ELECTROSTATICS-CHAPTER 1 ► For air or free space ε r = 1

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS ► Since ε r > 1, Fair > Fmedium The electric field at P due to +q
Topics Included ► ε r is also called dielectric constant (K) of the medium
 Electric Charge  For vacuum K = 1, for air k =1.008, for water K= 80
 Properties of Electric Charge ► ε r has no unit or dimensional formula. The electric field at P due to -q
 Methods of Charging
 Coulomb’s Law
Electric field ‘ E’
E = F
 Electric Field The space around a charge within which its electro static force
q
 Electric Field Lines is experienced is called electric field.
 Electric Dipole ► SI unit of Electric field intensity is Newton / coulomb ( N C-1 ) or volt/meter ( V m-1 )
 Electric Flux ► E is a vector quantity
 Gauss’s Theorem 2.Charging by conduction ► Force experienced by a charge q placed in an electric field of strength E is given by F = qE
Thus the total electric field at P
Electric charge ‘Q’ Electric Field Lines or Electric Lines of Forces
Electric charge is a fundamental property of a particle (just like its mass) due to which electric and Problem 1 Digramatic visualization of electric field around a charged configuration is called Electric field lines.
magnetic effects are produced in the matter. How many electrons are present in -1 coulomb of charge ?
 SI unit of charge is coulomb ( C ) Solution: q=ne (or) n= q e = 1 1.6 x 10−19=6.25 x 1018 On simplifying we get
ie , -1 C means 6.25 x 1018 electrons are excess.
Properties of electric charges
Similarly +1 C means 6.25 x 1018 electrons are deficient.
i) Additive property
Problem 2
Electric charge is additive like real numbers .That is total charge on a body is equal to the algebraic For r ˃˃ a ,there for
A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3 × 10-7 C.
sum of charges present at different parts of the body.
a). Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from which to which?)
ii) Quantization of charges
b). Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene? Electric dipole
Quantization of charge means that the total charge of a body is always an integral multiple of certain
Solution: a) Q = 3 × 10-7 C A pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is called an electric dipole. Figure
smallest charge (charge of an electron)
Q = ne shows an electric dipole having charges +q and –q separated by a distance 2a.
ie Q= +ne
n = Q/e = 3 ×10-7 / 1.6× 10-19 =1.875×1012 , electrons transferred from wool to polythene
Where Q = Total charge on the body
b) yes. There is a mass transfer from wool to polythene
n = 1,2,3,4……..
Mass of electrons transferred =nme Torque on an electric dipole placed in an uniform electric field
e = charge of an electron (1.6 x 10-19C) 12 -31 Electric dipole moment :
= 1.875×10 X 9.1×10 = 1.706×10-18kg Consider an electric dipole of length 2a placed in a uniform electric field of strength E making an angle θ with field.
+ sign stands for loss of electron and – sign stands for gain of electron. The strength a dipole is measured in terms of its dipole moment which is defined as the product of
Point charges Torque = Force x Perpendicular distance between forces
► Number of electrons constituting 1C of charges is 6.25 x 1018 magnitude of one of the charges and length of the dipole .
When the size of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance separating them, their sizes can be τ = F ( BC )
{ n = Q/e = 1C/1.6 x 10 -19 C = 6.25 x 1018 } Ie Dipole moment P = Q 2a = QE (AB sinθ )
iii) Conservation of charges neglected and the charged bodies can be treated as point charges. ► P is a vector quantity directed from negative to positive charge along the axis of the dipole = QE (2a sinθ )
Total charge on an isolated system remains constant. This means that there is only a transfer of Coulomb’s law OR Inverse square law in electrostatics ► SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb meter ( C m ) = Q 2a E sinθ
charges from one body to other, but no creation or destruction of charges According to this law “The magnitude of force of attraction or repulsion between any two point Dipole field τ = P E sinθ,
Methods of charging a body charges at rest is directly proportional to product of magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to The electric field produced by a dipole is called dipole field. The total charge of a dipole is zero, but τ = P x E
1 . Charging by friction the square of the distance between them”. the dipole field is not zero
2 . Charging by conduction Consider two point charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a distance r. The force between them i) Field at any point on the axial line of the dipole
F α Q 1 Q2 , F α 1/ r2 Electric flux
3 . Charging by induction E = 1 2P
F α Q1 Q2
4πεo r3 Total number of electric lines of force passing through a given surface is called flux through it. Then flux of
r2
1. Charging by friction : When two insulating surfaces are rubbed against each other, due to friction, F = Constant Q1 Q2
ii) Field at any point on the equatorial line of the dipole electric field through the area element dS
electrons are transferred from one body to other. Hence both get charged. The electric charges so r 2 E = 1 P dΦ = E dS cos θ
acquired are called frictional electricity or charging by friction. In SI system 4πεo r3
F = 1 Q1 Q2 The electric flux through the whole surface is given by
► The substance which loses electrons become positively charged and which gain electrons become 4 π εo εr r2
iii) Field at any point ( general case )
negatively charged. E = 1 P √ 3 cos2θ + 1 Φ = ∫s dΦ
► When a body is charged negatively, electrons are added hence its mass increases Where εo → Permittivity of air or free space 4πεo r3
Φ = ∫s E dS cos θ
► When a body is charged positively, electrons are removed hence its mass decreases. εr → Relative permittivity of the medium ► E axial : E equit = 2:1
where the charges are placed Φ = ∫s E . dS
2. Charging by conduction: When an un charged conductor is brought in to contact with a charged body, ► ε o = 8.854 x 10 -12 C 2N - 1 m - 2 Case 1: Field at any point on the axial line of the dipole
► If the field is uniform over the surface the total flux Φ = E S cos θ
charge flows from the charged body to the uncharged body. Therefore 1/ 4 π ε o = 9 x 109  Maximum flux passes through the surface
 During charging by conduction, both objects acquire the same type of charge. F = 9 x 10 9 Q1 Q2 when it is held perpendicular to the electric field( Here θ = 0 ) Φ max = E S
εr r2  No flux passes through the surface when it is held parallel to the electric field ( Here θ = 90 )
 Electric flux is a scalar quantity

