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 Electrical
Craft
Principles
Volume 1
 Electrical
Craft
Principles
Volume 1
5th Edition

John Whitfield

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom
© 1974, 1980, 1988 Peter Peregrinus Ltd
© 1995 The Institution of Electrical Engineers
© 2008 The Institution of Engineering and Technology
First published 1974
Second edition 1980
Third edition 1989
Fourth edition 1995 (0 85296 811 6)
Reprinted 1997, 1999, 2001, 2005, 2006, 2007
Fifth edition 2008

This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research
or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in
the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those
terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
Michael Faraday House
Six Hills Way, Stevenage
Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom
www.theiet.org
While the authors and the publishers believe that the information and guidance given in
this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when
making use of them. Neither the authors nor the publishers assume any liability to
anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether
such error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such
liability is disclaimed.
The moral rights of the authors to be identified as authors of this work have been
asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-0-86341-932-4

Typeset in India by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd, Chennai

Printed in the UK by Bell and Bain Limited, Glasgow
 Contents

Preface to the Fifth Edition xi

Acknowledgements xiii

Symbols and abbreviations xv

1 Terms xv
2 Units xvii
3 Multiples and submultiples xvii
4 SI Units xviii
5 Multiples and submultiple units xviii

1 Basic electrical units and circuits 1

1.1 Simple electron theory 1
1.2 Electrical charge and unit of current 3
1.3 Effects of electric current 5
1.4 Electric conductors and insulators 6
1.5 Electrical energy, work and power 9
1.6 Electromotive force and potential difference 10
1.7 Resistance: Ohm’s law 11
1.8 Electrical circuit 12
1.9 Ammeters and voltmeters 13
1.10 Series circuits 14
1.11 Parallel circuits 17
1.12 Series–parallel circuits 21
1.13 Summary of formulas for Chapter 1 27
1.14 Exercises 28
1.15 Multiple-choice exercises 31

2 Resistance and resistors 33

2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Effect of dimensions on resistance 36
2.3 Resistivity 40
2.4 Resistance calculations 41
2.5 Effect of temperature on resistance 43
2.6 Effect of temperature changes 46
vi Electrical craft principles

2.7 Voltage drop in cables 47

2.8 Summary of formulas for Chapter 2 50
2.9 Exercises 50
2.10 Multiple-choice exercises 53

3 Mechanics 57
3.1 Mass, force, pressure and torque 57
3.2 Work, energy and power 60
3.3 Lifting machines 63
3.4 Power transmission 68
3.5 Parallelogram and triangle of forces 71
3.6 Summary of formulas for Chapter 3 74
3.7 Exercises 75
3.8 Multiple choice exercises 76

4 Heat 79
4.1 Heat 79
4.2 Temperature 79
4.3 Heat units 80
4.4 Heating time and power 82
4.5 Heat transmission 84
4.6 Change of dimensions with temperature 86
4.7 Summary of formulas for Chapter 4 88
4.8 Exercises 88
4.9 Multiple-choice exercises 89

5 Electrical power and energy 91

5.1 Units of electrical power and energy 91
5.2 Electromechanical conversions 98
5.3 Electric lighting and heating 100
5.4 Summary of formulas for Chapter 5 102
5.5 Exercises 103
5.6 Multiple-choice exercises 105

6 Permanent magnetism and electromagnetism 107

6.1 Magnetic fields 107
6.2 Units of magnetic flux 109
6.3 Electromagnet 110
6.4 Calculations for aircored solenoids 113
6.5 Effect of iron on magnetic circuit 116
6.6 Permanent magnets 117
6.7 Summary of formulas for Chapter 6 118
6.8 Exercises 118
6.9 Multiple-choice exercises 120
 Contents vii

7 Applications of electromagnetism 123

7.1 Introduction 123
7.2 Bells and buzzers 123
7.3 Bell indicators and circuits 126
7.4 Relays and contactors 127
7.5 Telephones 128
7.6 Simple telephone circuits 130
7.7 Loudspeakers 132
7.8 Moving iron instruments 132
7.9 Exercises 134
7.10 Multiple-choice exercises 134

8 Electric cells and batteries 137

8.1 Storing electricity 137
8.2 Primary cells 137
8.3 Secondary cells 141
8.4 Care of secondary cells 144
8.5 Internal resistance 148
8.6 Batteries 151
8.7 Capacity and efficiency 154
8.8 Summary of formulas for Chapter 8 155
8.9 Exercises 155
8.10 Multiple-choice exercises 157

9 Electromagnetic induction 161

9.1 Introduction 161
9.2 Dynamic induction 161
9.3 Relative directions of EMF, movement and flux 164
9.4 Simple rotating generator 165
9.5 Direct-current generator 167
9.6 Static induction 169
9.7 Summary of formulas for Chapter 9 171
9.8 Exercises 171
9.9 Multiple-choice exercises 172

10 Basic alternating-current theory 175

10.1 What is alternating current? 175
10.2 Advantages of AC systems 176
10.3 Values for AC supplies 177
10.4 Sinusoidal waveforms 179
10.5 Phasor representation and phase difference 182
10.6 Resistive AC circuit 184
10.7 Inductive AC circuit 185
10.8 Capacitive AC circuit 187
10.9 Transformer 189
viii Electrical craft principles

10.10 Summary of formulas for Chapter 10 194

10.11 Exercises 195
10.12 Multiple-choice exercises 198

11 Electrical motor principles 201

11.1 Introduction 201
11.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor lying in a magnetic
field 201
11.3 Relative directions of current, force and magnetic flux 203
11.4 Lenz’s law 204
11.5 Direct-current motor principles 205
11.6 Moving-coil instrument 206
11.7 Summary of formulas for Chapter 11 208
11.8 Exercises 208
11.9 Multiple-choice exercises 210

12 Practical supplies and protection 213

12.1 Introduction 213
12.2 Direct-current supplies 213
12.3 Single-phase AC supplies 214
12.4 Three-phase AC supplies 215
12.5 Earthing 218
12.6 Fuses 222
12.7 Circuit breakers 224
12.8 Risk of fire and shock 228
12.9 Polarity 231
12.10 Safety precautions 232
12.11 Regulations 233
12.12 Electric shock 234
12.13 Artificial respiration 236
12.14 Summary of formulas for Chapter 12 237
12.15 Exercises 237
12.16 Multiple-choice exercises 239

13 Cables and enclosures 243

13.1 Supply system 243
13.2 Conductor materials and construction 243
13.3 Cable insulators 245
13.4 Bare conductors 247
13.5 Plastic- (thermoplastic) and rubber- (thermosetting) insulated
conductors 248
13.6 Sheathed wiring cables 249
13.7 Mineral-insulated (MI) cables 249
13.8 Armoured cables 250
13.9 Cable joints and terminations 251
 Contents ix

13.10 Conduits 255

13.11 Ducts and trunking 257
13.12 Cable ratings 259
13.13 Exercises 260
13.14 Multiple-choice exercises 261

14 Lighting and heating installations 263

14.1 Introduction 263
14.2 Supply-mains equipment 263
14.3 Lighting circuits 267
14.4 Sockets for fused plugs to BS 1363 270
14.5 Other circuits 271
14.6 Earthing and polarity 274
14.7 Simple testing 274
14.8 Exercises 278
14.9 Multiple-choice exercises 279

15 Introduction to electronics 283

15.1 Introduction 283
15.2 Resistors for electronic circuits 283
15.3 Semiconductor diodes 288
15.4 Transistors 289
15.5 Exercises 296
15.6 Multiple-choice exercises 297

Numerical answers to exercises 301

Index 315
 Preface to the Fifth Edition

This book has been in use for well over thirty years through four editions. Although
the basic theory has changed very little in that time, the equipment in use has evolved,
making this new edition necessary. A further change is that the 17th edition of the IEE
Wiring Regulations, to which reference is made in this volume, has been published
and amendments have been made to reflect its new requirements. There have also been
changes in the syllabuses of the examining bodies responsible for the certification of
electrical craftsmen, as well as in the pattern of education and training that they are
required to follow.
The increasingly ‘hands-on’ nature of the training is to be welcomed, as is the
widening of syllabuses to include more electronics. Multiple-choice questions are
now in wide use and a selection of this type of test has been continued in each chapter
of the book. I must admit to having doubts about presenting the reader with faulty
information in the wrong answers to the multiple-choice questions, but am sure that
a sensible approach, including the analysis of each wrongly answered question, will
ensure that no harm results. I still feel very strongly that the best method of mastering
material of this kind is to work through numerous examples. To this end, the present
volume contains 98 fully worked examples, 303 exercises and 231 multiple-choice
exercises, all with answers.
No attempt has been made to deal with the practical-training aspects, which require
a much more detailed analysis than is possible in a single volume. The book will be
found suitable as a main textbook or for providing essential background information
for all current electrical craft and technician courses.
The author believes that the material included in this book, in addition to being
suitable for craft students, is suitable for much of the early study in the BTEC courses
leading to qualifications in electrical and electronic engineering.
John Whitfield
Norwich
March 2009
 Acknowledgements

None of the work in this book can be claimed to be original, and the author
acknowledges with thanks the numerous teachers, students and organisations who
have contributed to his understanding of the subject. Unfortunately, they are too
numerous to mention, but the author would like to specifically acknowledge:
• The Institution of Engineering and Technology for permission to quote from its
Wiring Regulations
• G. Cronshaw and N. Canty of the IET for their assistance and support
• N. Hiller for his continuing support and help
 Symbols and abbreviations

1 Terms

Term Symbols and abbreviations

alternating current AC
area A or a
area, cross-sectional CSA
capacitance C
charge (electric) Q
current
steady or RMS value I
instantaneous value i
maximum value Im
average value Iav
direct current DC
distance d
electromotive force EMF
steady or RMS value E
instantaneous value e
energy W
force F
frequency f
inductance, self L
length l
line current IL
line voltage UL
magnetic flux
(phi)
magnetic flux density B
magnetising force H
magnetomotive force MMF
mass m
mechanical advantage MA
permeability of free space µ0 (mu)
permeability, relative µr (mu)
xvi Electrical craft principles

Term Symbols and abbreviations

phase angle φ (phi)

phase current IP
phase voltage UP
potential difference PD
steady or RMS value U
instantaneous value u
maximum value Um
average value Uav
power P
primary current I1
primary EMF E1
primary turns N1
primary voltage U1
quantity of electricity Q
reactance, capacitative Xc
reactance, inductive XL
resistance R
resistivity ρ (rho)
revolutions per minute r/min
revolutions per second r/s
root mean square RMS
rotational velocity ω (omega)
secondary current I2
secondary EMF E2
secondary turns N2
secondary voltage U2
speed (r/min) N
speed (r/s) n
temperature coefficient of
resistance α (alpha)
time t
time, periodic T
torque T
velocity ratio VR
work W
 Symbols and abbreviations xvii

2 Units

Unit Symbol Unit of

ampere A electric current

ampere-turn At magnetomotive force
coulomb C electric charge quantity
cycles per second (hertz) c/s (or Hz) frequency
degrees celsius ˚C temperature
farad F capacitance
henry H inductance
hertz Hz frequency
joule J work or energy
kilogram kg mass
kilowatt kW power
kilowatt-hour kWh energy
metre m length
millimetre mm length
newton N force
newton metre Nm torque
metre newton (joule) mN work and energy
ohm  (omega) resistance
radians per second rad/s rotational velocity
second s time
tesla T magnetic flux density
volt V PD and EMF
watt W power
weber Wb magnetic flux
weber per square metre Wb/m2 magnetic flux density

3 Multiples and submultiples

Prefix Symbol Meaning

meg- or mega- M one million times or × 106

kil- or kilo- k one thousand times or × 103
milli- m one-thousandth of or × 10−3
micro- µ (mu) one-millionth of or × 10−6
nano- n one-thousand-millionth of or × 10−9
pico- p one-million-millionth of or × 10−12
xviii Electrical craft principles

4 SI units

If we are to measure physical, mechanical and electrical quantities, we must use a

system of units for the purpose. All units, no matter how complex, are based on a
number of basic units. The system of units adopted in much of the world is the SI unit
(Système Internationale d’Unités).

