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Sound originates from vibrating bodies. The nature of these vibrations

determines the type of sound produced. In some cases, the vibrations may be
felt or seen, for example, when a string of a guitar is plucked or when a tuning
fork is struck. In other cases, the vibrating origin of the sound may not be so
obvious, for example, wind rushing through a small opening or the noise
produced by a thunderstorm.
Vibrating wooden strip
Vibrating Drum

Vibrating wire

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Tuning forks
The prongs of a tuning fork are made to vibrate by striking them against
a hard surface. The sound produced can be heard more clearly when the
stem of the fork is fixed tightly on a hollow box as shown in figure 9.4.
pressing the stem of the fork on a bench produces similar results.

A tuning fork of higher frequency when struck vibrates faster

than one of lower frequency, producing sound of a higher note.
When the prongs are made to touch the water surface, the water
splashes, confirming that the prongs are vibrating.
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Vibrating Air Columns
If air is blown across the mouth of a test-tube, sound is heard. This is
because the column of air in the tube is set in vibration. Sounds of different
frequencies are produced depending on the of the air column.
Air Siren in form of a disc with a ring of equally spaced holes which are
equidistant from the centre is used in this case. When it is rotated at a
constant rate and air blown through the holes as shown in figure 9.6, sound
of a given note is heard. The disc may have concentric sets of holes about
its axis to vary the frequency.

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Cog wheel and card
A cog wheel is rotated with a stiff card pressing lightly against the teeth.
The teeth of the rotating wheel strike the card, producing sound.

If the teeth are equally spaced, the wheels with fewer teeth
produce sound of lower frequency.

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Larynx
The human voice box contains vocal cords which vibrate to produce
sound. Other examples of vibrating bodies are loudspeakers and
cellphone or telephone membranes.

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Example 1
A disc siren with 100 holes is rotated at constant speed making 0.20
revolutions per second. If air is blown towards the holes, calculate:
(a) The frequency of the sound produced
(b) The wavelength of the sound produced, if velocity of sound in air is
340 m/s.

Solution
(a) Number of holes receiving air per second
100 x 0.20
=
1
= 20 holes
Frequency of the sound
20 vibrations
=
1 sec
= 20 Hz
velocity
(b) Wavelength =
wavelength
340
=
20
= 17 m
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Example 2

A cog wheel rotating uniformly produces sound of wavelength

1.65m. If it makes 10 revolutions per second, find the number of
teeth on the wheel, given that the velocity of sound in air is 330
m/s

Solution
velocity
Frequency f=
wavelength
330
f=
1.65
= 200 Hz
frequency
Number of teeth =
no.of revolutions
200
=
10
= 20 teeth
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 Propagation of Sound Energy
Vibrating prongs of a tuning fork produce compressions9area of high
pressure) and rarefactions (area of l0ow pressure )of air molecules. This is
illustrated in figure 9.8
A B

As the prong of the tuning fork moves from A to B, it compresses the air
molecules, transferring energy to the molecules in the direction in which
the compression occurs. A high pressure region is thus created. This leaves
a region of low pressure ( rarefaction) on the left of A. The prong moves
back to A and then to C and the process is repeated. A series of
compressions and rarefactions are thus produced, transferring energy to the
air particles (molecules) to the left and the right. The energy transfer
alternates in direction just as the motion of the prong. We may describe a
progressive sound wave in air as a travelling pressure wave, as shown in
figure 9.9.
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Sound energy moves forward in the medium without net forward movement of
the medium. The direction of vibrations of the particles is parallel to the
direction of the movement of sound energy. Hence, sound wave is a
longitudinal wave.
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 To show sound require medium of Propagation
Apparatus
An electric bell, switch, bell-jar, vacuum pump, rubber bung, flexible
connecting wires, cells, glass plate, rubber cord.

