First Semester A.

Y 2024-2025
PCE413 – BRIDGE ENGINEERING
MODULE 5 – Part III

LOAD AND LOAD FACTORS

(Based on DPWH DGCS Vol. 5 Bridge Design and AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification)

LOAD FACTORS FOR CONSTRUCTION LOADS:

1. Evaluation at the Strength Limit State (Article 10.4.1 DGCS / Section 3.4.2.1 AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specification)

All appropriate strength limit state load combinations in Table 3.4.1-1 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specification / Table 10.3-1 of DPWH DGCS Vol.5 Bridge Design, shall be investigated. When investigating
Strength Load Combinations I and III for maximum force effects during construction, load factors for the
weight of the structure and appurtenances, DC and DW, shall not be less than 1.25.

For the Strength I load combination, unless otherwise specified by the Owner, the load factor for the
construction loads and for any associated dynamic effects should be 1.50 or greater. The load factor for wind
in Strength Load Combination III shall not be less than 1.25.

2. Evaluation of Deflection at the Service Limit State (Article 10.4.2 DGCS / Section 3.4.2.2 AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specification)

Construction Loads - are loads that act on the structure only during construction. Often the construction
loads are not accurately known at the time of design. Construction loads include but are not limited to the
weight of materials, removable forms, personnel, and equipment such as deck finishing machines or loads
applied to the structure through falsework or other temporary supports.

The associated permitted deflections shall be where prestressed components are used in conjunction with
steel girders, the force effects from the following sources shall be considered as construction loads, EL:

 In conjunction with the longitudinal prestressing of a precast deck prior to making the deck sections
composite with the girders, the friction between the precast deck sections and the steel girders.
 When longitudinal post-tensioning is performed after the deck becomes composite with the girders, the
additional forces included in the steel girders and shear connectors.
 The effects of differential creep and shrinkage of the concrete.
 The Poisson effect.
 The load factor for the live load in the Extreme Event Load Combination I, 𝜸𝑬𝑸 , shall be determined on a
project-basis.

LOAD FACTORS FOR JACKING AND POST-TENSIONING FORCES:

1. Jacking Forces (Article 10.5.1 DGCS / Section 3.4.3.1 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification)

Unless otherwise specified by the Owner, the design forces for jacking in service shall not be less than 1.3
times the permanent load reaction at the bearing, adjacent to the point of jacking.

Where the bridge will not be closed to traffic during the jacking operation, the jacking load shall also contain
a live load reaction consistent with the maintenance of traffic plan, multiplied by the load factor for live load.

2. Force for Post-Tensioning Anchorage Zones (Article 10.5.2 DGCS / Section 3.4.3.2 AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specification)

The design for post-tensioning anchorage zones shall be taken as 1.2 times the maximum jacking force.

Page | 1 PCE413 – Bridge Engineering Module 5 – Part III

 First Semester A.Y 2024-2025
PCE413 – BRIDGE ENGINEERING
MODULE 5 – Part III

LOAD AND LOAD FACTORS

(Based on DPWH DGCS Vol. 5 Bridge Design and AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification)

DEAD LOADS: (Article 10.6 DGCS / Section 3.5 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification)

Dead load shall include the weight of all components, of the structure, appurtenances, and utilities attached,
earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays and future widening.

In the absence of more precise information, the densities of materials, specified in Table 10.6-1 of DGCS
Vol. 5 and Table 3.5.1-1 of AASHTO, may be used for dead loads.

Table 10.6-1 Densities

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 Table 3.5.1-1 – Unit Weights of Materials

LIVE LOADS: (Article 10.7 DGCS / Section 3.6 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification)

1. Vehicular Live Loads (Article 10.7.2 DGCS Vol.5 / Section 3.6.1.1 AASHTO)

1.1 Number of Design Lanes – Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking
𝒘
the integer part of the ratio of 𝟑.𝟔 (DGCS Vol. 5, meters) or . (AASHTO, ft) , where w is the clear
roadway width between curbs and/or barriers. Possible future changes in the physical or functional
clear roadway width of the bridge should be considered.
In cases where the traffic lanes are less than 3.6 meters (12.0 ft) wide, the number of design lanes shall
be equal to the number of traffic lanes, and the width of the design lane shall be taken as the width of
the traffic lane.
Roadway widths from 6.0 to 7.2 meters (20.0 ft to 24.0 ft) shall have two design lanes, each equal to
one-half the roadway width.

1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load – The provisions of Article 10.7 of DPWH DGCS Bridge Design
Vol. 5 shall not be applied to the Fatigue Limit State for which one design truck is used, regardless of
the number of design lanes.
Unless specified otherwise, the extreme live load force effect shall be determined by considering each
possible combination of number of loaded lanes multiplied by a corresponding multiple presence
factor to account for the probability of simultaneous lane being occupied by the full HL93 design live
load. In lieu of site-specific data, the values in Table 10.7.2.2-1:

Table 10.7.2.2-1 Multiple Presence Factors “m”

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  Shall be used when investigating the effect of one lane loaded
 May be used when investigating the effect of three or more lanes loaded.

For the purpose of determining the number of lanes when the loading condition includes the pedestrian
loads specified in Article 10.7.7 of DPWH DGCS Bridge Design Vol. 5 combined with one or more
lanes of the vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads may be taken to be one loaded lane.