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 SI unit of flux is NC-1 m-2 or V m ELECTROSTATICS-CHAPTER 2 Capacitor

Gauss’s Theorem ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE Capacitor is a device used to store large amount of electric charge in a very small space It consists of two
According to this Law “Total electric flux through any closed surface in frees pace is equal to 1/ εo Topics Included conducting plates separated by a dielectric medium or Air.
times the net charge enclosed within the surface”.  Electric potential
ie Φ = 1 Q ∫s E . dS = 1 Q  Equipotential Surface
εo εo  Electric Capacitance
Where Q is the net charge enclosed and εo is the permittivity of free space  Capacitance of PPC
Applications of Gauss’s Theorem  Combinations of Capacitors
 Energy stored in a capacitor Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor ( PPC )
1.Electric field due to an infinitely long straight charged wire.
Electric Potential ‘V’
The work done in bringing a unit positive test charge (without acceleration) from infinite to a point
in an electric field gives the potential at the point.
Electric Potential
V = W/q
 SI unit of potential is J/C or volt ( V )
 Potential is a scalar quantity
 Potential due to an isolated positive charge is positive and negative charge is negative
Potential due to a point charge

V = 1 Q V α 1
4πεo r r
E = 1 Q V α 1
4πεo r2 r2

2.Electric Field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet. Equipotential surface
A surface with a constant value of potential at all points on it is called equipotential surface
Eg surface of a charged conductor
Properties of Equipotential surface
1) Potential is same at every point on the ep surface
2) Pd between any two points on the ep surface is zero
3) No work is done for moving a test charge from one point to other on an ep surface
4) Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the ep surface
5) For an isolated point charge ep surfaces are concentric spheres with charge at the centre
6) For uniform electric field ep surfaces are parallel planes right angles to the lines of force

Important Previous Questions

1. State Gauss’s Theorem. Find electric field due to an infinitely long straight charged wire. Combination of capacitors
Capacitors can be combined in two ways
2. Derive an expression for Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the axial line.
1) Series Combination
3. Two point charges q1 =3µC and q2 =6 µC separated by a distance 3m apart in air.Find the electrostatic Point Charge (+q) Uniform Field An Electric Dipole In series combination charge on each capacitor
Electric Capacitance ‘C’ is same but potential across each capacitor is different.
force between them.
So Net applied voltage V = V1+V2+V3 ………(1)
It is the measure of ability of a conductor to store electric charge. When some charge is given to a
4. Draw electric field lines around We have V=Q/C
conductor its potential rises. The increase in potential is directly proportional to the charge given
3.Electric Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell There for (1) Q/Cs = Q/C1 +Q/C2 +Q/C3 ….(2)
a) An isolated negative charge Ie Q α V
Q/Cs = Q[1/C1 +1/C2 +1/C3 ]
Or Q = C V or C = Q / V
b) An electric dipole
Where C is a constant called electrical capacitance or capacity of the conductor
 SI unit of capacitance is ‘farad’ ( F )
1/Cs = [1/C1 +1/C2 +1/C3 ]

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 CHAPTER 3 Electro motive force (emf) and Terminal potential difference of a cell
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
2) Parallel Combinations 5) Draw equipotential surface around Ohm’s Law Electro motive force (emf) is the potential difference between two terminals of a cell in open
In parallel combinations Potential on each capacitor is same Charge is different. At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential circuit. Terminal potential difference is the potential difference between two terminals of a cell
a) An isolated positive charge (or any two points in an electrical circuit) in a closed circuit.
difference between the ends of the conductor
Total Charge from Source Q =Q1+Q2+Q3 Consider a resistance R connected across a cell of emf E whose internal resistance is r. If a current I is
b) An electric dipole
V∝I flowing through the circuit, then according to Ohm’s law,
c) An uniform electric field V=RI R is called the resistance of the conductor
The SI units of R is ohm (Ω.) Current through R,
Conductance (K)
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance
unit :mho ( Ω-1)siemens
Connection Diagram to study Ohm’s Law
Voltage –Current Graph (V-I Graph) Potential difference across R,
Slope = AB/BC
Slope = 𝐕/𝐈= R
Key
Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance. Rearranging eq (2) we get
Its reciprocal gives conductance

Factors on which the Resistance of a Conductor Depends

i)Length of the conductor R α l
ii) Area of cross section of the conductor R α A Ki
rchhof
f’
sRul
es
iii) Material of the conductor (
a) Kir
chhof
f’
sFirstRul
e-Junc
tionRul
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=0
iv) Temperature
Kirchhof
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ervat
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Resistance of a particular conductor at constant temperature depends only up on length and area
R α l/A R = ρ l/A ρ is called Resistivity Unit Ω m charge.
Conductivity (σ)
Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity σ=1/ρ unit Ω-1m-1 or mho m-1 (
b)Ki
rchhof
f’
sSe
condRul
e–LoopRul
e: ΣI
R= ΣE
Electric Power
Wheatstone Bridge

Important Previous questions:

1) Explain the Series/Parallel combination of 3 capacitors of capacitances C1,C2 and C3

2) Derive an equation for energy stored in a capacitor.