Physical quantity Name of unit Symbol

length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature kelvin K
luminous intensity candela cd

Imperial units (such as the inch or pound) are not

recognised in this volume.

5 Multiple and submultiple units

There are many examples in practical electrical engineering where the basic units are
of an inconvenient size.
Multiple units are larger than the basic units. The prefix meg or mega (symbol
M) means one million times. For instance:
1 megavolt (1 MV) = 1 000 000 volts
and
1 megohm (1 M) = 1 000 000 ohms
The prefix kil or kilo (symbol k) means one thousand times. For instance:
1 kilovolt (1 kV) = 1 000 volts.
Submultiple units are smaller and are decimal fractions of the basic units. The
prefix milli (symbol m) means one-thousandth of. For instance:
1 milliampere (1 mA) = 1/1000 ampere
The prefix micro (symbol µ, the Greek letter ‘mu’) means one-millionth of. For
instance:
1 microhm (1 µ) = 1/1 000 000 ohm
 Symbols and abbreviations xix

The prefix nano (symbol n) means one-thousand-millionth of. For instance:

1 nanosecond (1 ns) = 1/1 000 000 000 second

The prefix pico (symbol p) means one-millionth-millionth of. For instance:

1 picovolt (1 pV) = 1/1/1 000 000 000 000 volt
Two words of warning are necessary concerning the application of these extremely
useful prefixes. First, note the difference between the symbols M and m. The ratio is
one thousand million! Second, always convert a value into its basic unit before using
it in an equation. If this is done, any unknown value in the equation can be found in
terms of its basic unit.
 Chapter 1
Basic electrical units and circuits

1.1 Simple electron theory

Electricity in the form of lightning must have been apparent to man from his earliest
cave-dwelling days. The use of electricity has increased many times during the last
100 years, and with this increased use has come a greater awareness of the nature of
electricity. Present-day theories are based on the theory of atomic structure, although
our knowledge is still far from complete.

The atom
All matter is composed of atoms, which often arrange themselves into groups called
molecules. An atom is so very small that our minds are unable to appreciate what vast
numbers of them make up even a very small piece of material. Eight million atoms,
placed end to end, would stretch for about 1 mm.
The atom itself is not solid, but is composed of even smaller particles separated by
space. At the centre of each atom is the nucleus, which is made up of various particles,
including protons. These protons are said to have a positive charge. The electrons,
which complete the atom, are in a constant state of motion, circling the nucleus in the
same way as a satellite circles the Earth. Each electron has a negative charge. Atoms
of different materials differ from one another by having different numbers of electrons
but, in the complete state, each atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons, so
that positive and negative charges cancel out to leave the atom electrically neutral.
The atoms in solids and liquids are much closer together than those in gases, and in
solids they are held in a definite pattern for a given material.
Where there are more than two electrons in an atom, their paths of motion are
in shells. The electrons paths are, in fact, elliptical rather than circular, and take
all directions around the nucleus. The atom is thus three-dimensional, and not two-
dimensional as indicated in the simplified form of Figure 1.1, which shows a simple
representation of a copper atom, which has 29 electrons and 29 protons. The electron
in the outer shell is weakly held in position, and often breaks free, moving at random
among the other copper atoms. An atoms that has lost an electron in this way is
left with an overall positive charge, since it has a positive proton in excess of those
required to balance the effect of its negative electrons. Such an incomplete atom is
called a positive ion.
2 Electrical craft principles

+29

nucleus
electrons

loosely held
electron

Figure 1.1 Simplified representation of a copper atom

(a)

(b)

+ –

positive ion
electron

Figure 1.2 Movement of electrons. (a) Random movement of electrons in conductor;

(b) drift of electrons towards positive plate when battery is connected

The movement of free electrons in a conductor depends on the laws of electric

charge, which are that (1) like charges repel, and (2) unlike charges attract.

Electric current
Figure 1.2(a) represents a block of conducting material, containing free electrons
moving at random among positive ions. If a battery were connected across the block
as shown in Figure 1.2(b), free electrons close to the positive plate will be attracted to
it, since unlike charges attract. Free electrons near the negative plate will be repelled
from it, and a steady drift of electrons will take place through the material from the
 Basic electrical units and circuits 3

negative battery terminal to the positive battery terminal. For each electron entering
the positive terminal, one will be ejected from the negative terminal, so that the
number of electrons in the material remains constant. Since the atoms that have
become positive ions are unable to move in a solid, they do not drift to the negative
terminal.
The rate of movement of electrons through the solid is very low, but, since free
electrons throughout the material start to drift immediately when the battery is con-
nected, there is very little delay in the demonstration of the effects that occur as a
result of this movement.
The drift of electrons is the electric current; so, to some extent, we have been able
to answer the question ‘What is electricity?’ However, we have no clear understanding
of the nature of an electron, so our knowledge is far from complete.
Electrons which enter the battery through the positive plate are passed through
it, and are ejected from the negative plate into the conductor. Thus the electrons
circulate, but must have a continuous conducting path, or closed circuit, in which to
do so. If the circuit is broken, the drift of electrons will cease immediately.

Current direction
The knowledge that an electric current consists of a drift of electrons is of compar-
atively recent origin. Long before this theory was put forward, electric current was
thought of as an ‘electric fluid’ which flowed into conductors from the positive plate
of a battery to the negative. This direction of current, called conventional current
direction, was thought to be correct for many years, so many rules were based on
it. We now know that this assumed current direction is incorrect and that current
in a solid actually consists of an electron drift in the opposite direction. Despite
this, we still continue, by convention, to indicate current direction external to the
source, as being from the positive to the negative terminal. In most of the appli-
cations we shall consider, the actual direction of the current does not affect the
performance of equipment; because of this, we shall continue to use conventional
current direction. The directions of electron drift and conventional current are shown
in Figure 1.3.

1.2 Electrical charge and unit of current

If we wish to measure a length we do so with a rule which is marked off in specific

units of length. Since an electric current is invisible, we must use special instruments
for measuring it, most of these instruments depending for their operation on the
magnetic field set up by a current in a conductor. These instruments are described in
Section 1.9.
The first unit we shall consider is the unit of electric charge or quantity of elec-
tricity. It may seem that the electron could be used, but it is far too small for practical
purposes. The unit used is the coulomb, (symbol C), which is very much larger than
4 Electrical craft principles

electromagnet
filament
filament lamp
lamp change-
over
switch
⫹

direct- W
current
supply lead-acid
cell

direction of electron drift

⫺
‘conventional-current’ direction

Figure 1.3 Circuit to illustrate heating, magnetic and chemical effects of electric
current

the electron, the charge of over six million million million electrons equalling that of
one coulomb. If a body has a surplus of electrons it is said to be negatively charged,
whereas if it has a shortage of electrons it is positively charged. Both these amounts
of charge could be measured in coulombs.
A newcomer to the theory of electricity may be struck by the curious names
applied to units. Most units are named after great scientists, like the unit of electric
charge, the coulomb, which is named after Charles Coulomb (1736–1806), a French
physicist.
If the drift of electrons in a conductor takes place at the rate of one coulomb
per second, the resulting current is said to be the current of one ampere (symbol A).
Thus, a current of one ampere indicates that charge is being transferred along the
conductor at the rate of one coulomb per second; hence
Q = It
where Q = charge transferred in coulombs, I = current in amperes and t = time
during which the current flows in seconds.

Example 1.1
If a total charge of 500 C is to be transferred in 20 s, what is the current flow?
Q
Q = It and thus I =
t
Therefore
500
I= amperes = 25 A
20
 Basic electrical units and circuits 5

Example 1.2
A current of 12.5 A passed for 2 min. What quantity of electricity is transferred?
Q = It
= 12.5 × 2 × 60 coulombs
= 1500 C

Example 1.3
A current of 0.15 A must transfer a charge of 450 C. For how long must the current
pass?
Q
Q = It so t =
I
450
t= seconds
0.15
= 3000 s or 50 min

1.3 Effects of electric current

Electrons are far too small to be seen even with the best microscopes available, and
the detection of current would be impossible if it did not produce effects that are more
easily detected. There are many such effects, but the three most important are heat,
chemical and magnetic.
When current flows in a wire, heat is generated. The amount of heat produced
in this way depends on a number of factors, which will be considered later, but can
be controlled by the variation of current, of conductor material and of conductor
dimensions. In this way, the conductor can be made red or white hot as with an
electric fire or filament lamp, or can be made to carry current and remain reasonably
cool as with an electric cable.
When current passes through chemical solutions, it can cause basic chem-
ical changes to take place in them. Examples of this are the battery of cells
and electroplating. Some of these chemical effects will be further considered in
Chapter 8.
A current flowing in a coil gives rise to a magnetic field, and this principle is
the basis of many electrical devices such as the motor, relay and bell. The magnetic
effect is the subject of Chapter 6. Figure 1.3 shows a circuit in which the same current
passes in turn through a filament lamp (heating effect), and electromagnet (magnetic
effect) and a lead–acid cell (chemical effect). The heating and magnetic effects will
be apparent owing to the heating of the lamp filament and the attraction of the iron
armature. The chemical effect is demonstrated if the changeover switch is operated,
6 Electrical craft principles

Table 1.1 Some devices relying on effects of electrical current

Magnetic effect Heating effect Chemical effect

Relay Filament lamp Cells and batteries

Bell Electric heater Electroplating
Contactor Electric cooker Fuel cell
Telephone Electric iron
Motor Electric kettle
Generator Television tube
Transformer Fuse
Circuit breaker Circuit breaker
Data recorder Welder
Ammeter Furnace
Voltmeter

when energy stored in the cell will cause the small filament lamp to glow. Table 1.1
lists some of the common devices relying on these three electrical effects.

