People with low self-esteem suffer from feelings of worthlessness, inferiority, and emotional
instability, so leading to dissatisfaction with life (Ha, 2006). Moreover, there is a tendency of
respondents with low self-esteem scores to have a general negative attitude toward many
things, including other people and personal circumstances (Mackinnon, 2015, p. 15).
Low self-esteem has been linked to depression, aggression, less competency to overcome
difficulties and decreased level of well-being in adolescence (Stavropoulos et al., 2015). Weber
(2001) hypothesized that college students who report emotional abuse are expected to have a
lower self-esteem than those who do not report emotional abuse. This hypothesis was
generally supported for male participants only.
Self-esteem was significantly and negatively correlated with internet addiction (Aydin and Sari,
2011). Using a cross-sectional convenient national sample of 23,532 Norwegians, Andreassen,
Pallesen, and Griffiths (2016) elucidated the addictive use of social media in reflecting a need to
feed the ego, i.e., narcissistic personality traits, and an attempt to inhibit a negative self-
evaluation, i.e., self-esteem.
The sociometer model maintained that subjectively experienced self-esteem serves as “a
psychological gauge or indicator” that allows people to efficiently monitor other’s reactions to
them. Low self-esteem is conceptualized as an experiential indicator of social rejection (Leary,
Schreindorfer and Haupt, 1995; Leary, Tambor, Terdal and Downs, 1995).
LOW SELF-ESTEEM AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
The low self-esteem person is an individual whose global self-evaluation is neutral, whose self-
concept is uncertain and confused, who is highly susceptible to, and dependent on, external
self-relevant cues, and whose social perceptions and behaviors reflect a cautious or
conservative orientation (Campbell and Lavallee, 1993).
Low self-esteem can be understood in terms of confusion or uncertainty in self-knowledge, a
cautious and self-protective approach to life, a shortage of positive resources in the self, and a
chronic internal conflict. They lack a clear, consistent unified understanding of who they are,
which leaves them at the mercy of events and changing situations (Baumeister, 1993).
Lowered self-esteem frequently accompanies psychiatric disorders. It has been suggested that
low self-esteem is an etiological factor in many psychiatric conditions as well as in suicidal
individuals. With 957 psychiatric patients, Silverstone, and Salsali (2003) found that all
psychiatric patients suffer some degree of lowered self-esteem. The lowest self-esteem was
found in patients with major depressive disorder, eating disorders, and substance abuse. The
authors concluded that there is a vicious cycle between self-esteem and onset of psychiatric
disorders (See also Murphy et al., 2005).
Low level of self-esteem has been linked to behavioral problems and poor school performance
as well as serious behavioral problems as suicidal tendencies, maladjustment, and leads to
psychological problems such as depression, social anxiety, loneliness, alienation, etc. (Sharma
and Agarwala, 2015).
The most prominent explanations for the link between low self-esteem and psychopathology
are as follows: the vulnerability model (low self-esteem increases the probability of
psychopathology), and the scar model (low self-esteem is a consequence of psychopathology
rather than a cause) (Zeigler – Hill, 2011).
SELF-ESTEEM AND DEPRESSION
Depression prevalence has increased in the last few decades, affecting younger age groups.
According to WHO, depression is the fourth leading disease and by 2020 it is expected to reach
the second place (Tripković, Roje, Krnic, Nazor and Karin, 2015). Further, it is projected to be
the leading cause of the global burden of disease by the year 2030 (World Health Organization,
2008). Childhood and adolescence depression have become a subject of considerable studies
over the past few decades. The clinical features of child and adolescent depression are similar
to those of adult depression. Children cannot achieve their full potential if they are affected by
emotional or mental disturbances that hinder their success. Children experiencing emotional
abuse may experience depression and having low self-esteem. Parental behavior has been
reported to relate to a child’s self-esteem and is known to be as one of the reactions or
consequences of psychological maltreatment (Weber, 2001). An extensive body of evidence
supports the role of family processes in the development, course and maintenance of
depression in children and adolescents (Sander and McCarty, 2005).
Several studies have shown that increased negative thinking about the self is a central feature
of depression. It has been thoroughly demonstrated that depressive people think negatively
and report lower self-esteem than non-depressed controls. Likewise, several studies have
suggested a combined effect of low self-esteem (or negative cognitions about oneself) and
family functioning on the emergence of adolescent depression (Stavropoulos et al., 2015).
Statistically significant association between low self-esteem and clinically significant depression
was found (Tripković et al., 2015) (See also: Sharma and Agarwala, 2014). On the other hand, a
positive view of the self, i.e., self-esteem, plays a role in buffering the relation between
negative events and depressive symptoms.