3) Give any 2 properties of equipotential surfaces.
4) Derive an expression for capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor.

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Forabal ancedWhe atstone’

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g= 0.
CHAPTER 4 Magnetic field due to a current element-Biot –Savart Law
ApplyKi rchhoff
’sj unctionrulet
ojuncti
onB & j
unc
tionD MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM Consider a conductor XY of finite length carrying current I. To find the strength of magnetic field at a
𝐈𝟐= 𝐈𝟒-
--
- -
----
---
-(1) Topics Included point p at a distance r, consider an infinitesimal element dl of the conductor.
𝐈 According to Biot –savart‘s law “The strength of Magnetic field at p due to this current element is
𝟏= 𝐈𝟑--
- -
----
--
---
( 2)  Magnetic Field
 Magnetic Lorentz force dB α I
ApplyKi rchhoff
’sl oopr uletocl
ose
dloopABDA  Lorentz force dB α dl
𝐈𝟏𝐑𝟏= 𝐈𝟐𝐑𝟐 --
---
------
---
--(3)  Biot–Savart law
 Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop dB α sin θ
ApplyKi rchhoff
’sl oopr uletocl
ose
dloopCBDC  Ampere’s circuital law dB α 1/r2
𝐈𝟑𝐑𝟑= 𝐈𝟒 R𝟒- -
---
------
--
-- (
4)  Moving Coil Galvanometer (MCG)
 Conversion of galvanometer in to ammeter in general, dB α I dl sinθ
 Conversion of galvanometer in to voltmeter r2 Amperes circuital law
Magnetic Field ‘B’
It is the space around a magnet or a current carrying conductor or a moving charge with in which its dB= μo I dl sinθ “ The line integral of magnetic field around any closed loop (path) is equal to μo times net current
magnetic effect can be experienced. 4π r2 μo = 4π x 10-7 is a constant called permeability of air or free space. enclosed by the path”.
In vector form
Magnetic Lorentz force dB = μo I (dl x r) ∫ B.dl = μo I
Force experienced by a charged particle moving through a magnetic field is called Magnetic Lorentz 4π r3 Where I refer to current enclosed by the path
force ,which is given by
F = q(vxB) Moving coil galvanometer
The magnitude of the force is given by It is a device used to measure or detect small current in an electric circuit
Thi
sist
hebalancecondi
ti
onf
ort
he Principle : It is based on the fact that a current carrying coil behaves like a magnetic dipole and experience
F = q v B sin θ
gal
vanome
tert
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vez
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fle
ction where q → magnitude of the charge torque when placed in an external magnetic field .
v → velocity of the particle NIAB = kΦ
B → strength of magnetic field I = kΦ
θ → angle between direction of motion (v) and direction of magnetic field (B) NAB
 The direction of the force is perpendicular to both velocity and magnetic field
Case I : If θ = 0 or 180, then F = 0 path of the particle is straight line Now k / NAB is a constant called Galvanometer constant G
Case II : If θ = 90 ,then F = q v B sin90 ,F = q v B ( maximum force ). the path of the therefore I =G Φ IαΦ
charged particle is circular.
Case III : When the charged particle is moving inclined to the magnetic field (θ ≠ 0 , 90 ,180 )
the path of the particle is helical.
Case IV : If the charged particle is at rest ( v = 0 ) then F = 0 Conversion of galvanometer in to ammeter
Direction of Magnetic Lorentz force

Fleming’s right hand palm rule Ig = IS / G+S

If the thumb of the right hand point in the direction of v, the fingers in the direction
of B, and the force F is directed perpendicular to the right hand palm.
Conversion of galvanometer in to voltmeter

V = Ig ( R + G )

Lorentz Force Important Previous Questions.

Force experienced by a charged particle moving through an electromagnetic field is called Lorentz 1. State Biot-Savart law. Derive an expression for magnetic field due to a circular current carrying coil at a
force. point on the axis of coil.
F = qE + q(vxB) 2. State Ampere’s circuital law.
3. How can we convert a moving coil galvanometer in to ammeter and voltmeter.
4. What is the path of charged particle when it moves perpendicular with magnetic field?