1.4 Electric conductors and insulators

Electric conductors
It has been stated that an electric current is the drift of free electrons in a solid. It follows
that for a material to be capable of carrying current, the atoms of which it is composed
will have loosely held electrons, which become detached at normal temperatures or
can be detached by the application of an electric charge. Such materials are called
electric conductors. A list of conductors, with remarks on their properties and uses,
is given in Table 1.2.
Silver is the best electric conductor, but its high cost and poor physical properties
prevent its use as a cable material. Copper is next in conducting properties to silver.
Its malleability (the ease with which it can be beaten into shape) and its ductability
(the ease with which it can be drawn into strands) make it the natural choice as a
conductor for cables; many heavy supply cables, and almost all wiring cables, have
copper conductors.
Aluminium is a poorer conductor than copper, but it is lighter. As copper prices
have increased in recent years, aluminium prices have remained stable, so alu-
minium is a direct competitor to copper for power cables. Since aluminium is not
as flexible as copper, cannot be drawn into such fine wires and poses connection
problems owing to rapid surface corrosion, the IEE Wiring Regulations (BS 7671)
forbid its use in the form of small wiring cables. Such cables, however, are made
and used.
 Basic electrical units and circuits 7

Table 1.2 Electric conductors

Material Properties Application

Aluminium Low cost and weight Power cables

Brass Easily machined; resists Terminals, plug pins
corrosion
Carbon Hard; low friction with metals Machine brushes
Chromium Hard; resists corrosion Heating elements (with nickel)
Copper Very good conductor; soft and All cables, busbars
easily drawn into wires;
capable of hardening
Gold Expensive; does not corrode Plating on contacts
Iron and steel Common metal Conduits, trunking, fuseboard
cases etc. (protective
conductor)
Lead Does not corrode; bends easily Power cable sheaths (protective
conductor)
Mercury Liquid at normal temperatures; Special contacts, discharge lamps
vaporises; toxic
Nickel Hard; resists corrosion Heating elements (with
chromium)
Silver Expensive; the best conductor Fine instrument wires, plating on
contacts
Sodium Vaporises readily Discharge lamps
Tin Resists attack by sulphur Coating on copper cables
Tungsten Easily drawn into fine wires Lamp filaments

Electric insulators
If materials are composed of atoms that have all their electrons tightly bound to them,
there will be no free electrons available to form an electric current, and none can
flow. Such materials are called electric insulators. There are very many types of
insulating material, but a few of those in common use in the electric industry are
listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 is far from complete. For example, many new types of plastic have been
developed as cable insulation, each having special properties. Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) is the most frequently used insulating and sheathing material for inter-
nal normal-temperature applications. Polychloroprene (PCP) has particularly good
weather-resisting properties, as has chlorosulphonated polyethylene (CSP), which
also has increased resistance to physical damage. These are but three examples of the
numerous insulating materials now available to the engineer and craftsmen.
8 Electrical craft principles

Table 1.3 Electric insulators

Material Properties Application

Rubber, flexible Flexible; life affected by high Cable insulation (small and
plastics temperatures medium sizes)
Cross-linked Emits little smoke or fumes Cable insulation (medium and
polyethylene when burning large sizes)
(XLPE)
Impregnated paper, Rather stiff, but unaffected by Cable insulation (medium and
varnished moderate temperatures, large sizes)
cambric hygroscopic
Magnesium oxide Powder; requires containing Mineral-insulated cables
(mineral sheath; not affected by very
insulation) high temperatures; very
hygroscopic
Mica Insulation not affected by high Kettle elements, toaster
temperatures elements etc.
Asbestos, glass Reasonably flexible; not affected Cable insulation in cookers,
fibre by high temperatures fires etc.
Glass Rigid; easily cleaned Overhead-line insulators
Porcelain Hard and brittle; easily cleaned Fuse carriers, overhead-line
insulators etc.
Rigid plastics Not as expensive as porcelain Fuse carriers, switches, sockets,
and less brittle plugs etc.

No material is a perfect insulator, and all will pass a small ‘leakage current’. This
leakage is usually so small compared with the operating currents of the equipment
that it may be ignored in most cases.

Conductors and insulators

An electric cable is a very good example of the application of conductors and insu-
lators. Figure 1.4 shows a typical twin housewiring cable with protective conductor,
the copper current-carrying conductors being insulated with PVC. An overall sheath
of PVC keeps the conductors together, and protects them from damage and damp-
ness. The conductors are made of copper, which is softened by annealing to make it
flexible. The flexibility is sometimes further improved by using stranded instead of
solid conductors.

Figure 1.4 Twin-and-protective-conductor PVC-insulated PVC-sheathed wiring

cable
 Basic electrical units and circuits 9

Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties lying in between those of conductors and
insulators. They occupy a very important place in such devices as rectifiers and
transistors, which will be considered in Chapter 15.

1.5 Electrical energy, work and power

Before we can go on to consider the electrical force that results in electron drift in
a conductor, we must look at the units used for measuring work and power. Fuller
consideration of electrical energy, work and power is given in Chapter 5.

Energy and work

Energy and work are interchangeable, energy being used to do work. Both are mea-
sured in terms of force and distance. The SI unit of force is the newton (N), and the
unit of distance or length is the metre (m). If a force moves through a distance, work
is done and energy is used.
energy used = work done = distance moved (m) × force for movement (N)

Example 1.4
A force of 2000 N is required to lift a machine. How much energy is required to lift
the machine through 3 m?
workdone = distance × force
= 3 × 2000 joules
= 6000 J
This work is mechanical, but we shall see that work can also be electrical.

Power
Power is the rate of doing work or of using energy. For instance, an electrician can
cut a hole in a steel plate using a hand drill or an electric drill. With both the effective
work done will be the same, but the electric drill will cut through the hole more
quickly because its power is greater. It follows that
work or energy
power =
time
The SI unit of power is the watt (W), which is a rate of doing work of one joule per
second.
joules
watts =
seconds
10 Electrical craft principles

Similarly, if we know how much power is being used and the time for which it is
used, we can find the total energy used:
work or energy = power × time
or joules = watts × seconds

Example 1.5
A works truck requires a force of 180 N to move it. How much work is done if the truck
is moved 20 m, and what average power is employed if the movement takes 40 s?
work = distance × force
= 20 × 180 joules
= 3600 J
work
average power =
time
3600
= watts
40
= 90 W

1.6 Electromotive force and potential difference

When an electric current flows, energy is dissipated. Since energy cannot be created,
it must be provided by the device used for circulating the current. This device may be
chemical, such as a battery; mechanical, such as a generator; or it may have one of a
number of other forms. Many years ago, electricity was thought to be a fluid which
circulated as the result of a force, and thus the term electromotive force (EMF),
symbol E, came into use. The EMF is measured in terms of the number of joules of
work necessary to move one coulomb of electricity around the circuit, and thus has
the unit joules/coulomb. This unit is referred to as the volt (symbol V), so that
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb

Example 1.6
A battery with an EMF of 6 V gives a current of 5 A around a circuit for 5 min. How
much energy is provided in this time?
total charge transferred Q = It = 5 × 5 × 60 C = 1500 C
total energy supplied = (joules/coulomb) × coulombs
= volts × coulombs
= 6 × 1500 joules = 9000 J
 Basic electrical units and circuits 11

In Example 1.6, each coulomb of electricity contained 6 J of potential energy on

leaving the battery. This energy was dissipated on the journey around the circuit,
so that the same charge would possess no energy on its return to the battery. The
amount of energy expended by 1 C in its passage between any two points in a circuit
is known as the potential difference (PD) between those points, and is measured in
joules/coulomb, or volts. The international symbol for supply voltage or voltage drop
has changed from V to U , the symbol for the unit of voltage (the volt) remaining as
V. A convenient definition of the volt is therefore that it is equal to the difference in
potential between two points if 1 J of energy is required to transfer 1 C of electricity
between them.

Example 1.7
How much electrical energy is converted into heat each minute by an immersion
which takes 13 A from a 230 V supply?
energy given up by each coulomb = 230 J
quantity of energy flow per minute = It = 13 × 60 coulombs = 780 C
therefore energy converted in 1 min = (joules/coulomb) × coulombs
= 230 × 780 joules
= 179 400 J or 179.4 kJ

1.7 Resistance: Ohm’s law

For a metallic conductor which is kept at a constant temperature, it is found that the
ratio
potential difference across conductor (volts)
resulting current in conductor (amperes)
is constant, and this ratio is known as the resistance (symbol R) of the conductor.
This important relationship was first verified by Dr G. S. Ohm, and is often referred
to as ‘Ohm’s law’. The unit of resistance is the ohm (Greek symbol , ‘omega’). A
conductor has a resistance of 1  if the PD across its ends is 1 V when it carries a
current of 1 A. A device intended to have resistance is called a resistor.
The relationship expressed by Ohm’s law, which is of fundamental importance in
electrical engineering, can be simply written as a formula
U = IR
the subject of the formula can be changed to give
U U
I= or R =
R I
12 Electrical craft principles

Example 1.8
An electrical heater used on a 230 V supply carries a current of 12 A. What is its
resistance?
U
R=
I
230
= ohms
12
= 19.2 

Example 1.9
The insulation resistance between two cables is two million ohms (2 M). What
leakage current will flow if a PD of 400 V exists between them?
U
I=
R
400
= amperes
2 000 000
= 0.0002 A or 0.2 mA

Example 1.10
What PD exists across an earth-continuity conductor of resistance 1.2  when a
current of 25 A flows through it?
U = IR
= 25 × 1.2 volts
= 30 V

1.8 Electrical circuit

For an electromotive force to drive electrons, it must be applied to a closed circuit.

In practice, the circuit is likely to consist of a piece of apparatus connected to the
source of EMF by means of cables, which complete the circuit. Figure 1.5 shows a
simple circuit consisting of a source of EMF and a resistor. A switch, shown closed
in Figure 1.5(a) is included in the circuit. Since the circuit is completed, the EMF of
the supply will provide a current, its value depending on the voltage of the supply
and on the resistance of the circuit. If the load has a high resistance, the current will
be small; if the load resistance is low, the current will be greater.
 Basic electrical units and circuits 13

(a) (b)
I

supply R supply R

Figure 1.5 EMF in a circuit. (a) Closed circuit; (b) open circuit

If the switch is opened, as in Figure 1.5(b), the gap between the opened contacts
introduces a nearly infinite resistance into the circuit, so that the current falls to zero.
We say that opening the switch has ‘broken’ the circuit.
Although there are some devices, including electronic visual display units (VDUs)
and fluorescent lamps, which do not offer a complete metallic path for current, the
majority of circuits are made up entirely of such conductors. If the conducting path
is interrupted, the current ceases.
In circuits where high voltages are present, opening a switch may not break the
circuit, the current continuing through the air between the contacts. The air carrying
the current glows brightly, gives off heat and is called an arc. The majority of switches
produce an arc when opened, but in most cases the arc disappears within a fraction
of a second, and the circuit is broken before the heat from the arc can damage the
switch and its surroundings.

1.9 Ammeters and voltmeters

Although the presence of an electric current may produce effects which can be detected
by the human senses, such effects are seldom useful as an indication of the value of
the current. For instance, when a filament lamp glows, it is clearly carrying current,
although we are unlikely to be able to judge its value. However, when the current in
the lamp is reduced to about one-third of its normal value, the lamp ceases to glow.
Instruments for direct measurement of electric current are called ammeters, and
will be considered in detail in the second volume. The principles of two types of
instrument are discussed in Sections 7.8 and 11.6 of this volume. Ammeters have low
resistance and are connected so that the current to be measured passes through them.
Figure 1.6 shows correct (a) and incorrect (b) ammeter connections. The ammeter
will be damaged if incorrectly connected. Figure 1.6 makes it clear that the circuit
symbol for an ammeter is a circle containing the letter A.
A voltmeter is another measuring instrument, used to indicate the potential dif-
ference between its two connections. To give an indication, the voltmeter must be
connected across the device or circuit whose PD is to be indicated. Figure 1.7 gives
correct (a) and incorrect (b) voltmeter connections, and shows the voltmeter symbol as
a circle containing the letter V. If connected incorrectly, the voltmeter is unlikely to be
14 Electrical craft principles

(a) (b)
A

R A R

Figure 1.6 Correct (a) and incorrect (b) connection of ammeter

(a) (b)
V

V R R

Figure 1.7 Correct (a) and incorrect (b) connection of voltmeter

damaged but since it has high resistance it will prevent the correct functioning of the
circuit. The source of supply in the circuits of Figures 1.6 and 1.7 is a battery of cells.

