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IASBABA’S
PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE
PROGRAM (PEP) 2022

GEOGRAPHY
HANDOUTS

WWW.IASBABA.COM, [email protected]
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GEOGRAPHY HAND OUT-2

TOPICS: Climatology - Heat budget, Wind system- Pressure belts, Cloud formation,
Precipitation, Cyclones- Temperate and Tropical

INSOLATION
 Insolation is the incoming solar radiation (short wavelength - visible and UV
radiations).
 The earth absorbs short wave radiation during daytime and reflects back the heat
received into space as long-wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation) during night.
 Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth depends on –
1. Rotation of earth on its axis
2. Angle of inclination of the sun’s rays
3. Duration of the day (revolution of earth)
4. Transparency of the atmosphere
5. Configuration of land in terms of its aspects (sun facing slopes)

HEAT BUDGET
 The earth as a whole does not accumulate or lose heat. It maintains its temperature.
 This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals
the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation. Balance between the two
is called heat budget.
 This is why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of
heat that takes place.

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 Albedo: When the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, some amount of
it is reflected, scattered and absorbed. The reflected amount of radiation is called as
the albedo of the earth
 The value of albedo will be different for different surfaces.
 Because of albedo urban cities can experience higher average temperatures than the
surrounding suburban or rural areas, a phenomenon known as the “Urban Heat
Island Effect”. (This is due to less vegetation and more infrastructures with dark
surfaces (asphalt roads, brick buildings, etc.).
 Highest to lowest albedo - snow > clouds> sand> grass> crops> forest.

PRESSURE BELTS

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BELTS FEATURES
Equatorial Low  It exists between 5°N to 5°S latitude.
Pressure Belt  It is a thermally induced belt caused by high insolation and the
convective rise of air (updraft).
 This region observes vertical cloud like cumulonimbus with thunder
, lightning and afternoon shower between 2 to 4 pm followed by
atmospheric stability with absolute calm.
 This region is also referred to as doldrums due to absence of air
movement and generation of intense low pressure.
 This belt represents the zone of convergence of N-E and S-E Trade
winds.
Sub Tropical High  It exists between 25° to 35° latitudes in both the hemisphere.
Pressure Belt  It is dynamically induced high pressure zone. This is caused by the
subsidence of cold and dry air (downdraft) due to the mechanical
force produced by air accumulated aloft.
 The air accumulation is caused by air coming from the equatorial
region which descends after becoming heavy.
 Coriolis force and geostrophic effect are contributing factors for
accumulation of air.
 Hot tropical deserts are developed in the western side of continents
in this zone as subsiding air is warm and dry that discourage rainfall.
 This zone of high pressure is called ‘Horse Latitude’.
Sub Polar Low  It exists along 60° to 65° latitude in both the hemisphere.
Pressure Belt  It is dynamically induced pressure belt but thermal factors cannot
be ignored.
 It is a zone of convergence of warm and cold air masses and also
known as temperate convergence zone.
 Development of fronts as well as temperate cyclone and frequent
change in weather conditions are the common phenomena
observed here.
Polar High  It exists near the poles between 75° to 90° latitude in both the
Pressure Belt hemispheres.
 It is thermally induced pressure belt but the role of dynamic factors
cannot be denied.
 The region observes the subsidence of cold and dry air which causes
the high pressure.
 The subsiding air is converted into anti cyclone due to the coriolis’
effect and leads to the outflow of air in the form of gale.
 These gales are known as Blizzard in North America and Buran in
Siberia.

WIND SYSTEM
Forces Affecting Velocity and Direction of Wind are
A. Pressure Gradient Force
B. Frictional Force
C. Coriolis Force
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CLASSIFICATION OF WINDS