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 CHAPTER 6 LI2
CHAPTER-5 W= -----------------------------------(4)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION From equations (1) & (2) LI = N (𝜇0 n I) A 2
MAGNETISM AND MATTER This work done is stored in the magnetic field of inductor as potential energy
L = 𝜇0 N n A ------------(3)
Topics Magnetic flux ϕ
LI2
Put N=n 𝓁 in equation (3) L = 𝜇0 n2 A 𝓁 -----------------(4) Energy stored in an inductor U =
2
ϕ = NBA Cos θ
• Magnetic dipole
• Magnetic dipole moment. Put n=N/ 𝓁 in equation (3) L = 𝜇0 N2 A /𝓁 --------------------(5) Ac Generator
N-no of turns of coil,
• Gauss’s Law in magnetism. B – magnetic field, An AC generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in form of
Equations (3),(4) & (5) are different forms of self inductance of solenoid alternative emf or alternating current. AC generator works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction
• Magnetisation. A – Area of coil
• Magnetic intensity. θ -Angle between B and A When coil rotates with constant angular ferquency ω
Mutual induction
magnetic flux linked with coil changes and induced emf is
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a coil by varying the current through a
Important points. Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction produced.
neighbouring coil is called mutual-induction
I Law: The definition of electromagnetic induction- Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a coil changes The magnetic flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the neighbouring coil. ϕ = NBA Cos θ
1. Magnetic dipole : Two unlike poles of equal strength separated by a small distance. an emf is induced at the two ends of the coil.This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction, emf so −d ϕ
ϕαI θ = ωt ε=
2. S.I. unit of pole strength (p) is Am .It is a scalar quantity. generated is called induced emf. ϕ=MI M is called mutual-inductance of the coil dt
II law: the magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the coil.
3. Magnetic dipole moment (m) = pole strength(p) x distance between poles (2L) d ( cos ωt )
When the current in the neighbouring coil is varied, the flux linked with the first coil changes and an emf is ε =− N BA
m = p 2L induced in the coil. dt
dI
4. S.I. unit of magnetic dipole moment is Am2. It is a vector quantity. ε =− M
Lenz’s Law dt ε =N BA ω sin ωt
5. Gauss’s theorem : The total magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero. The direction of induced current is such that which is always opposing the cause producing it.
Mutual inductance of two co-axial solenoids ε =v ∧ NBA ω= V0—Peak value of alternating voltage
Σ B. ΔS = 0 Lenz’s Law is in accordance with law
6. Behaviour of magnetic field lines near a of Conservation of Energy
V=V0 Sin ωt
(a) diamagnetic, Motional emf
(b) Ferromagnetic or paramagnetic substance. When a conductor of length 𝓁 moving with velocity v perpendicular to magnetic field B , an emf is Graphical representation of Alternating Voltage
induced at two ends of the conductor. It is called motional emf
ε =B 𝓁 v
Self-Induction
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a coil itself when current through the coil changes
is called self induction
The magnetic flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the coil.
? αI
6. Magnetisation M of a sample to be equal to the net magnetic moment per unit volume . M = m. L is called self-inductance of the coil. Its unit is Henry (H)
𝝓= L I
V
7. Magnetic intensity H = B. When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is induced in the coil. This Energy stored in an inductor
Μ induced emf is also called back emf Small work done dw=P dt ---------------------(1)
8. Magnetic susceptibility ( χm ) : It is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation and the magnetic intensity −d ϕ dI
ε= 𝝓= L Iε =− L dI
of the magnetic field dt dt (electric Power P=ε I&Induced emf ε =− L )
Important Questions: dt

1. State gauss’s law for magnetism. Self Inductance of a Solenoid (

dI
dw = L I dt
dt )
2. Which physical quantity has the unit Wb m-2 ? Is it a scalar or a vector quantity ? Consider a solenoid of cross sectional area A and length 𝓁, having n turns per unit length and N no of
turns, N=n 𝓁 or n=N/𝓁 dw = L I dI ----------------------------(2)
3. S.I. unit of magnetic induction is .................. if I be the current flows through the solenoid
************** The magnetic flux linked with solenoid
Total work done W = ∫ dw
𝝓= L I -----------------------(1)

Also we have 𝝓= NBA Cos θ here θ=0 and Cos θ=1 and inside solenoid B = 𝜇0 n I W = L∫ I dI -------------------------(3)

𝝓= N (𝜇0 n I) A ------------(2)

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CHAPTER-7
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Topics 3. AC Circuit containing an Inductor: Phasor diagram Phasor diagram :
• AC Voltage applied to a Resistor.
• Representation of AC Current and Voltage by rotating vectors – PHASORS.
• AC Voltage applied to an Inductor.
• AC Voltage applied to a Capacitor.
• AC Voltage applied to a series LCR Circuit.
• Power in an AC circuit and the power factor.
• Transformers

Important points. 4. AC Circuit containing Capacitor :

v m sin ωt – L di = 0 5. AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit:
1. The rms current ( Root Mean Square Current) or Effective Current: dt
I rms or I = im Vm sin ωt = L di
√2 dt
The rms voltage , V rms or V = Vm
√2 di = Vm sin ωt
2. AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor :
dt L

di = Vm sin ωt dt
L Vm sin ωt - q = 0
C VR be the potential difference across R , and in phase with I.
i = Vm ∫ sin ωt dt
L Vm sin ωt = q VC be the potential difference across C , which lags the current I by π/2 or 90ᵒ
C VL be the potential difference across L , which leads the current I by π/2 or 90ᵒ
Vm sin ωt - i R = 0 i = − Vm cos ωt q = CVm sin ωt
Vm sin ωt = iR ωL i = d (CVm sin ωt)
i = Vm sin ωt i = im sin (ωt − π/2 ) dt
R where im = Vm is the peak value of current. i = C Vm ω cos ωt
i = i m sin ωt ωL i = C ω Vm cos ωt
where i m = Vm is called maximum value of current or peak value of current. In a pure inductor, the current lags the voltage by π/2 . i = im cos ωt
R i = im sin (ωt + π/2 )
Graphical representation of v and i versus ωt Inductive Reactance (XL ): im = Vm is the peak value of current.
(1/ωC )
The current amplitude, im = Vm In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by π/2.
ωL The quantity (1/ωC) = X C is analogous to the resistance and is called capacitive
The quantity ω L is analogous to the resistance and is called inductive reactance, reactance.
Vm 2 = VR 2+ ( VC − VL ) 2
denoted by XL X C = (1/ωC) = 1
XL = ωL =2πfL 2πfC Vm 2 = (im R) 2 + (im X C − im X L ) 2
Graphical representation of v and i versus ωt Vm 2 = im 2 [(R) 2 + ( X C − X L ) 2 ]
Graphical representation of v and i versus ωt :
im 2 = Vm2
Phasor diagram (R) 2 +( X C − X L ) 2

im = Vm2

√ (R) 2 +( X C − X L ) 2

im = Vm2
Z
The quantity √ (R) 2 +( X C − X L ) 2 is analogous to resistance and is called impedance Z in an