Observation
The intensity of sound diminishes as the air in the jar becomes less.
Explanation
The sound grows faint because the jar is deprived of air. A vacuum does
not transmit sound and the little sound that reaches us does so only
through the connecting wires, rubber and the walls of the jar.
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 Factors affecting the velocity of sound
In air the speed of sound is about 330 m/s. This speed is dependent on
various factors, namely;
 Temperature of air
 Humidity in the air
 Wind direction
Sound travels faster in air at high temperature. It also happens that
when the moisture content in the air is high, sounds are generally transmitted
at a faster rate. Wind affects the velocity of sound in that when the two, i.e.,
wind and sound happens to be moving in the same direction, the velocity of
sound is increased.
Generally, solids transmit sound at a speed of 6 000 m/s. this velocity
varies from solid to solid, depending on density of the material. Denser solids
transmit sound faster.
In addition to gases and solids, liquids also propagate sound energy. A
swimmer easily hears sound of water waves when underneath the water and
fish similarly respond to sounds produced in water. Liquids transmit sound
energy at different speeds depending on their densities.
The velocity of sound in fresh water is 1400 m/s and in salty water
1500 m/s. Gases transmit sound slowest, while solids transmit sound fastest.
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 Reflection of sound
When a sharp sound falls on an obstacle, it is reflected. Reflected sound is
called an echo.
Reflected sound is more pronounced from hard surface such as wood, stone
walls and metal surfaces. Reflection from liquid surfaces is considerably weaker.
In some halls, sound waves are reflected from the walls, floor and ceiling. Since
the echo time is short, the echo overlaps with the original sound. The original
sound thus seems to be prolonged, an effect called reverberation.
Surfaces of materials such as cotton wool and foam rubber absorb most of the
energy of incident sound waves. Because of this property, such materials are
used in places where echo effects are not desirable. The walls of broadcasting
studios and concert halls are thus made of absorbent materials.

Reverberation Modern halls

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 To demonstrate reflection on sound
Apparatus
Two plastic tubes, a tickling clock, smooth hard walls.

Observation
It is observed that maximum loudness of the reflected sound occurs when:
(i) The angle of reflection, r, is equal to the angle of incidence, i.
(ii) Both tubes and the normal to the reflecting surface lie in the same plane.
Conclusion
Sound waves obey the laws of reflection.
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 Determination of Speed of Sound
• Stand some distance away from and directly in front of a large high wall.
• Tap the two pieces of wood together and listen to the echo, see figure 9.12.
• Now tap repeatedly and try to arrange the next tap to coincide with the
echo heard.
• Time a number of successive taps and determine the average time between
successive taps.
• Measure the perpendicular distance between the observer and the wall as in
the figure.
Since the echo from one tap coincides with the sound from next tap, it means
that the time taken to make a tap after the preceding one equals the time taken
by sound to travel from the observer to the wall and back. If the distance
between the observer and the wall is d metres, the number of tap intervals n
1
and the time t seconds, the sound travels 2d metres in seconds.
a

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 Pulse-Echo Technique
The pulse-echo technique involves measuring distances by producing sound of
known speed and measuring the time taken to receive the echo. Sound of frequency
of over 20 kHz (ultrasound) is used, because it penetrates deepest and can be
reflected easily by tiny grains.
The distance of the reflecting obstacle from the source of sound is then calculated
using the formula (this technique is used in ships to determine the depth of the sea):
𝟏
𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 × (𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧)
𝟐

Bat
The technique is also used:
(i) In under-water exploration for gas and oil.
(ii) In fishing boats with pulse-echo equipment to locate shoals of fish.
(iii) In special types of spectacles used by blind people to tell how far objects are
ahead of them. The spectacles have transmitters that emit ultrasound and
receivers that collect the echo and convert them into audible sound.
Bats use echoes to detect the presence of obstacles in their path.
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Example 3
Two boys stand 200 m from wall. One bangs two pieces of
wood together while the second starts a stop-watch and stops
it when he hears the echo. If the time shown on the stop
watch is 1.2 seconds, calculate the speed of sound.