THE DARK SIDE OF HIGH SELF-ESTEEM
There is a dark side of self-esteem. Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) suggested that people
with high self-esteem are more likely to be conceited, arrogant, or occasionally narcissistic.
They expect to receive positive evaluations from others; if they are provided with negative
feedback, a threatened ego motivates them to spend personal resources on coping with the
negative evaluations. Neff (2011) pointed out that pursuit of high self-esteem can be
problematic, can sometimes be counterproductive, and may involve puffing the self up while
putting others down.
High scores on self-esteem scales can result from narcissism – a highly inflated, grandiose view
of oneself and one’s positive traits and competence, conjoined with a sense of entitlement.
Although separate measures of narcissism and normal self-esteem correlate substantially, they
have different outcomes. Narcissism predicts aggression while normal self-esteem does not
(Mackinnon, 2015, pp. 14 – 15).
Some authors view narcissism as an extreme form of self-esteem, so exaggerated self-esteem
leads to narcissism and the search for unconditional acceptance. Narcissists see themselves as
the center of the universe; in the mirror they only see themselves reflected. They see
themselves as if they were the only reality worthy of esteem, the rest being mere generators of
their supposed grandeur and worth. Narcissists are always talking about their supposed
greatness and worth, about their uncommon, marvelous experiences, their extremely
interesting projects, about how much they have done to improve in life, and even to help
others (Dolan, 2007, p. 71).
Gerrard, Gibbons, Reis – Bergan, and Russell (2000) studied the self-serving cognitions among
people with high self-esteem who engage in unwise or less optimal and risky health behavior,
such as drinking, smoking, and unprotected sex. They found that they often utilize a variety of
self-serving cognitive strategies and defensive self-justification and reactance that protect them
fully acknowledging their vulnerability to the potential negative consequences of their
behavior. For example, they minimize their estimates of personal risk and overestimate the
prevalence of the risk behavior among their peers. High self-esteem persons employ these
strategies to cope with the inconsistency between their behavior and their positive self-
perception.

CULTURE AND SELF-ESTEEM

Culture shapes various aspects of the self: how people view themselves, what they strive to be,
and when they feel good (or bad) about themselves (Tsai et al., 2001). The North American and
Western European view the self as an independent, autonomous, self-contained entity
composed of a unique set of attributes (traits, feelings, values, etc.). These attributes determine
and explain a person’s behavior (Marcus and Kitayama, 1991). In this culture, where is
individualism is prized, the culture urges individuals to view themselves as independently
functioning agents. People who embrace an independent view of self tend to have a sense of
identity that is anchored in its internal attributes and is viewed as the source of action and the
center of control. Independent view of self and self-esteem are positively correlated (Heine and
Lehman, 2004).
On the other hand, the cultural framework of interdependence characterizes many Asian,
African, and Hispanic collectivistic cultures (Triandis, 1994). That is, the self cannot be separated
from others and the surrounding social context. Thus, the goal is not to become separate but to
fit in with others. In an independent culture, high self-esteem derives from evidence that one
has distinguished oneself from others and is different and unique in some positive sense. By
contrast, in an interdependent culture, high self-esteem is a function of good social
relationships, a sense of fitting in, belonging, and to minimize any sense of uniqueness or
distinction (Glaus, 1999; Marcus and Kitayama, 1994).
STABILITY OF SELF-ESTEEM
Most theories of self-esteem view it as a relatively stable personality trait. Based on this
perspective, self-esteem is stable because it slowly builds over time through personal
experiences, such as repeatedly succeeding at various tasks or continually being valued by
significant others. A number of studies, however, assumed that self-esteem can momentarily
manipulated or affected. Therefore, self-esteem can be viewed as a “trait” as well as a “state”
(Heatherton and Wyland, 2003).
Greenier et al., (1995) stated that self-esteem instability is a dimension distinct from level of
self-esteem. Self-esteem instability refers to the magnitude of short-term fluctuations that
people experience in their contextually based feelings of self-worth. Among high self-esteem
individuals, self-esteem instability reflects fragility in one’s positive self-feelings, and is
associated with heightened tendencies to defend and promote these positive self-feelings. On
the other hand, among low self-esteem individuals, self-esteem instability is related to various
indices of psychological difficulties and maladjustment.
As Baumeister (1994) stated, people are guided by a strong, fundamental desire for self-
esteem. People claim credit for success but deny blame for failures. They exaggerate and
overestimate their abilities … they systematically choose to compare themselves with others
who are less gifted or worse off than themselves. They deny or conceal their shortcomings and
advertise their virtues and positive traits. They identify themselves with successful groups and
distance themselves from failing or stigmatized groups (p. 84).