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 ac circuit. CHAPTER-8
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Impedance, Z = √(R) 2 +( X C − X L ) 2 Topics
Impedance Triangle Dividing eq (2) in (1) we get
• Displacement current.
• Electromagnetic waves.
Transformation ratio. Important points.
The phase difference φ between voltage and current is ,
For step-up transformer, K > 1 ∴Es>Ep 1. Displacement current:
For step-down transformer, K < 1 ∴Es<Ep Displacement current is that current which comes into play in vacuum or dielectric when electric ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
field is changing with time.
φ = tan −1 X C − X L
According to law of conservation of energy, , Input power = output power Id = ɛ0 dφ a) Radio waves
R
dt Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires. They are used in radio and
Maxwell introduced the idea of displacement current for the consistency of Amperes equation.
6. Resonance television communication systems. Used in mobile communication.
When X C = X L, Z = R and φ = 0. This is condition for resonance. b) Micro waves
Resonance frequency f = 1 Due to their short wavelengths, they are suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft
2π√(LC) navigation ,Microwave ovens , communication satellite, cell phone network, etc.
7. Power in an AC circuit Important questions: c) Infrared waves
Power In AC Circuit , P = V I Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules. Infrared lamps are used in physical
1. A series LCR circuit connected to an AC source . Characteristics of displacement current : therapy. Infrared rays are widely used in the remote switches of household electronic systems such as
P = Vm sin ωt x im sin (ωt + φ)
i) Id = 0 in a conductor
P = Vrms Irms cos φ i) Write an expression for impedance offered by the circuit . TV, video recorders etc. Used to take photographs in darkness. Used in solar water heaters
The quantity cosɸ is called the power factor. ii) Id not equal to zero in vacuum and dielectric d) Visible light
ii) Draw an impedance diagram and write the expression for the power factor from the diagram. iii) In series circuit Id = Ic where Ic is the conduction current. It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye. Visible light emitted or reflected
2. i) What are the condition for resonance in a series LCR circuit. Write the expression for iv) Id is produced by the rate of change of electric field. from objects around us provides us information about the world.
8. Transformers resonance frequency. e) UV rays
Principle − It works on the principle of electromagnetic Induction When current in one circuit ii) At resonance in an LCR circuit the emf and current are ............. 2. Electromagnetic waves:
Oscillating charges can produce electromagnetic waves. Sun is an important source of ultraviolet light. UV lamps are used to kill germs. Used for eye
changes, an induced current is set up in the neighbouring circuit.
3. The S.I. unit of inductive reactance is........... surgery , preserve food etc.
Step-up Transformer Step-down transformer 4. A transformer steps down 220V to 11V. What is the transformer ratio ? f) X- rays

D
Primary secondary Primary secondary X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of

N
************
cancer. Used for study of atomic structure. Used to detect fractures.
g) Gamma rays
For a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along x- direction is represented by They lie in the upper frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum .They are used in medicine
to destroy cancer cells, radiation therapy. Used for inspection of material.
Ex = E0 sin (kz – wt )
Magnetic field along y-direction is given by
Important Questions
By = B0 sin (kz – wt )
Working : Alternating emf is supplied to the primary coil PP’. The resulting current produces Properties 1. Which of the following is not an electromagnetic wave.
i) X -rays ii) γ -rays iii) β- rays iv) Microwaves.
an induced current in secondary. Magnetic flux linked with primary is also linked
Velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is given by 2. An electromagnetic wave propagates through a medium of permittivity ɛ and permeability μ.
with the secondary. The induced emf in each turn of the secondary is equal to that 1 What is the speed of this wave through the medium ?
induced in each turn of the primary. C == - 3
3x10ms-
x
Bo 3. Arrange the following radiations in an ascending order in respect of their frequencies
In a material
medium, X-rays , microwaves, UV rays and microwaves.
Alternating emf applied to primary , 4. Name the following constituent radiations of electromagnetic spectrum which
1 C
velocity
V =- ==. i) produce intense heating effect ii) is absorbed by the ozone layer in the atmosphere
iii) isn used for studying crystal structure. iv) is used in satellite communication
where np be the number of turns in the primary
5. What is displacement current ?
Induced emf in the secondary,
***********
where nS be the number of turns in the primary