Planetary Winds
PLANETARY FEATURES
WINDS
 These are extremely steady winds blowing from sub-tropical
Trade Winds high pressure areas (30°N and S) towards the equatorial low
pressure belt.
 These winds should have blown from the north to south in
Northern Hemisphere and south to north in Southern
Hemisphere, but, they get deflected to the right in Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in Southern Hemisphere due to
Coriolis effect and Ferrel’s law.
 Thus, they blow as north eastern trades in Northern
Hemisphere and south eastern trades in Southern Hemisphere.
 Trade winds are on shore along the eastern margin of
continents and thus harbinger maritime condition especially
during summer.
 These winds converge near equator & form
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), here these winds rises
& causes heavy rainfall.
 They also originate from sub tropical high pressure belt and
Westerlies move towards subpolar low pressure belt and, prevail between
35° to 60 ° latitudes.
 They are also permanent but more intense during winters.
 They transport warm and moist air toward the pole.
 Westerly causes formation of fronts along sub polar low
pressure zone and transport cyclone toward the western
margin.
 The British type of climate or the western European type of
climate is produced by the westerly which causes rainfall
throughout the year.
 In the southern hemisphere they are uninterrupted and blow
with gale force.
 They are known as roaring forties along 40°S, furious fifties
along 50°S and shrieking sixties along 60°S.
 They blow from the Polar high pressure area to the Temperate
Polar Easterlies low pressure area.
 On their equatorward journey they are deflected westward to
become North easterlies in the Northern hemisphere and
South easterlies in the Southern hemisphere.
 These are extremely cold winds that come from the Tundra
and Icecap regions of the poles.
 The Polar Easterlies are more regular in the southern
hemisphere in comparison to the northern hemisphere.

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 These polar cold winds converge with the warm easterlies near
60° latitudes and form the Polar front or Mid Latitude front.
 This mid-latitude front becomes the centre of the origin of the
Temperate Cyclones.

Local Winds
 Sea Breeze: During day time the land gets heated & warm air rises up creating Low
pressure. Sea being less warm, develops high pressure there by winds blow from sea
to land causing sea breeze
 Land Breeze: During night the land cools faster than sea, high pressure over land,
low pressure over ocean develops. Winds blow from land towards sea.
 Katabatic Wind: It is the generic term for down slope winds flowing from high
elevations of mountains, plateaus, and hills down their slopes to the valleys or
planes below. It is adiabatically warmed.
 Anabatic Wind: Air flow travelling up a facing slope of an orographic surface.

Periodic Winds
 Periodic winds change their direction periodically with the change in season, e.g.
Monsoons

AIR MASS
 When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it
acquires the characteristics of the area.
 The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called
an air mass. It is a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature
and moisture.

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 The main source regions are the high pressure belts in the sub tropics (giving rise to
tropical air masses) and around the poles (the source for polar air masses).
 Areas with high pressure but little pressure difference or pressure gradient are ideal
source regions for development of Air masses
 Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold.
 There are five major source regions are:
1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans
2. The subtropical hot deserts
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans
4. The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes
5. Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica
 Influence of Air mass and World Weather:
1. The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from oceans to continents and
cause precipitation over landmasses
2. They transport latent heat, thus removing the latitudinal heat balance.
3. Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such as cyclones and storms
originate at the contact zone between different air masses and the weather
associated with these disturbances is determined by characteristics of the air
masses involved.

CONDENSATION
 Condensation is a process of changing water vapour into tiny droplets of water or ice
crystals.
 Condensation takes place when temperature of air falls below dew point and is
controlled by relative humidity of the air and rate of cooling.
 The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled (at constant pressure) to
become saturated with water vapour. When cooled further, the airborne water vapour
will condense to form liquid water.
 When air has reached the dew-point temperature at a particular pressure, the water
vapour in the air is in equilibrium with liquid water, meaning water vapor is condensing
at the same rate at which liquid water is evaporating.
 Below the dew point, liquid water will begin to condense on solid surfaces (such as
blades of grass) or around solid particles in the atmosphere (such as dust or salt),
forming clouds or fog
 Condensation takes place in two situations, firstly, when dew point is below freezing
point or below 0° C and secondly, when dew point is above freezing point. In this way,
the forms of condensation may be classified into two groups:
1. Frost, snow and some clouds are formed when dew point is below freezing point.
2. Dew, mist, fog, smog and some clouds are formed when dew point is above
freezing point.

CLOUD FORMATION
 Cloud is a mass of minuscule water drops or minute crystals of ice formed by the
condensation of water vapour in free air at significant altitudes.
 According to their shape clouds are classified under two types:
1. Cumulus
2. Stratus
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 Based on the altitude clouds are classified lower clouds, middle cloud and high
altitude clouds. Middle clouds get a prefix – Alto (Alto stratus, Alto Cumulus) and
high clouds are called Cirrus (Cirro - cumulus, Cirro – stratus).
 Rain bearing clouds of any shape are called Nimbus clouds. If stratus clouds cause
rainfall, they are called Nimbo – stratus, if cumulus then they are called
cumulonimbus.