Solution
Distance travelled by sound = 2 x 200
= 400 m
distance travelled
Number of teeth =
time taken
400 m
=
1.2 𝑠
= 333.3 ms −1

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Example 4
The speed of sound in air is 340 ms−1 . A loudspeaker placed between two
walls A and B, but nearer to wall A than wall B, is sending out constant
sound pulses. How far is the speaker from wall B if it is 200 m from wall A
and the time between the two echoes received is 0.176 seconds?
Fig.9.15
Speed of sound is 340 ms−1
Let the time taken to hear echo from walls A and B be t1 and t 2 respectively.
Then, t 2 − t1 =0.176 seconds
If distance between the loudspeaker and wall B is x metres, then:
Solution
2x
t2 =
340
2 x 200
t1 =
340
2x 340
− = 00176
340 400
2x – 400 = 0.176 x 340
2x – 59.64 + 400
2x – 459.84
X – 229.9 m
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Example 5
The ship sends out an ultrasound whose echo is received
after 10 seconds. If the wavelength of the ultrasound in
water is 0.05 m and the frequency of the transmitter is 50
kHz, calculate the depth of the ocean.

Solution
Velocity of waves
= frequency x wavelength
= 50 000 x 0.05
= 2500 ms −1
1
Depth = (2500 x x 10) m
2
= 12500 m

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1. Briefly describe how sound is propagated in air.
2. Using the mode of propagation state the difference between sound waves
and light waves
3. State two factors affecting the speed of sound in gases.
4. Explain why sounds are fainter at high mountains than at sea level.
5. Explain the effect of pressure on the speed of sound in gases at a constant
temperature.
6. In determining the depth of an ocean an echo sounder produces ultrasonic
sound. Give reasons why this sound is preferred.
7. What is the advantage of ultrasound over normal sound when used in
sonars
8. State the reason why the sound of thunder is always heard sometime after
lighting flash is observed.
9. Explain the following statement: sound is a longitudinal pressure wave
10. State two factors that affect the speed of sound in air
11. What is an echo?
12. Give a reason why gases are poor transmitters of sound.
13. The audible frequency range for a certain person is 30Hz to 16500Hz.
Determine the largest wavelength of sound in air the person can detect. Speed
of sound 340m/s
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14. The speed of sound in air at a certain place is 320m/s. if the distance
between a sound source and a wall is 800m, find the time taken for the echo to
be heard.
15. A boy standing 240m from a cliff claps his hands and hears an echo 0.6
seconds later determine the speed of sound at that place.
16. A student stands between two halls and 800m from the nearest hall. The
halls are X meters apart. Every time the student claps, two echoes are heard by
the student such that the first echo comes after 5 seconds while the second
follows 2 seconds later. Calculate the value of X.
17. A soldier standing some distance from a tall building blows a whistle and
hears its echo, 1.8 seconds later. How far is the wall from the soldier (speed of
sound = 330m/s)
18. A lightning flash is seen, followed by thunder 6 seconds later. How far is
the storm from the observer? Speed of sound = 340ms-1
19. A girl standing in front of a wall 90 m away claps her hands at time
intervals of 0.5 seconds. She notices that each echo produced by the wall
coincides with the next lap. Determine the speed of sound.
20. The speed of sound in air is 330m\s. How far from the wall would you
stand? Choose an answer from the following distances .10m, 200m, 500m.Give
reasons why you did not choose each of the other two distances

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21. A boy standing in level ground between two high walls claps his hands. He
hears an echo from one wall after 0.7s and from the other wall 0.2s later.
Determine the distance between the two walls. (Speed of sound in air v = 330
ms-1)(4mks)
22. Water waves are observed as they pass a fixed point at a rate of 30 crests
per minute. A particular wave crest takes 2 second to travel between two fixed
points 6m apart. Determine the frequency and the wave length of the wave.
23. A radio transmitter directs pulses of waves towards a satellite from which
reflections are received 10 millisecond after transmission. Determine the
distance of the satellite from the radio transmitter. (Speed of radio waves= 3 x
108ms-1)
24. A ship in an ocean sends an ultra sound whose echo is received after 3
seconds. If the wavelength of the ultra sound in water 7.5 cm, and the
frequency of the transmitter is 30kHz, determine the depth of the ocean.
25. A mine worker in a valley between two cliffs sits 150 metres from the
nearest cliff and strikes a stone. He hears two echoes one after 0.9 seconds
while the second comes 0.2 seconds later. Calculate the distance between the
two cliffs.

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