1.10 Series circuits

When a number of resistors are connected together end to end, so that there is only one
path for current through them, they are said to be connected in series. An electrical
appliance is connected in series with the cables feeding it; and, since the total current
will depend on the resistance of the circuit as well as on the voltage applied to it, it
is important to be able to calculate the resistance of the complete circuit if we know
the values of the individual resistors connected in it. Figure 1.8 shows three resistors,
of values R1 , R2 and R3 , respectively, connected in series across a supply of U volts.
Let us assume that the resulting current is I amperes. If the total circuit resistance is
R ohms,
U
R=
I
Now let the PD across each of the three resistors be U1 , U2 and U3 volts, respectively.
Then
U1 = IR1 , U2 = IR2 and U3 = IR3
 Basic electrical units and circuits 15

R1 R2 R3

U1 U2 U3

I
U

Figure 1.8 Resistors connected in series

but
U = U1 + U2 + U3
= IR1 + IR2 + IR3
= I (R1 + R2 + R3 )
U
= R1 + R2 + R3
I
but
U
=R
I
so that
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus the total resistance of any number of transistors connected together in series can
be found by adding the values of the individual resistors, which must all be expressed
in the same unit.

Example 1.11
Resistors of 50  and 70  are connected in series to a 230 V supply. Calculate (a)
the total resistance of the circuit, (b) the current and (c) the PD across each resistor.
(a) R = R1 + R2 = 50 + 70 ohms = 120 
U 230
(b) I = = amperes = 1.92 A
R 120
(c) U1 = IR1 = 1.92 × 50 = 96 V
U2 = IR2 = 1.92 × 70 = 134 V
Note: Supply voltage U = U1 + U2 = 96 + 134 volts = 230 V
Note that, for a series circuit:
1 the same current flows in all resistors
2 the PD across each resistor is proportional to its resistance
3 the sum of the PDs across individual resistors is equal to the supply voltage.
16 Electrical craft principles

Example 1.12
An electric heater consists of an element of resistance 22.8  and is fed from a 230 V
supply by a two-core cable of unknown resistance. If the current is 10 A, calculate
the total resistance of the cable.
Figure 1.9(a) shows the heater connected to the supply through a two-conductor
cable. Figure 1.9(b) is an equivalent circuit in which conductors are assumed to have
no resistance, the actual resistance of the conductors being replaced by the resistance
R. There are two methods of solution.

Method 1
U 230
Total resistance = = = 23 
I 10
but
total resistance = element resistance + conductor resistance
therefore
conductor resistance = total resistance − element resistance
conductor resistance = 23 − 22.8 ohms = 0.2 

Method 2
PD across element = current × element resistance
= 10 × 22.8 volts = 228 V
supply voltage = PD across element + PD across conductors
therefore
PD across conductors = supply voltage − PD across element
= 230 − 228 volts = 2 V

(a) (b)

conductor
resistance
element = RΩ
resistance
230 V = 22.8Ω 230 V
element
resistance
= 22.8Ω

10A 10A

Figure 1.9 Circuit diagrams for Example 1.12

 Basic electrical units and circuits 17

conductor PD
conductor resistance =
current
2
= ohms = 0.2 
10

1.11 Parallel circuits

When each one of a number of resistors is connected between the same two points,
they are said to be connected in parallel. In this form of connection, the total current
divides, part of it flowing in each resistor. Since all the resistors are connected across
the same two points, the PD across each one is the same. Figure 1.10 shows resistors
of values R1 , R2 and R3 , respectively, and the total current is I .

R1 I1

R2 I2 I

R3 I3

Figure 1.10 Resistors connected in parallel

The total current divides itself among the resistors, so that

I = I1 + I2 + I3
But, from Ohm’s law
U U U
I1 = , I2 = , I3 =
R1 R2 R3


U U U 1 1 1
I= + + =U + +
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
I 1 1 1
= + +
U R1 R2 R3
If the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit is R, R = U /I .
Therefore
I 1 1 1 1
= = + +
U R R1 R2 R3
18 Electrical craft principles

The value 1/R is called the reciprocal of R. We can thus sum up the expression by
saying that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to
the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of the individual resistors.
Note that, for a parallel circuit:

1 the same PD occurs across all resistors

2 the current in each resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance
3 the sum of the currents in the individual resistors is equal to the supply current.

As for the series circuit, the resistances must all be expressed in the same unit before
using them in the formula.

Example 1.13
Calculate the total resistance of three parallel-connected resistors of 6 , 30  and
10 , respectively.

1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1 5+1+3 9
= + + = =
R 6 30 10 30 30
1 30
R= = ohms = 3.33 
1/R 9

It can be seen from this result that the equivalent resistance of any group of parallel-
connected resistors is lower than that of the lowest-valued resistor in the group. If a
number of equal-value resistors are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance
will be the value of one resistor divided by the number of resistors. For example, ten
10  resistors in parallel have an equivalent resistance of 1 .
In the example above, it has been simple to find the lowest common denominator
(30) into which all three resistor values divide exactly. Had the resistors had less
convenient values, the process could have been very difficult and it is sensible to use
a calculator for the process.
To do this, we need to identify a number of dedicated keys. These are the reciprocal
key (usually marked ‘1/x’), the accumulating memory key (usually marked ‘SUM’)
and the memory recall key (usually marked ‘RCL’). To solve Example 1.13 using a
calculator, proceed as follows. First, press the clear button (marked ‘AC’) to make
sure that the memories are empty.

Action Display shows Explanation

Enter 6 6 Enters R6
Press 1/x 0.1666666 Calculates 1/R6
Press SUM 0.1666666 Sends display to memory
Enter 30 30 Enters R30
Press 1/x 0.0333333 Calculates 1/R30
 Basic electrical units and circuits 19

Press SUM 0.0333333 Adds display to memory

Enter 10 10 Enters R10
Press 1/x 0.1 Calculates 1/R10
Press SUM 0.1 Adds display to memory
Press RCL 0.3 Recalls accumulated memory total
Press 1/x 3.3333333 Calculates 1/1/R. This is the answer.

All of this will seem very tedious at first, but after a little practice will become quick
and easy. Try not to press the wrong keys – it is the easiest known method for getting
the wrong answer!

Example 1.14
Resistors of 16 , 24  and 48 , respectively, are connected in parallel to a 230 V
supply. Calculate the total current.
There are two ways of solving the problem.

Method 1
Find the equivalent resistance and use it with the supply voltage to find the total
current.
1 1 1 1 3+2+1 6
= + + = =
R 16 24 48 48 48
48
R= ohms = 8 
6
U 230
I= = amperes = 28.75 A
R 8

Method 2
Find the current in each resistor. Add these currents to give the total current.

U 230
current in 16  resistor = = amperes = 14.38 A
R16 16
U 230
current in 24  resistor = = amperes = 9.58 A
R24 24
U 230
current in 48  resistor = = amperes = 4.79 A
R48 48
total current = 14.38 + 9.58 + 4.79 amperes = 28.75 A

There are many applications of parallel circuits. The elements of a two-bar fire are
connected in parallel, and the heat output is varied by switching one bar on or off as
required. The two circuits in a cooker grill can be connected in three ways to give
three-heat control, as indicated in the following example.
20 Electrical craft principles

Example 1.15
The grill of an electric cooker has two identical elements, each of resistance 48 ,
which are connected in parallel for ‘high’ heat and in series for ‘low’ heat. One
element only is used for ‘medium’ heat. Calculate the current drawn from a 230 V
supply for each switch position.

Low
The elements are in series (Figure 1.11(a))
Total resistance = 48 + 48 ohms = 96 

Therefore
U 230
I= = amperes = 2.4 A
R 96

Medium
One element only in use (Figure 1.11(b)). Therefore
U 230
I= = amperes = 4.79 A
R 48

High
The elements are in parallel (Figure 1.11(c))
48
Total resistance = ohms = 24 
2

(a) (b) (c)

N P N P N P

Figure 1.11 Three-heat switching circuits for Example 1.15. (a) Low; (b) medium;
and (c) high
 Basic electrical units and circuits 21

Therefore
U 230
I= = amperes = 9.58 A
R 24
If only two resistors are connected in parallel, there is a simpler way of calculat-
ing the equivalent resistance than by adding the reciprocals. It is particularly useful
where resistor values are not whole numbers, and when therefore the lowest com-
mon denominator is not easily found. It can be shown that, for two resistors in
parallel:
R1 × R2
R=
R1 + R 2
This method is often referred to as ‘product over sum’. It should be noticed that it
is only useful for TWO resistors. Although there are equivalent formulas for more
resistors, they are so complicated as to be difficult to use. However, if there are more
than two resistors, they can be considered in stages.
For example, consider that we need to find the equivalent resistance of three
resistors of 15 , 10  and 4  all connected in parallel. Take the first two resistors
and find their equivalent value, which we will call RA .
R1 × R2
RA =
R1 + R 2
10 × 15
= ohms
10 + 15
150
= ohms
25
=6
Now take this equivalent 6  resistor and put it in parallel with the third, 4 , resistor.
RA × R3
R=
RA + R 3
6×4
= ohms
6+4
24
= ohms
10
= 2.4 

1.12 Series–parallel circuits

A series–parallel circuit is one which is made up of series and parallel parts in com-
bination. The possible number of combinations is endless, but all these circuits can
22 Electrical craft principles

be solved by simplification. A number of resistors, seen to be in series or in parallel,

are replaced by one resistor which has the same effect on the circuit. This principle
is explained in Example 1.16.

Example 1.16
Two banks of resistors are connected in series. The first bank consists of two resistors
of 10  and 40  in parallel, and the second consists of three resistors, each of 12 ,
connected in parallel. What is the resistance of the combination, and what current
will be taken from a 12 V supply to which it is connected.
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 1.12(a). To solve, we must look for groups
of resistors connected in series or in parallel. The first bank consists of two resistors
in parallel, so we must find the resistance of this combination.
1 1 1 4+1 5
= + = =
R 10 40 40 40
Therefore
40
R= ohms = 8 
5
Thus the first group of resistors can be replaced by a single resistor of 8 . The second
bank consists of three 12  resistors in parallel. Its resistance can be found thus:
1 1 1 1 3
= + + =
R 12 12 12 12
Therefore
12
R= ohms = 4 
3
The second group can this be replaced by a single 4  resistor. Figure 1.12(b) shows
a simple series circuit which is the equivalent of that in Figure 1.12(a). These two

(a) 12 Ω
10 Ω
12 Ω (b)
40 Ω 8Ω 4Ω
12 Ω

12 V 12 V
(c) 12 Ω

12 V

Figure 1.12 Circuit diagrams for Example 1.16

 Basic electrical units and circuits 23

circuits are not identical, but they have the same resistance and will take the same
current when connected to a supply.
These two resistors can now be combined to a single equivalent resistor:

R = 8 + 4 ohms = 12 

This is the resistance of the complete circuit. To find the current, Ohm’s law is applied:
U 12
I= = =1A
R 12

Example 1.17
Figure 1.13 shows a resistor network connected to a 240 V supply. Ammeters and
voltmeters are to be connected to measure the current in each resistor, and the PD
across each resistor. Redraw the diagram, adding these instruments. Calculate their
readings.
Ammeters must be connected so that the current to be measured passes through
them. An ammeter must therefore be connected in series with each resistor. Voltmeters
must be connected so that the potential difference to be measured is also across their
terminals. A voltmeter could thus be connected in parallel with each resistor. However,
resistors connected in parallel clearly have the same potential difference across them,
so one voltmeter connected across such a parallel group will suffice.
Figure 1.14(a) shows the circuit with ammeters and voltmeters added. It should
be noted that voltmeter Vx is connected across the 80  resistor and ammeter A1 , as
well as across the 120  resistor and ammeter A2 . In fact, each of the ammeters has
resistance and hence a potential difference appears across it when carrying current.
Thus the voltmeter will read the sum of the PDs across a resistor and an ammeter.
In practice, the resistance of an ammeter is so small that in most cases the potential
difference across it is small and can be ignored.
To find the readings on the instruments, we must calculate the PD across each
resistor, as well as the current through each resistor. The first step is to find the
resistance of the whole circuit, and hence the total current. It is most important when
dealing with circuits of this sort to be quite clear which part of the circuit is being
considered. To this end, the three-series-connected sections of the circuit have been

30 Ω
80 Ω
17 Ω 45 Ω
120 Ω
90 Ω

240 V

Figure 1.13 Circuit for Example 1.17

24 Electrical craft principles

(a) Vz
Vx
30 Ω
80 Ω Vy A4
A1
17 Ω 45 Ω
A3 A5
120 Ω
A2 90 Ω
A6

X Y Z
240 V

(b)
Rx Ry Rz

240 V

Figure 1.14 Circuits for solution of Example 1.17

called x, y and z, respectively (Figure 1.14(a)). As in the previous example, the circuit
must now be reduced to the simple series circuit shown in Figure 1.14(b).