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CHAPTER-9
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 5. Linear magnification : m = – v 8. Lens makers formula : In the quadrilateral AQNR,
u
Topics 6. Laws of Refraction: From Δ QNR ,
i) The incident ray , refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence lie in the
• Laws of Reflection.
same plane. From the above equations, r1 + r2 = A ---------- (1)
• Refraction of light by spherical mirrors.
ii) Snell’s law : The ratio of sin of angle of incidence to the sin of angle of refraction is a constant for We know, exterior angle = sum of interior angles, thus d = (i - r1 ) + (e - r2 )
• Relation between focal length and Radius of curvature.
a given pair of media and for a given colour of light. d = (i + e – ( r1 + r2 ) ) or d = (i + e - A)
• The mirror equation.
At the minimum deviation, d = D, і = e, r1 = r2 = r therefore
• The linear magnification. Sin i = n2
• Laws of refraction. sin r n1
Equation (1) becomes, 2r =A or r = A
• Refraction at a spherical surface. If c is the velocity of light in vacuum and v is that in a medium, the absolute refractive index of For refraction at first surface APB, we get n2 – n1 = ( n2 – n1 ) --------- (1) 2
• Lens makers formula. the medium is n = c. v’ u R1 Equation (2) becomes, A + D = 2i or i =A+ D
• Power of a lens. v 2
• Refraction through a prism. 7. Refraction at a spherical surface : v’ = PI’ and R1 = Radius of curvature of 1st surface. Refractive index , sin A + D
• Simple microscope. n = 2
• Compound microscope. N For refraction at second surface AP’B, we get n1 – n2 = ( n1 – n2 ) --------- (2) sin A
Important points. v v’ R2 2
v = PI and R2 = Radius of curvature of 2nd surface. i – d curve
1. Laws of reflection:
i) The incident ray , reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in a same plane. M R Adding (1) + (2) , we get n1 [ 1 – 1 ] = ( n2 – n1 ) [ 1 – 1 ]

p)uoneAapjoa[auy
ii) The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. i = r. v u R1 R2
u- Dividing both sides by n1 , we get,
2. Reflection of light by spherical mirrors :
1 – 1 = ( n2 – 1 ) [ 1 – 1 ]
v u n1 R1 R2
Let the lens be placed in air , n1 =1 and n2 = n.
C PE Fig shows formation of image I of an object O on the principle axis of a spherical surface with
12. Microscopes
centre of curvature C and radius of curvature R.
1 – 1 = ( n – 1 ) [ 1 – 1 ] ---------- (3) I. Simple microscope:
By snell’s law , n1 sin i = n2 sin r
(a)Concavemirror (b)Convexmirror v u R1 R2
3. Relation between focal length and Radius of curvature. For small angles , n 1 i = n2 r When u = ∞ , then v = f
1 = ( n – 1 ) [ 1 – 1 ] ------------------ (4) Eye focussed
M For Δ ONC , i=∞+γ on near
point
f R1 R2
For Δ NCI , γ=r+β or r=γ–β This is the Lens makers formula.
2 Compairing (3) and (4) , we get 1 – 1 = 1 .This is the lens formula.
-u-

D P n1 ( ∞ + γ ) = n2 (γ – β ) D
v u f
n2 β + n1 ∞ = ( n2 – n1 ) γ 9. Power of a lens
From Δ OMN , tan∞ = ∞ = NM = NM Power of a lens is defined the reciprocal of its focal length expressed in metre..
From ΔMDC , tanƟ = MD -------------- (1) OM u P = 1 S.I. unit of power is dioptre (D). The object to be magnified is placed in between the principle focus and the optic centre of the
From Δ MNC , tanγ = γ = NM = NM f
DC lens. A magnified , virtual erect image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision(D).
ΔMDF , tan2Ɵ = MD -------------- (2) MC R
10. Refraction through a prism.
DF From Δ MNI , tanβ = β = NM = NM Magnifications, m =1- V
(1) 1 = DF = f . ; MI v f
(2) 2 DC R n2 + n1 = ( n2 - n1 ) At the least distance of distinct vision , V=-D
R = 2f or f = R . v u R
2 Magnification , m= 1+ D
Applying sign convention u = -ve , v = +ve and R = +ve we get , f
4. The mirror equation : 1. + 1. = 1.
u v f
n2 – n1 = ( n2 – n1 ) II. Compound microscope :
v u R