CLOUD FEATURES
Cirrus  Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes of 8,000 –
12,000m.
 They are detached thin clouds.
 They have a feathery appearance.
 They are always white in colour.
Cumulus  Cumulus clouds are generally formed at a height of 4,000 –
7,000 m.
 They look like cotton wool.
 They exist in patches and can be seen dispersed here and
there.
 They have a flat base.
Stratus  Stratus clouds are layered clouds covering big portions of
the sky.
 These clouds are usually formed due to the mixing of air
masses with various temperatures or due to loss of heat.
Nimbus  Nimbus clouds form at middle levels or very near to the
surface of the earth.
 They are usually found in black or dark gray colour.
 These are very dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.
 Occasionally, the clouds are so low that they seem to touch

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the ground.
 These clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour.

PRECIPITATION
 Precipitation is defined as water in liquid or solid forms falling to the earth.
 It happens due to the continuous condensation in the body of air that helps the
water droplets or ice crystals to grow in size and weight that the air cannot hold
them. As a result, these start falling on the ground under the force of gravity.
 These are of following types
1. Rainfall: drop size more than 0.5 mm.
2. Virga: raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth.
3. Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less than 0.5 mm.
4. Mist: evaporation occurs before reaching the ground leading to foggy
weather.
5. Snowfall: fine flakes of snow fall when the temperature is less than
0°C.
6. Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow; mixture of snow
and rain or merely partially melted snow.
7. Hail: precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets is known as
hail; 5 mm and 50 mm.

Types of Rainfall

RAINFALL FEATURES
Frontal  Precipitation occurs when a warm or light air mass meets a
cold or heavy air mass, and the lighter air rides up over the
heavier air.
 The zone where the two air masses meet is commonly called

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a front, and the resulting precipitation is frontal.

 Frontal precipitation is the dominant type of precipitation in
the north east India or Gangetic plain regions and other
continental areas.
Convective  Air expands when heated by solar energy and becomes
lighter than the air around it.
 The lighter air rises by convection, causing convective
precipitation.
 In humid climates, convective precipitation frequently occurs
on hot mid-summer days in the form of late afternoon
thunderstorms.
 Convective precipitation also results from the movement of
air into a low-pressure atmospheric system.
 Air at the center of the low-pressure region rises, causing
surface air to flow to the center.
 As the air rises, it can cool until it reaches saturation. Severe
storms of rain and hail may follow.
Orographic  Air currents force air masses to rise over hills or mountains.
 Precipitation that results from this process is called
orographic precipitation.
 This is the dominant source of precipitation in the mountains
in the western India and contributes to precipitation in most
mountainous areas.

CYCLONES
 It is large system of winds that circulates about a centre of low atmospheric
pressure in a counter clockwise direction in northern hemisphere and in a
clockwise direction in southern hemisphere. Cyclonic winds move across nearly
all regions of the Earth except the equatorial belt.
 An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone. An anticyclone’s winds rotate
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere around a center of high pressure. Air
comes in from above and sinks to the ground. High pressure centers generally
have fair weather.

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 Conditions ideal for the formation of cyclones:

1. Sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures higher than 27oC
2. Atmospheric instability.
3. High humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere.
4. Enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure centre.
5. A pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance.
6. Low vertical wind shear.
7. Upper divergence above the sea level system.

TROPICAL CYCLONE TEMPERATE CYCLONE

Confined to 100 – 300 N and S of equator.Confined to 350 – 650 N and S of equator.

More pronounced in Northern hemisphere
due to greater temperature contrast.
Front system is absent. The very cyclone formation is due to
frontogenesis.
They form only on seas with temperature Can form both on land as well as seas
more than 26-270 C. They dissipate on
reaching the land.
Seasonal: Late summers (Aug – Oct) Irregular. But few in summers and more in
winters.
Limited to small area. They cover a larger area.
Typical size: 100 – 500 kms in diameter. Typical size: 300 – 2000 kms in diameter.
Varies with the strength of the cyclone. Varies from region to region.
Heavy but does not last beyond a few hours. In a temperate cyclone, rainfall is slow and
If the cyclone stays at a place, the rainfall continues for many days, sometimes even
may continue for many days. weeks.
The center of a tropical cyclone is known as In a temperate cyclone, there is not a single
the eye. The wind is calm at the center with place where winds and rains are inactive.
no rainfall.
In India both coasts effected. But east coast Bring rains to North – West India. The
is the hot spot. associated instability is called ‘Western
Disturbances’.

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