1 1 1 3+2 5
= + = =
Rx 80 120 240 240
Therefore
240
Rx = ohms = 48 
5
Ry = 17 
1 1 1 1 3+2+1 6
= + + = =
Rz 30 45 90 90 90
Therefore
90
Rz =
ohms = 15 
6
Total circuit resistance = Rx + Ry + Rx
= 48 + 17 + 15 ohms
= 80 
U 240
Current from supply, I = = amperes = 3 A
R 80
 Basic electrical units and circuits 25

When this current flows in the circuit of Figure 1.14(b), the voltage drop across Rx :
Ux = IRx = 3 × 48 volts = 144 V
Since voltmeter Vx is connected across a group of resistors having the same effect as
Rx , Vx will read 144 V. Similarly
Uy = IRy = 3 × 17 = 51 V
and voltmeter Vy will read 51 V. Similarly
Uz = IRz = 3 × 15 = 45 V
and voltmeter Vz will read 45 V. Note that as pointed out in Section 1.10, for a
series circuit, the sum of the PDs across the individual resistors is equal to the supply
voltage. To check this:
144 V + 51 V + 45 V = 240 V
We can now calculate the current in each resistor. The resistors in section x each have
the section PD of 144 V applied to them. Thus
Ux 144
I1 = = amperes = 1.8 A
R1 80
so, ammeter A1 reads 1.8 A;
Ux 144
I2 = = amperes = 1.2 A
R2 120
and ammeter A2 reads 1.2 A.
Note that as pointed out in Section 1.11, for a parallel circuit the sum of the
currents in individual resistors is equal to the supply current. To check this:
1.8 A + 1.2 A = 3 A
The 17  resistor in section y has 51 V applied to it.
Uy 51
I3 = = amperes = 3 A
R3 17
Thus ammeter A3 reads 3 A.
Inspection of the circuit would have confirmed this current without calculation.
Since the 17  resistor has no other resistor in parallel with it, it must carry the whole
of the circuit current.
The resistors in section z, each have 45 V applied to them. Thus
Uz 45
I4 = = amperes = 1.5 A
R4 30
and ammeter A4 reads 1.5 A;
Uz 45
I5 = = amperes = 1 A
R5 45
26 Electrical craft principles

and ammeter A5 reads 1 A; and

Uz 45
I6 = = amperes = 0.5 A
R6 90
and ammeter A6 reads 0.5 A. To check:

1.5 A + 1.0 A + 0.5 A = 3 A

Example 1.18
The circuit shown in Figure 1.15 takes a current of 6 A from the 50 V supply. Calculate
the value of resistor R4 .
There are several ways of tackling this problem. One of the simplest demonstrates
a different approach from those possible in the previous worked examples. First, mark
the currents on the diagram (this has already been done in Figure 1.15). R1 has the
50 V supply directly across it, so
U 50
I1 = = amperes = 2 A
R1 25
Since the total current is 6 A, it follows that the current I2 in the upper part of the circuit
must be equal to 6 A - 2 A, or 4 A. The PD across R2 , U2 = I2 R2 = 4 ×2.5 V = 10 V.
The parallel combination of R3 and R4 is in series with R2 across the 50 V supply.
Since the PD across R2 is 10 V, the PD across both R3 and R4 must be 50 V − 10 V,
or 40 V. Thus
U3 40
I3 = = amperes = 1.33 A
R3 30
The current I3 and I4 must summate to the current I2 , so

I4 = I2 − I3 = 4 − 1.33 amperes = 2.67 A

I4

R4
I3 I2
I2

R3 = 30 Ω R2 = 2.5 Ω
I1

R1 = 25 Ω

I
50 V

Figure 1.15 Diagram for Example 1.18

 Basic electrical units and circuits 27

Applying Ohm’s law to R4 :

U4 40
R4 = = ohms = 15 
R4 2.67
Note that in the working above, 1 13 A would have been exact whereas 1.33 A is
correct to only two decimal places. In general, however, we avoid the use of fractions
in electrical calculations because instruments are invariably scaled decimally. Thus
an ammeter could perhaps be read as 1.33 A but not as 1 13 A.
There are many circuits, often called networks, which are not series–parallel con-
nections and to which the methods indicated will not apply. These must be solved by
more advanced circuit theorems, which are beyond our scope at this stage. However,
the vast majority of the circuits encountered by the electrical craftsman of the series,
parallel or series–parallel type.

1.13 Summary of formulas for Chapter 1

Q Q
Q = It I= t=
t I
where Q = electric charge, C; I = current, A; and t = duration of current, s.
W W
W = dF d = F=
F d
where W = energy used or work done, mN or J; F = force applied, N; and
d = distance moved, m.
W W
P= W = Pt t =
t P
where P = power or rate of doing work, W.
W W
W = UQ Q = U=
U Q
where U = potential difference, V.
For resistors in series:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 · · ·
For resistors in parallel:
1 1 1 1
= + + + ···
R R1 R2 R3
where R = total circuit resistance, ; R1 , R2 , R3 etc. = individual circuit resis-
tances, .
U U
I= R= U = IR
R I
where U = applied voltage, V; I = current, A; and R = circuit resistance, .
28 Electrical craft principles

1.14 Exercises

1 A current of 10 A flows for 2 min. What charge is transferred?

2 For how long must a current of 4 mA flow so as to transfer a charge of 24 C?
3 What current must flow if 100 C is to be transferred in 8 s?
4 Briefly describe one example of each of the chemical, heating and electromag-
netic effects of an electric current.
5 A force of 450 N is required to lift a bundle of conduit. How much work is done
if it raised from the floor to the roof rack of a van 2 m high?
6 Energy of 2 J is required to close a contactor against a spring exerting a force of
80 N. How far does the contactor move?
7 When an electric motor is pushed 30 m across a level floor, 4500 J of work is
done. What force is needed to move the motor?
8 A force of 35 N is required at the end of a spanner 0.2 m long to move a nut on
a thread. How much work is done in giving the nut one complete turn?
9 A DC generator has an EMF of 200 V and provides a current of 10 A. How much
energy does it provide each minute?
10 A photocell causes a current of 4 µA in its associated circuit, and would take
1000 days to dissipate an energy of 1 mJ. What EMF does it provide?
11 An electric blanket is required to provide heat energy at the rate of 7200 J/min
from a 230 V supply. What current will flow?
12 If the total resistance of an earth fault loop is 4 , what current will flow in the
event of a phase-to-earth fault from 230 V mains?
13 During a flash test, a voltage of 20 kV is applied to a cable with an insulation
resistance of 5 M. What will be the leakage current?
14 What is the resistance of an immersion-heater element that takes 12.0 A from a
230 V supply?
15 An indicator lamp has a hot resistance of 50  and a rated current of 0.2 A. What
is its rated voltage?
16 The PD across an earth-continuity conductor of resistance 0.3  is found to be
4.5 V. What current is the conductor carrying?
17 Four resistors of values 5, 15, 20 and 40 , respectively, are connected in
series to a 230 V supply. Calculate the resulting current and the PD across each
resistor.
18 A 6  resistor and a resistor of unknown value are connected in series to a 12 V
supply, when the PD across the 6  resistor is measured as 9 V. What is the value
of the unknown resistor?
19 Calculate the resistance of the element of a soldering iron that takes 0.5 A from
230 V mains when connected to them by cables having a total resistance of 0.2 .
20 Calculate the equivalent resistance of each of the following parallel-connected
resistor banks:
(a) 2  and 6 
(b) 12 M, 6 M and 36 M; and
(c) 100 µ, 600 µ and 0.0012 
 Basic electrical units and circuits 29