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 Chapter 11
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
CHAPTER 10 Where n = 0,1,2,3, ……
WAVE OPTICS Amplitude of resultant wave
Topics Included Expression for fringe width Different methods to emit electrons from metal surface
 Wavefront β = λ D /d 1.Thermionic emission 2.Field emission 3.Secondary emission 4.Photo-electric emission
 Huygen’s Principle R max = (a + b )
Expression for fringe Photo electric effect
 Superposition Principle Intensity of Resultant wave
 Coherent Sources of light I max = (a + b ) 2 width The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from metal surface when light of suitable
 Interference Of Light Condition for destructive interference frequency falls on it is called photoelectric effect
 Polarization Phase difference Φ = (2 n + 1) π
β = λ D /d
Threshold frequency (υo)
 Law of Malus Path difference δ = (2n + 1) λ The minimum frequency of incident radiation to emits electron from metal surface.
Where n = ,1,2,3, …… 2
Wavefront Amplitude of resultant wave
Work Function (ϕo)
When a wave propagates through a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean R mini = (a - b ) The minimum energy required to eject an electron from the metal surface is called
position. The locus of all particles of the medium vibrating in the same phase at a given instant constitute a Intensity of Resultant wave work function. ϕo = hυo
wave front. I mini = (a - b ) 2 Effect of intensity of light on photoelectric current
Wave fronts are of three types Polarization
Magnification due to objective , m0 = L where L – distance between objective and
When un Polarised light is allowed to pass through certain crystals like Tourmaline, calcite etc.. the light
f0 eyepiece.
emerging from the crystal contains electric field vectors vibrating in a single plane (Polarised light) this
f0 - focal length of objective. phenomenon is called Polarizations.
The photoelectriccurrent
As the first image is near the focal point of eyepiece , the magnification due to eyepiece is
increases with intensity of
me = 1 + D
fe
When the image is formed at infinity , Huygen’s Principle
According to this principle Effect of potential on photoelectric current
me = D
1) “Each point of the given wave front is a source of Potential –photo current graph (for different intensities I1,I2&I3 with fixed frequency)
fe secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets from these Law of Malus
Total magnification, m = m0 x me points spread out in all direction with speed of the wave”. “The intensity of polarized light transmitted through the analyzer varies as the squire of cosine of angle
2) “The position of a wave front after a time t is given between the pass axis of polarizer and analyzer”. Let
m = L x D
by the forward envelop of these secondary wave lets”. I → intensity of light transmitted through the analyzer The photoelectric current increases with increase
f0 fe Io → the intensity of light falling on analyzer
Important Questions : in the potential applied to the collector.
θ → angle between the pass axis of polarizer and analyzer
1. Consider refraction of light at a spherical surface separating two media of refractive indices n1 and Superposition Principle
When two or more wave propagates through a medium simultaneously; the resultant displacement of a I ά cos θ 2 Stopping potential doesn’t change with intensity
n2 (n2 > n1 ). With the help of ray diagram show the formation of image of point object placed in of incident radiation
the medium of refractive index n1 .
particular point in the medium at any instant will be the vector sum of displacement due to individual waves I = Io cos2θ
ie Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
2. i) Define power of a lens. What is its unit ? a) Constructive Superposition
ii) Derive the lens makers formula. Crest of one wave falls on crest of other ( or trough on trough )
3. i) Draw the diagram showing the path of a monochromatic light through a triangular prism. the amplitude and intensity of resultant wave increases.
ii) What do you mean by angle of minimum deviation ? b) Destructive superposition Potential-photo electric current graph (for fixed intensity with different frequenciesυ1,υ2 &υ3)
Iii) Arrive at the expression sin A + D Here crests of one wave falls on trough of other, Stopping potential changes with change in frequency
n = 2 the amplitude and intensity of resultant wave decreases.
Important Previous Questions of incident radiation
sin A Coherent sources of light Stopping potential is directly proportional to fre quency
1. State Huygen’s Principle
2 Two light sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same frequency, (wave length), and
2. Define Interference of light. Give the expression of fringe width.
4. Draw the ray diagram showing the formation of image by a compound microscope. Derive nearly same amplitude also the waves must be in the same phase or must have constant phase difference.
3. Define polarization.
expression for its magnification.
4. State Malu’s Law
5. Draw ray diagram of simple microscope that uses a single convex lens. Derive an expression for its Interference 5. State Brewster’s Law
linear magnification. The phenomenon of re distribution of energy due to the super position of light waves from two coherent 6. Explain Polarization by scattering.
************* sources is called interference.
Condition for constructive interference
Phase difference Φ = 2 n π EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION
Path difference δ = n λ
Kmax=Maximum Kinetic
h 0 + KmaxKmax = h–  0
Energy of ejected
electron
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0= h= work function

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CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 13
ATOMS NUCLEI
r n α n2
BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
Postulates: The radii of the stationary orbits are in the ratio, 1 2 :2 2 :3 2 :..... or 1: 4: 9: .....
1. An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of
radiant energy. is Bohr radius. ( radius of the lowest orbit )

2. The electrons can orbit only those orbits for which the angular momentum is an integral a0 =5.29 X 10 -11 m
multiple h/2π.
Ie, angular momentum, L = mvr = nh / 2π
Here n is called the principal quantum numb er and it has the integral values 1,2,3.... Atom bomb is a fission bomb.
3. When an electron jumps from higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit, a photon is
emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states. Isotopes
Isotopes are variants of a particular element with different number of neutrons.
If Ei and Ef are the energies associated with the orbits of principal quantam number ni and For example , the two isotopes of uranium are 23592U and 23992U .
nf respectively (n i > n f ), then the amount of energy radiated in the foam of photon is
Isobars
hν = Ei -Ef Isobars are elements that have the same number of nucleons ( sum of protons and
Here ν is the frequency of photon
Mass Defect neutrons ).
For example 4016S and 4017Cl
The difference in the actual mass of a nucleus and its constituents is called the mass defect Isotones
(Δ M) Isotones are atoms that have the same neutron number but different proton
Mass defect , Δ M = [ Zmp + ( A – Z ) mn - M ] number.
For example 3818 Ar and 3919 K
mp – Mass of proton, mn - mass of neutron and M – actual mass of nucleus.
Important Questions
Binding energy ( Eb )
1. What is the source of solar energy ?
Binding energy is the energy required to hold the nucleons together. 2. Define binding energy of a nucleus.
Binding Energy, Eb = ∆M c2 3. What do you meant by mass defect of a nucleus?
If the mass defect is in atomic mass unit, then binding energy in MeV is
Binding Energy, Eb = ∆M × 931 MeV.

Nuclear fusion
The process of combining two lighter nuclei into a stable and heavier nuclei.
The energy liberated by the sun and other stars is due to the nuclear fusion reactions
occurring at very high stellar temperatures .
Hydrogen bomb is a fusion bomb.