2. Design Vehicular Live Load (Article 10.7.3 DGCS / Section 3.6.1.1 AASHTO)

HL-93 is a type of theoretical vehicular loading proposed by AASHTO in 1993. This vehicular live
loading on the roadways of bridges or incidental structures, designated HL-93, and shall consist of a
combination of the:

 Design truck or design tandem, and Design lane load.

Except as modified in Article 10.7.4 of DPWH DGCS Bridge Design Vol. 5, each design lane under
consideration shall be occupied by either the design truck or tandem, coincident with the lane load,
where applicable. The loads shall be assumed to occupy 3 meters (10 ft) transversely within a design
lane.

2.1 Design Truck – The weights and spacings of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be specified
in the figure below. A dynamic load allowance shall be considered as specified in Article 10.7.4 DGCS
Vol. 5 / Article 3.6.2 AASHTO. Except as specified in Articles 10.7.4 and 10.7.5.1, the spacing
between the two 145 kN (32.0 kips) axles shall be varied between 4.3 to 9.1 meters (14.0 ft to 30.0 ft)
to produce extreme force effects.

Figure 2.1 Characteristics of the Design Truck

2.2 Design Tandem – The design tandem shall consist of a pair of 108 kN (25.0 kips) axles spaced 1.2
meters (4.0 ft) apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 meters (6.0 ft). A dynamic
load allowance shall be considered as specified in Article 10.8 of DGCS.

2.3 Design Lane Load – The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.34 kN/m (0.64 kips per foot),
uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed
to be uniformly distributed over a 3.0 meter (10.0 ft) width. The force effects from the design lane
load shall not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.

2.4 Tire Contact Area – The tire contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tires shall be assumed
to be a single rectangle, whose width is 510 mm (20.0 in) and whose length is 254 mm (10.0 in). The
tire pressure shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area. The tire pressure shall
be assumed to be distributed as follows:

 On continuous surfaces, uniformly distributed over the specified contact area

 On interrupted surfaces, uniformly distributed over the actual contact area within the footprint with
the pressure increased in the ratio of the specified to actual contact areas.

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 For the design of orthotropic decks and wearing surfaces on orthotropic decks, the front wheels shall be
assumed to be a single rectangle whose width and length are both 254 mm (10 in.) as specified in Article
10.7.5.1 of DGCS / Article 3.6.1.4.1 AASHTO.

3. Application of Design Vehicular Live Loads (Article 10.7.4 DGCS / Section 3.6.1.3 AASHTO)

The extreme force effect shall be taken as the larger of the following:

 The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane load, or
 The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing specified in Article 10.7.3.1 DGCS Vol.5
/ Article 3.6.1.2.3 AASHTO, combined with the effect of the design lane load
 For negative moment between points of contraflexure under a uniform load on all spans, and reaction
at interior piers only, 90 percent of the effect of two design trucks spaced a minimum of 15.0 meters
(50.0 ft) between the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of the other truck, combined with 90
percent of the effect of the design lane load. The distance between the 145 kN (32.0-kip) axles of each
truck shall be taken as 4.3 meters (14.0 ft). The two design trucks shall be placed in adjacent spans to
produce maximum force effects.
Axles that do not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration shall be neglected.

Both the design lanes and the 3.0 meters (10.0-ft) loaded width in each lane shall be positioned to produce
extreme force effects. The design truck or tandem shall be positioned transversely such that the center of
any wheel load is not closer than:

 For the design of the deck overhang – 300 mm (1.0 ft) from the face of the curb or railing and,
 For the design of all other components – 600 mm (2.0 ft) from the edge of the design lane.
 Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, or parts thereof, that contribute to the extreme
force effect under consideration, shall be loaded with the design lane load.

3.1 Design Loads for Decks, Deck Systems, and the Top Slabs of Box Culverts

Where the approximate strip method is used to analyze decks and top slabs of culverts, force effects
shall be determined on the following basis:

 Where the slab spans primarily in the transverse direction, only the axles of the design truck or design
tandem shall be applied to the deck slab or the top slab of box culverts.
 Where the slab spans primarily in the longitudinal direction: For top slabs of box culverts of all spans
and for all other cases, including slab-type bridges where the span does not exceed 4.6 m (15.0 ft),
only the axle loads of the design truck or design tandem respectively, shall be applied.
 For all other cases, including slab-type bridges (excluding top slabs of box culverts) where the span
exceeds 4.6 m (15.0 ft), all of the load specified in Article 10.7.3 (DGCS) / Article 3.6.1.2 (AASHTO)
shall be applied.

Where the refined methods are used to analyze decks, force effects shall be determined on the
following basis:

 Where the slab spans primarily in the transverse direction, only the axles of the design truck or design
tandem shall be applied to the deck slab.
 Where the slab spans primarily in the longitudinal direction (including slab-type bridges), all of the
loads specified in Article 10.7.3 (DGCS) / Article 3.6.1.2 (AASHTO) shall be applied.

Wheel loads shall be assumed to be equal within an axle unit, and amplification of the wheel loads
due to centrifugal and braking forces need not be considered for the design of decks.

3.2 Deck Overhang Load

For the design of deck overhangs with a cantilever, not exceeding 1.8 m (6.0 ft) from the centerline of
the exterior girder to the face of a structurally continuous concrete railing, the outside row of wheel
loads
may be replaced with a uniformly distributed line load of 15 kN/m (1.0 kips per foot) intensity, located
300 mm (1.0 ft) from the face of the railing.

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