21 Answer the following questions by writing down the missing word or words:
(a) A fuse protects a circuit against …… and uses the …… effect of an electric
current.
(b) The unit of quantity of electricity is called the …….
(c) Two good conductors of electrical current are …… and …….
(d) Two items of electrical equipment that use the electromagnetic effect are
…… and …….
(e) Two insulating materials used in the electrical industry are …… and …….
(f) In an electrical circuit, the electron flow is from the …… terminal to the
…… terminal.
(g) A bimetallic strip uses the …… effect of an electric current.
(h) The electron has a …… charge.
(i) An EMF of 72 V is applied to a circuit, and a current of 12 A flows. The
resistance of the circuit is …….
(j) The effective resistance of two 10  resistors connected in parallel is …….
(k) Quantity of electricity = …… × …….
(l) 0.36 amperes = …… milliamperes.
(m) 3.3 kilovolts = …… volts.
22 Three resistors are connected in parallel across a supply of unknown voltage.
Resistor A is of 7.5  and carries a current of 4 A. Resistor B is of 10 , and
resistor C is of unknown value but carries a current of 10 A. Calculate the supply
voltage, the current in resistor B and the value of resistor C.
23 Three parallel-connected busbars have resistances of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.6 , respec-
tively, and in the event of a short circuit, would be connected directly across a
400 V supply. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the combination, the total
fault current and the current in each busbar.
24 Resistors of 7, 14 and 14 , respectively, are connected in parallel. This bank is
connected in series with a 2.5  resistor across a supply of unknown PD. The
current flow in the 2.5  resistor is 2 A. What is the supply voltage?
25 (a) Show, by separate drawings for ‘high’, ‘medium’ and ‘low’ heat positions,
the connections of a series–parallel switch controlling two separate sections
of resistance wire forming the elements of a heating appliance.
(b) If the two sections of resistance wire are of equal resistance, what is the
proportional current flow and heating effect in the ‘medium’ and ‘low’
positions relative to the ‘high’ position.
26 Three resistors, having resistances of 4.8 , 8  and 12 , all connected in
parallel, are supplied from a 48 V supply. Calculate the current through each
resistor and the current taken from the supply. Calculate the effective resistance
of the group.
27 Two resistances of 4  and 12  are connected in parallel with each other. A
further resistance of 10  is connected in series with the combination. Calculate
the respective direct voltages which should be applied across the whole circuit
(a) to pass 6 A through the 10  resistance
(b) to pass 6 A through the 12  resistance.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
closed; the latter have the advantage of the cheerful radiating fire
when open.
“The Tortoise Slow-combustion Stove” (makers, Portway and Son,
Halstead, Essex) is finding a ready sale and considerable favour, as
maybe judged by the fact of its being obtainable at nearly any
ironmonger’s. This stove, as with the majority of slow-combustion
stoves, consists of an ornamental outer casing (cylindrical, square,
or hexagonal), the height being about 2½ times the diameter; this
casing is lined with fire-brick, and constitutes the fire-box; there is
an ash-box and door below, in which is fitted a ventilator or damper
to regulate the draught and speed of combustion. The fuel is
supplied through a door provided at the top, and the smoke outlet is
also placed near the top. In use, the fire-box is filled with coke and
cinders, and the draught is regulated by the ventilator; it will then
burn, and heat an apartment for many hours without attention. It is
a very useful form of stove for greenhouses (in which case it would
be fitted with a vaporising pan), halls, offices, &c., but hardly suited
for living-rooms; the fire-brick lining tempers the heat, but if in use
where children or dresses would come in contact, a guard must be
provided. Slow-combustion stoves are made in a variety of forms,
and the effect is very pleasing when externally fitted with tiled
panels, &c.
For slow-combustion stoves that are required to burn for a longer
than usual period without attention a chamber or hopper is fitted on
top to take a further charge of fuel; it is taper-sided and open at the
bottom, very much like an inverted pail, but about 2½ ft. high. It
will be readily understood that as the coke is consumed, the upper
supply gradually sinks down until the whole is consumed; this would
utterly fail with a fuel that cakes, such as soft or bituminous coal.
“Musgrave’s Patent Warming and Ventilating Stove,” Fig. 41
(Musgrave & Co., Limited, 97 New Bond Street, London), is made
upon the slow-combustion principle, to burn from 8 to 24 hours, but
is much more highly finished than the last named, and is constructed
in so many patterns and sizes as to be suitable for almost every
purpose, from small dwellings to the
largest buildings. The stove consists
of an outer casing, within which is
contained the fire-box and an air-
chamber. The latter is provided with
gills to increase the heating surface
(see Gill stoves). The smoke and heat
when leaving the top of the fire-box
is carried down a flue-way to the
bottom of the stove, and then up to
the top again into the smoke-pipe;
this flue-way is within the air-
chamber, and so utilises the major
portion of the heat passed into the
flue; the fuel to be used is coke,
which is the most suitable fuel for all
slow-combustion stoves. 41. Musgrave’s Stove.
For conservatories or where the air
requires moistening these stoves are very neatly and effectually
fitted with vaporising pans; and these stoves are also made to act as
hot-air furnaces, and in combination with hot-water-pipe heating
apparatus.
Roberts’ patent terra-cotta stoves operate also by slow combustion
and are self-acting, but possess the additional advantage of purifying
and radiating the heat by the terra-cotta, which is contained
between 2 concentric cylinders of sheet iron united at the base and
top, the outer cylinder being perforated to allow of direct radiation of
heat from the terra-cotta. The stove consists of 4 separate parts,
namely, the stove body, its top or cover, the fire-box, which can be
lifted in and out, and the stand, with draw and damper. The fire is
lighted at the top and burns downwards, the air sustaining it being
drawn upwards through the bottom of the fire-box and thence
through the fuel. The stove can be placed in any position on an iron
or stone base and connected with the nearest chimney flue by an
iron pipe provided with soot-door elbows, care being taken to form a
complete connection by abandoning any other open fire-grate in the
room and screening it off by an iron or zinc plate. They emit no
effluvium, as the terra-cotta gradually and completely absorbs all the
caloric in its permeation through the shell before it is communicated
to the outer air, which is thus warmed and diffused in a healthy
condition over the room. The top of the stove is movable, so that the
fire-box can be removed to be cleaned and recharged without
moving the stove body, and a sand groove is inserted at the top
where the cover rests, which is filled with fine dry sand to prevent
any escape of smoke.
Close-fire stoves, consisting of a strong iron fire-box, on to the
outside of which is cast a series of vertical, parallel plates or ribs, are
known as “Gill” stoves, as the plates or ribs referred to somewhat
resemble the gills of a fish. These stoves are provided with a door
for replenishing the fire, with ash-pan and ventilator below, and the
iron base upon which the stove stands is made hollow, and has a
series of holes or perforations opening between the gills, and
provision is made for connecting the base with the outer air
whenever convenient. It must now be explained that the object of
the gills is to extend the heat-giving surface of the stove. It is known
that iron is a very rapid conductor of heat, and consequently when
the iron of the fire-box becomes heated, the heat is as quickly
transferred to and felt at the extremities of the gills. It will be readily
understood that only a certain amount of heat is given off by the
fire, and the greater amount of metal it is transferred to, the lower
must be its temperature; this is the chief and real advantage, as
instead of a small volume of air being heated to a very high
temperature, off a plane surface that would possibly get red hot,
there is a larger volume of air at a lower temperature, and this has
the further decided advantage that the air does not become
unpleasantly dry, and the particles of dust, &c., in the air do not get
scorched and burnt, and cause the unpleasantness commonly known
as “burning the air.”
A further advantage possessed by these stoves is that they are not
so much a source of danger, as the size of the gills is so
proportioned to the size of the fire-box, that in ordinary use they
cannot become excessively hot, and this is especially desirable
where children or ladies’ dresses, &c., might come in contact.
These stoves can be obtained at any ironmonger’s or stove
maker’s. A good form is that made by the London Warming and
Ventilating Co., 14 Great Winchester Street, London, and is called
the “Gurney” stove (Fig. 42). This is circular or cylindrical in form,
with a dome top, and the gills, which are perpendicular, extend
around the stove. A novel feature with this stove is that it is provided
with a water-pan or trough carried round the base of the gills; when
this pan is charged, the lower ends of the gills are immersed, and
the heat that is conducted there causes the water to slowly
evaporate. The advantage of a vaporising pan is this: before being
warmed by an ordinary stove, fresh air holds a certain and proper
amount of moisture, but as it becomes heated by such a stove the
temperature is raised without proportionately increasing the
moisture, and this is apt to make it unpleasantly dry, particularly to
those suffering from asthma or any bronchial affection. The reverse
is the case when the air becomes heated naturally (except when the
wind is in the east); the proper proportion of moisture increases as
the temperature rises; for instance, the atmosphere at 80° F. would
contain about four times as much moisture as when at 32° F. The
principle of the Gurney stove is such that the natural degree of
moisture is always maintained in the heated air. The greater
proportion of modern close fire-stoves and furnaces have gills
applied in some form or other.
It might be mentioned that 13 Gurney stoves have effectually
coped with the problem “How to heat St. Paul’s.”
 42. Gurney Stove. 43. Convoluted Stove.

Another good form is “Constantine’s Convoluted Stove” (J.