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 Chapter 14 In semiconductors a finite but small band gap (Eg < 3 eV) exists. Because of the small band gap, When a small amount of a suitable impurity is added to the pure semiconductor, the conductivity p-n junction
Semiconductor Electronics: at room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire enough energy to cross the of the semiconductor is increased . Such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or
Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Introduction energy gap and enter the conduction band. These electrons (though small in numbers) can move impurity semiconductors.
Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is lower than that of insulators. n-type semiconductor
On the basis of conductivity: On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (σ) or n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping Si or Ge with pentavalent atoms (donors) like As,
resistivity (ρ = 1/σ ), the solids are broadly classified as: When the electrons from valence band move to the conduction band vacant energy levels will be Sb, P, etc.
created in the valence band. This vacancy of electrons is called hole. Other valence electrons can For n-type semiconductors, ne >> nh
move to this hole thereby producing hole current. Here electrons become the majority carriers and holes the minority carriers. The electron A p-n junction can be formed by adding a small quantity of pentavalent impurity to a p-type
Intrinsic Semiconductor and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by semiconductor or by adding a small quantity of trivalent impurity to an n-type semiconductor.
Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and drift
Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In a pure Si or Ge crystal, each atom makes covalent
Energy bands of n-type semiconductor at T > 0K Barrier Potential
bond with four neighbouring atoms and share the four valence electrons.
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons, ne is equal to the number of holes, nh. The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p- region causes a
difference of potential across the junction of the two regions. Since this potential tends to
prevent the movement of electron from the n region into the p region, it is often called a barrier
where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration potential.
Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors On the basis of energy bands The total current, I is thus the sum of the electron current Ie and the hole current Ih: The barrier potential of a Ge diode is 0.2Vand that of a Si diode is 0.7V.
i. metals
I = Ie + Ih Semiconductor Diode
Energy-Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor at T=0K
An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K .
p-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity like A𝑙
, B, In,
etc.
In some metals, the conduction band is partially filled and the valence band is partially empty A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for
with small energy gap and in some others the conduction and valance bands overlap. When there For p-type semiconductors nh >> ne the application of an external voltage. It is a two terminal device.
is overlap electrons from valence band can easily move into the conduction band. Therefore, the Here holes become the majority carriers and electrons the minority carriers. The electron and Symbol of a p-n junction Diode
resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is high. hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by

ii. Insulators Energy bands of p-type semiconductor at T > 0K

Energy-Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor at T > 0K For p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the top EV of the
At temperatures (T > 0K), some electrons are excited from the valence band to the conduction valence band. With very small supply of energy an electron from the valence band can jump to p-n junction diode under forward bias
band, leaving equal number of holes there. the level EA and ionize the acceptor.
Negatively.

In insulators a large band gap, Eg > 3 eV. There are no electrons in the conduction band, and If p-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and n-side to the negative terminal of
therefore no electrical conduction is possible. The energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be the battery, it is said to be forward biased.
excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal excitation. • Conducts current and it is due to majority charge carriers
iii. Semiconductors • Width of depletion region decreases
• Potential barrier decreases.
p-n junction diode under reverse bias

Extrinsic Semiconductor

1 2 3 4
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If n-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and p-side to the negative terminal of
the battery, it is said to be reverse biased.

• Doesn’t Conduct current

• Width of depletion region increases
• There will be a very small current due to minority charge carriers. In the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor 𝑅𝐿and we get an
output voltage, whereas there is no current in the negative half cycle. Since the rectified output
V-I characteristics of a silicon diode. of this circuit is only for half of the input ac wave it is called as half-wave rectifier.
In the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor 𝑅𝐿and we get an
output voltage, whereas there is no current in the negative half cycle. Since the rectified output
of this circuit is only for half of the input ac wave it is called as half-wave rectifier.
Input ac voltage and output voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit

In forward bias, the current first increases very slowly, till the voltage across the diode crosses a Full wave rectifier
certain value. . This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (0.2V for
germanium diode and 0.7 V for silicon diode).
▪ After threshold voltage, the diode current increases significantly , even for a very small
increase in the diode bias voltage.
▪ For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~μA) and almost remains constant
with change in bias. It is called reverse saturation current. However, at very high reverse bias
called break down voltage Vbr, the current suddenly increases. The general purpose diode are For a full-wave rectifier the secondary of the transformer is provided with a centre tapping and
not used beyond the reverse saturation current region. so it is called centre-tap transformer.
Threshold Voltage • During this positive half cycle, diode 𝐷1 gets forward biased and conducts ,while
The forward voltage beyond which the diode current increases significantly is called threshold 𝐷2 being reverse biased is not conducting. Hence we get an output current and a
voltage or cut-in voltage. output voltage across the load resistor 𝑅𝐿.
Break down Voltage • During negative half cycle, diode 𝐷1 would not conduct but diode 𝐷2 conducts,
The reverse voltage at which the reverse current increases suddenly is called break down giving an output current and output voltage across 𝑅𝐿in the same directionas in
voltage. positive half.
Dynamic Resistance(rd) • Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the negative half of
Dynamic resistance is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage ΔV to a small change in the cycle. This is a more efficient circuit for getting rectified voltage or current than
current ΔI the halfwave rectifier.
Input ac voltage and output voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit.

Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier

The diode allows current to pass only when it is forward biased.
Rectifier
The process of conversion of ac voltage to dc voltage is called rectification and the circuit used
for rectification is called rectifier.
Half wave Rectifier

5 6
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