Constantine and Son, 23 Oxford Street, Manchester), Fig. 43.
Instead of solid gills, there are a series of perpendicular convolutions
which double the heating surface, and the makers’ claim to greater
efficiency is no doubt correct. This stove, however, should be classed
with hot-air furnaces, as it is not made in small sizes for direct
heating; but for warming large buildings, churches, &c., for heating
laundry drying-rooms, Turkish baths, &c., it is to be highly
recommended.
The German principle, which might advantageously be adopted to
a greater extent in England, is to build a fire-brick structure with the
furnace at the base and the flue winding from side to side 3 or 4
times, and terminating at the top into an ordinary brick chimney;
this structure projects into the apartment and is covered with
porcelain ware, and the appearance often exhibits great taste and
skill, as it will be understood that the structure is not rigidly square,
but is often very beautiful from an architectural point of view. The
good effect experienced is that after 3 or 4 hours’ firing, the mass of
brickwork becomes thoroughly heated and the fire is permitted to go
out; communication with the chimney is stopped by means of a
damper, and every confidence can then be placed in the stove giving
out abundance of warmth for the remainder of the day, as the
brickwork takes hours to become moderately cool, and the whole of
the heat it contains must be diffused into the apartment. It will be
noticed that a minimum of heat is lost by this arrangement, and the
result is very satisfactory from an economical standing; but it has
not the cheerful appearance of our open fires, and efficient
ventilation is required. This plan can, however, be satisfactorily
adopted for halls or cold situations; in the former it has the further
advantage in most instances of warming the stairways and landings
in the upper part of the house by the ascension of the heated air.
Fire-brick stoves are made by Doulton & Co., Lambeth, London, and
are finished in their majolica and Doulton ware; it is needless to add,
these wares give the stoves a very handsome appearance.
Hot-air Furnace.—The close stove is really a hot-air furnace, but it
is restricted to heating the air in the room. Other hot-air furnaces
are designed to obtain a supply of fresh air and heat it before
passing it into the room. The heated air from a fireplace is available
to the apartment for only about 12 per cent. of the total amount of
heat produced; all the rest passes up the chimney. The close stove,
on the contrary, utilises 85-90 per cent. of the heat produced, and
loses through the smoke-pipe only about as much as the open
fireplace saves—10-15 per cent. And herein lies the striking
difference between the relative healthiness of the atmosphere
heated by a close stove and an open fireplace. The amount of air
which hourly passes through a close stove, heated with a brisk fire,
is, on an average, equal to only about 1/10 the capacity of the room
warmed, and consequently such stove requires, if unaided, 10 hours
to effect a change of the atmosphere in every such apartment. Thus
stagnant and heated, the air becomes filled with the impurities of
respiration and cutaneous transpiration.
 Moisture, too, is an important consideration. The atmosphere,
whether within doors or without, can only contain a certain
proportion of moisture to each cub. ft., and no more, according to
temperature. At 80° F. it is capable of containing 5 times as much as
at 32° F. Hence, an atmosphere at 32° F., with its requisite supply of
moisture, introduced into a confined space and heated up to 80° F.,
has its capacity for moisture so increased as to dry and wither
everything with which it comes in contact; furniture cracks and
warps, seams open in the moulding, wainscoting, and doors; plants
die; ophthalmia, catarrh, and bronchitis are common family
complaints, and consumption is not infrequent. But this condition of
house air is not peculiar to stove-heat. It is equally true of any
overheated and confined atmosphere. The chief difference is, that
warming the air by means of a close stove is more quickly
accomplished and more easily kept up than by any other means.
Sometimes, by the scorching of dust afloat in the atmosphere, an
unpleasant odour is evolved which is erroneously supposed to be a
special indication of impurity, caused by the burning air. It is an
indication of excessive heat of the stove. But the air cannot be said
to burn in any true sense of the word, for it continues to possess its
due proportion of elementary constituents. Such is the close stove
and its dangers, under the most unfavourable circumstances.
The essentials for healthy stove-heat are brick-lined fire-chamber,
ventilating or exhaust-flue for foul air, means for supplying moisture,
and provision for fresh-air supply. A brick lining is requisite for the
double purpose of preventing overheating, and for retaining heat in
the stove. For the supply of moisture the means are simple and easy
of control, but often inadequate. An efficient foul-air shaft may be
fitted to the commonest of close stoves by simply enclosing the
smoke-pipe in a jacket—that is, in a pipe of 2 or 3 in. greater
diameter. This should be braced round the smoke-pipe, and left open
at the end next the stove. At its entry into the chimney, or in its
passage through the roof of a car, as the case may be, a perforated
collar should separate it from the smoke-pipe. For stoves with a
short horizontal smoke-pipe, passing through a fire-board, the latter
should always be raised about 3 in. from the floor. A smoke-pipe
thus jacketed, or fire-board so raised at the bottom, affords ample
provision for the escape of foul air.
Hot-air furnaces are simply enclosed stoves placed outside the
apartments to be warmed, and usually in cellars or basements of the
buildings in which they are used. The manner of warming is virtually
the same as by indirect steam heat—by the passage of air over the
surface of the heated furnace or steam-heated pipes, as the case
may be, through flues or pipes provided with registers. The most
essential condition of satisfactory warming by a hot-air furnace is a
good chimney-draught, which should always be stronger than that of
the hot-air pipes through which the warmed air is conveyed into the
rooms, and this can be measured by the force with which it passes
through the registers. A chimney-draught thus regulated effectively
removes all emanations; for, if the chimney-draught exceeds that of
the hot-air pipes, all the gaseous emanations from the inside of the
furnace, and if it have crevices, or is of cast iron and overheated, all
around it on the outside will be drawn into the chimney. Closely
connected with this requirement for the chimney-draught is the
regulating apparatus for governing the combustion of fuel—the
draught of the furnace. This should all be below the grate; there
should be no dampers in the smoke-pipe or chimney, and all joints
below and about the grate should be air-tight. The fire-pot should be
lined with brick and entirely within the surface, but separate from it,
so that the fresh air to be warmed cannot come in contact with the
fuel-chamber.
An excellent plan for economising a good portion of the waste
heat from a kitchen range is to have (previous to the range being
fixed, or after, in some instances) a sheet-iron box or chamber made
to fit at the back of the oven flues or wherever the most intense
heat is felt. This box, which we may call an air-chamber, should be
connected with the outer air, and a pipe for the warm air carried
from the top of the box to the part where warmth is required; the
heat from the range warms the air in the box and it ascends in
exactly the same manner and upon the same principle as a hot-air
furnace, but great care must be exercised to see that this box and all
connections are made air-tight, or this plan will prove an unusually
speedy means of indicating what is being cooked for dinner.
The Americans adopt what is called the “drum” principle of
heating by means of a furnace; they not only encase the stove with
an air-chamber, but the smoke-pipe is surrounded with a larger pipe
encasing it all the way up; the space between the smoke-pipe and
the outer pipe is thus an air-chamber and has free connection with
the furnace air-chamber, but of course is closed at top; from the
chamber surrounding the smoke-pipe, branch pipes are taken to the
apartments, terminating in perforated cylindrical “drums,” from
which the heated air is emitted.
It should go without saying that the air which passes from
furnaces into living-rooms should always be taken from out of doors,
and be conveyed in perfectly clean air-tight shafts to and around the
base of the furnace. Preferably, the inlet of the shaft, or cold-air box,
should be carried down and curved at a level (of its upper surface)
with the bottom, and full width of the furnace. Thus applied, the air
is equally distributed for warming and ascent through the hot-air
pipes to the apartments to be warmed. On the outside the cold-air
shaft should be turned up several feet from the surface of the
ground, and its mouth protected from dust by an air-strainer. A
simple but effectual way is to cover the mouth with wire cloth, and
over this to lay a piece of loose cotton wadding. This may be kept in
place with a weight made of a few crossings of heavy wire, and it
should be changed every few months. And here, too, outside the
house, should be placed the diaphragm for regulating the amount of
cold-air supply, and not, as commonly, in the cellar.
As the best means of regulating the temperature and purity of the
atmosphere from hot-air furnaces, it is necessary to provide
sufficiently large channels for both the inlet of fresh air and its
distribution through the hot-air pipes. The area of the smallest part
of the inlet (or inlets, for it is sometimes better to have more than
one) should be about ⅙ sq. ft. for every lb. of coal estimated to be
burnt hourly in cold weather; and to prevent, in a measure, the
inconvenience of one hot-air pipe drawing from another, the
collective area of the hot-air pipes should not be more than ⅙
greater than the area of the cold-air inlet. These proportions will
admit the hot air at a temperature of about 120° F. when at zero
outside, and the velocity through the register will not exceed 5 ft.
per second.
A large heating surface of the furnace is a well-recognised
condition of both economy and efficiency. As a rule, there should be
10 sq. ft. of heating surface to every lb. of coal consumed per hour,
when in active combustion; and the grate area should be about 1/50
of that of the heating surface. For the deficiency of heat, or the
failure of some of the hot-air pipes of hot-air furnaces in certain
winds and weathers in large houses or specially exposed rooms, the
best addendum is an open fire-grate. With this provision in northerly
rooms, to be used occasionally, hot-air furnaces may be made to
produce all the advantages of steam heat in even the largest
dwelling-houses.
Boyle’s system of warming fresh air is
suitable where hot air, water, or steam
pipes are not available. The
arrangement (Fig. 44) consists of a
copper or iron pipe a about 1½ in. diam.
placed in an inlet tube b, preferably of
the form of a bracket. This pipe is not
vertical, as in the so-called Tobin’s
shafts, but of zigzag shape, crossing and
recrossing the tube from top to bottom,
and so causing the incoming air to
repeatedly impinge in its passage
through the tube. At the bottom of the
44. Boyle’s Warm-air Stove.
tube an air-tight chamber, so far as the
interior of the tube is concerned, is fixed, in which a Bunsen gas-
burner c is placed, the flame of which plays up into one of the lower
ends of the pipe, the upper portion being about 5 ft. 9 in. from the
floor. The other lower end of the pipe either dips into a condensation
box d in the bottom of the tube or is continued into an existing flue
or extraction shaft. If the pipe terminates in a box, the vapour is
condensed there and carried off through the outside wall by means
of a small pipe. At the bottom of the box is placed some loose
charcoal, which needs renewing at intervals. This charcoal absorbs
any products of combustion which have a tendency to rise. The heat
thus passes through the entire length of the pipe, and warms the air
as it travels through the tube to the room or hall as required.
Heating by gas is now growing in favour, and under favourable
circumstances is to be recommended. There are two general
methods adopted; firstly, by gas fires, which are asbestos or metal
made incandescent by gas heat; these are made either portable, or
by fitting a specially made burner to an existing fireplace, and filling
the grate with Lumb asbestos (which is made for the purpose, and
when heated has the appearance of glowing coals); and secondly, by
gas stoves acting upon a similar principle to a hot-air coal stove. The
former are now made in great variety; they chiefly take the form of
an ornamental iron frame, in the centre of which is fitted a fire-brick
thickly imbedded in front with asbestos fibre; the burner beneath
comes immediately under the front of the fire-brick, and when the
gas is ignited, the asbestos at once becomes incandescent, making it
of cheerful and fire-like appearance, and the fire-brick in a few
minutes becomes highly heated, radiating its warmth into the room.
This description of stove and also the burner for existing fireplaces
can be obtained at any ironmongers or gas-fitters.
In nearly all gas fires and stoves the gas is burnt with an
admixture of air (atmospheric gas, 1 of gas and 2 of air), by means
of an atmospheric burner; this is not only a source of economy, but
atmospheric gas has the very great advantage of being smokeless;
but for this, a gas fire would be an impossibility; it must, however,
be borne in mind that although smokeless this gas gives off products
of combustion (carbonic acid, watery vapour, &c.), which must be
carried away by a flue or other means. The portable stoves are
always provided with a nozzle for attaching a smoke-pipe. There is
still a doubt as to which is most economical, coal or gas: we cannot
do better than quote the words of a well-known gas-stove maker,
Chas. Wilson, of Leeds. He says, speaking of heating by gas: “It is
not cheaper than coal, taking fuel for fuel and continually used,
unless, as in the case of offices where labour has to be employed to
light fires, clean grates, &c.; but it is cheaper than coal if
occasionally used, as in the case of bedrooms, or sitting-rooms used
by visitors, or rooms used by children for music, &c.; for bedrooms it
is especially adapted for use for an hour or two at night or in the
morning or for giving an unvarying heat all night. It is preferable in
the matter of cleanliness, and a true solution of the smoke-
abatement problem” (probably a coal-stove manufacturer would
speak as much in favour of fire-grates).
It should be seen when purchasing gas fires that they have silent
burners, as some make an objectionable hissing noise when in use.
“The Calorigen” Gas Hot-air Stove, Fig. 45
(Farwig & Co., 36 Queen Street, Cheapside,
London), consists of an outer sheet-iron
casing with a burner at the base inside, and
proper accommodation for exit of products of
combustion. A coil of good-sized sheet-iron
pipe is affixed within the stove; the lower end
of the coil is connected with the outer air and
the upper end opens into the apartment, thus 45. Calorigen Stove.
producing a free inflow of fresh air at any
temperature desired, from 60° to 200° F. or higher at will. The chief
advantage of a gas stove is the immediate lighting and
extinguishing, and needing no attention.
Another modern and very useful application of gas as a heating
medium is the “Geyser” or rapid water heater for the supply of hot
or boiling water to baths, lavatories, &c., or for business purposes
where it is not convenient or desirable to fit up a circulating boiler
(see hot-water apparatus). These heaters can be obtained from any
ironmonger’s or gasfitter’s. The principle is somewhat different in the
various makes, but it all results in the same thing, which is to bring a
small volume of water in contact with a large heating surface. The
apparatus is generally cylindrical in form. A cock is at one side for
attaching the cold supply, and the heated water flows out from a
spout at the other side; there is also a cock for attaching the gas
supply; they are made in various sizes to supply and fill a bath three
parts full of water at 100° F. in 5, 10 or 15 minutes, or to boil water
at the rate of ½, 1 or 2 gal. per minute. These are extremely useful
appliances where gas is available, being ready for use at a moment’s
notice, and the water can be had at any temperature at will; with a
modern and properly constructed “Geyser” the water is quite
suitable for drinking purposes.
The Marsh-Greenall Gas Heating Stove, Fig. 46 (makers, Greenall
and Company, 120 Portland Street, Manchester), is both
regenerative and radiating, the heat developed and utilised per foot
of gas by this system being far greater than by the ordinary
atmospheric stoves. Ordinary luminous flames are used, these being
fed by superheated air. There is no smell and no danger “of lighting
back.” The great heat obtained by this system is radiated from a
polished reflector. The consumption of gas is only 12 ft. per hour.
See Gas Heating also, p. 994.
 46. Marsh-Greenall Gas Stove. 47. Eureka Oil Stove.

Oil Stoves.—Warming stoves which burn oil fuel are to be

commended for many purposes, but are not generally considered
suitable for living rooms—bedrooms, for instance—unless the air is
continually changed by open doors, &c., as there is a noticeable
odour from the burning oil. Rippengille’s are considered the best,
and are obtainable at almost any oil, lamp, or ironmonger’s store, or
at the chief retail agents, the Holborn Lamp Co., 118 Holborn,
London. Fig. 47 is their “Eureka” cheerful reflector stove, suitable for
office or shop use. These stoves are adapted for warming
conservatories where a high temperature is not required, as a very
small stove will suffice to keep the frost out; they are also suitable
for servants’ bedrooms and attics where no fireplaces exist. They are
made with metal (unbreakable) oil containers, which slide out for
lighting, trimming, &c., and they burn the ordinary petroleum oil; it
naturally follows that the better and more refined oils give the best
results with these stoves, with less liability of smell.
 Flues.—It will not be out of place to give a short treatise upon
flues, as the flues in a residence govern the efficiency of the stoves
and the comfort of the whole household.
There is a common error in blaming the flue for all faults. It can
be asserted that half the smoky chimneys are in no way the fault of
the flue at all, and when a smoky chimney does exist, nearly every
one flies to the chimney top with some device to govern the wind,
and this in very many cases is a total failure.
Flues are now generally constructed of two sizes, 9 in. and 14 in.
A 7 in. flue would be sufficient for most warming stoves, but it has
to be borne in mind that the accumulation of soot quickly diminishes
the size internally, so that they are now never built less than 9 in.
internal diameter. In building a residence, the following plan is often
adopted when cheapness is not the primary object, that is, to build
the usual square brick chimney, and within this to carry up a 9 in.
flue of glazed earthenware pipe (drain pipe), and the space outside
this pipe filled with concrete: this pipe flue is so easily cleaned and is
much less quickly fouled, and improves the draught.
The very general cause of smoky chimneys is that the chimney top
is below the level of some adjacent building, tree, or other object
that obstructs the free passage of the wind. In this instance the
trouble is only experienced when the wind is in certain quarters, and
sometimes this can be cured by a wind-guard or cowl (no particular
make can be recommended, as their efficiency differs under different
circumstances); but the only reliable remedy is to raise the chimney
either by pipe or brickwork to the required height. The manner in
which the annoyance is brought about is, that when the wind passes
over the chimney top its progress is arrested by the higher object,
and it may be said to rebound (the action is rarely quite alike in any
two instances), causing either a portion of the gust to pass a short
way down the chimney or to momentarily stop the up draught; this
will be noticed by the gusts of smoke that come from the stove into
the room.
 When the smoke slowly oozes into the room, it is caused by
sluggish draught, or often by the construction of the grate. If the
grate has considerable distance between the fire-bars and the
opening into the chimney above, it permits the heavy cold air to
accumulate and obstruct the heated up-flow from the fire; this
generally is only noticeable when the fire is first lighted or heavily
fed. It is exactly the same result as is experienced with the old-
fashioned open kitchen ranges, which nearly always require a sheet
of metal or “blower” across the opening to prevent their smoking.
The above-mentioned grates require a strong draught to work them
perfectly; or if a strong draught does not exist, a small piece of
sheet-metal should be provided to fit over the open space above the
front bars when necessary to establish the fire, as explained with the
“Eagle” grate.
Sluggish draughts are from a variety of causes, among which
might be named, insufficient height of chimney; chimneys which by
any cause may become damp or cold, or lose their heat rapidly;
leakages, holes or fissures, and a variety of causes too numerous to
mention here. The interior surface of a chimney should be as
smooth as possible, and should be swept at regular and moderately
frequent intervals, otherwise the draught will be reduced.
Every fireplace should have a distinct and separate flue;
sometimes two fireplaces can be successfully worked into one
chimney, but provision must be made for tightly closing off either
one when not in use.
Hot Water.—Heating by means of the circulation of hot water has
been in vogue many years, but has not found favour for warming
living-rooms and apartments, owing chiefly to the want of the air of
comfort, and the warmth is not quite so agreeable as that radiated
from an open fire; but this mode of heating is especially well
adapted for conservatories, cold halls, public buildings, &c., as the
heat-giving surface can be extended wherever desired, and so heat
the place equally throughout; and upon the low-pressure system
there is no danger, as the water cannot heat higher than boiling-
point, 212° F., an advantage that the hot-air system does not
possess. The principle and cause of hot-water circulation will be
found fully described under hot-water apparatus; but in this
arrangement there are no draw-off taps, the services being for
circulating only. For small purposes the apparatus can be attached to
the ordinary bath boiler of the kitchen range; but there is a serious
disadvantage in this when the heat is for conservatories or where
warmth is particularly required at night, as that is the time when the
kitchen fire is not in use. For larger purposes, independent boilers
are used, varying in size according to the requirements. Portable
boilers with fire-box, &c., complete, can be obtained almost
anywhere, and most slow-combustion stoves (the “Tortoise,” for
instance) can be fitted with boilers for this purpose. It will be
understood that these boilers do not require cleaning out like
kitchen-range boilers, as there is no appreciable deposit, the same
water being heated day after day and only losing say a quart per
month by evaporation.
The arrangement for a hall with an independent boiler is to have
several horizontal pipes suitably fixed one above the other and
known as a “coil,” from which the heat is radiated, and this coil is
connected by a “flow” and “return” pipe with the boiler: a small
cistern of about 2 gallons capacity is connected with, and fixed a
little above the level of the highest part of the coil in some
convenient place. The apparatus is charged through this cistern, and
a small quantity of water is added thereto periodically to make good
loss by evaporation and to keep the coil full; these coils are usually
covered with an iron grated casing, with a metal, slate, or marble
top, which is both a useful and ornamental adjunct to the hall.
For conservatories the coil is not used, the radiating pipes being
run along the wall near the ground; a portion of the pipe has a
shallow open trough cast upon it, and this is filled with water. As the
apparatus becomes heated, evaporation takes place, and this
saturates the air, moisture being essential for this purpose.
 For public buildings, &c., coils are sometimes used; but more often
the pipes are run in grated-topped channels just beneath the floor,
the grating being level with the floor-boards; they are taken around
or across the building, as is most desirable to obtain an equable
heat.
The radiating pipes, whether single or forming coils, are generally
4 in. diameter, of cast iron (cast iron being a better conductor or
dissipator than wrought), and at the highest point m the apparatus a
hole is drilled and a small cock is inserted; this cock is opened when
charging, to allow of the free escape of the air in the pipes, and it is
sometimes of service to discharge any steam that is generated. The
pipes are made with a socket at one end, into which the plain end of
the next pipe is inserted and packed with yarn, &c.; but a modern
and rapid method of joining the pipes is that patented and
manufactured by Jones and Attwood, of Stourbridge; this joint
consists of two flanges with indiarubber packing between, which
makes a perfectly secure joint by tightening the flanges together; in
this method the ends of the pipes are of equal size.
As explained, the principle of circulation is exactly the same in this
as in a domestic hot-water supply apparatus. The most popular form
is that known as the Desideratum. The makers have also introduced
a singularly useful tool for cutting all pipes from 2 to 13 in. diameter.
High-pressure Heating, or which might be correctly termed steam
heating, consists of piping wholly, the pipe is smaller and of wrought
iron unusually strong, and a coil of it placed within the fire-box fulfils
the duty of a boiler (no boiler or large container can be used on
account of high pressure); from the furnace coil the pipe is carried
wherever required, a small quantity of water is put within the
apparatus and the air is driven out, after which the apparatus is
sealed or closed air and steam tight. When the heat is applied, the
water quickly forms steam, which at once finds its way throughout
the apparatus and heats it to a much higher temperature than
boiling water; and there is comparatively no danger whatever
pressure is exerted, as at the worst the pipe only splits, and no
disastrous explosion can occur; but this mode of heating cannot be
recommended, as it rarely works for any length of time without
requiring attention or repairs.
Bacon’s system of heating by water under pressure (J. L. Bacon &
Co., 34 Upper Gloucester Place, London, N.W.) is very good, as the
pressure is regulated by a valve, and the temperature and pressure
never become excessive. This system is worked by small, strong
wrought-iron pipes, and the apparatus is wholly filled with water.
The great convenience of the small-pipe system recommends it for
all purposes, as it can be carried into almost inaccessible places, and
can be utilised for warming air, as it passes through inlet ventilators,
and for small drying and airing closets, towel dryers, and for
numberless small but exceedingly convenient purposes which large
cast-iron pipes would be very unsuited for; and the advocates of this
system contend that as much heat is radiated from their small pipes
as from the ordinary large ones, as the former are heated to a much
higher temperature than the latter: in Bacon’s system the highest
limit is about 300° F.
The subject of a supply of hot water for baths and other purposes
will be discussed in the chapter dealing with the Bath-room. See also
p. 995.
Steam Heat.—Steam heat may well be compared with stove and
furnace heat. Stove heat corresponds to direct radiation by steam,
and furnace heat to indirect. The supply of fresh air from the outside
to and over the hot-air furnace, and through hot-air flue into the
rooms through registers, is virtually the same as when it is conveyed
by means of steam-heated flues in the walls. Exhaust flues, for
getting rid of foul air, are equally essential. The stove, as
representing direct radiation in the same manner as the steam coil,
or plate, in the room, has the advantage over the latter of some
exhaust of foul air, however little, even when the smoke-pipe is not
jacketed, for the steam heat has none. In comparison with open-
stove heat, steam heat is at still greater disadvantage; for open
stoves supply all the qualities of complete radiation—the introduction
of fresh air and the escape of foul—to a degree wholly unattainable
by steam heat, whether direct or indirect, or by hot-air furnaces,
which always require special provision for the escape of foul air.
The advantage of stove and furnace heat over steam may be
summed up thus:—It is more economical, more uniform, more easy
of management, more suitable for small areas to be warmed, and is
free from the noises and dangers of steam. Irregularities of the fire
in steam heating are a constant source of inconvenience, and
sometimes of danger. The going down of the fire during the night-
time, or its neglect for a few hours at any time, is followed by
condensation of the steam. On the addition of fuel and increase of
heat, steam again flows quickly into the pipes where a partial
vacuum has formed, and here, on coming in contact with the
condensed water, it drives the water violently, and creates such
shocks as sometimes occasion explosions; or, at least, produces very
disagreeable noises and general uneasiness, and frequently causes
cracks and leaks. Hence direct steam heat, which for warming
purposes alone is altogether superior to indirect, has been well-nigh
abandoned. Indirect steam heat places the leaks out of sight, but
they commonly lead to mischief, and require special and expensive
provision for access and repair.
Chemical Heaters.—Many salts in solution are capable of
absorbing a considerable amount of heat and slowly giving it off as
they resume a crystalline state. That most generally used is soda
acetate, but an improvement consists in mixing 1 lb. of soda acetate
with 10 lb. of soda hyposulphite, the latter assisting the melting of
the mass and retarding crystallisation. The mode of applying this
principle is to nearly fill a sheet copper or other metallic vessel, such
as a foot-warmer, with the solution, and seal it up. When required
for warming purposes, the vessel is placed in boiling or hot water till
the contents are quite fluid, after which it may be used as a source
of heat for 12-15 hours. Obviously the vessel may be placed in an
ornamental structure resembling a stove, or used as a foot-warmer,
or a muff-warmer, and in many other ways where fire is
inadmissible.
 Hints on Fuel, &c.—Suggestions for materials which may be used
to eke out a scanty supply of coal cannot fail to be useful. One plan
consists in well bedding lumps of chalk under small coal. This gives a
long-lasting fire, but is apt to emit an unpleasant odour. Another
plan is to make clay fire-balls, using common clay, coal dust and
cinders with sand, in about the following proportions:—1 cwt. coal
dust, 2 cwt. sand, 1½ cwt. clay, well mixing the ingredients, shaping
into fist-like lumps, and drying over night before the fire; to be put
on when the surface of the fire is clear.
Some further hints for reviving fires will be found under the Sick-
room.

Lighting.—The illumination of a dwelling is a most important

consideration, as regards comfort and health.
Daylight.—Natural lighting is provided for by windows. The
window area of a room should be well proportioned. In dwelling-
rooms, it may amount to half the area of the external wall containing
the windows; in churches, &c., ⅓ will suffice. Too great a window
area is objectionable, as it considerably lowers the interior
temperature in winter, unless very thick glass and double windows
are provided. When windows become steamed or covered with
condensed moisture in frosty weather, this can be cured by applying
a very thin coat of glycerine on both sides of the glass. When direct
daylight cannot be got, great advantage may be derived from using
polished metallic reflectors.
Luminous Paints.—Several bodies possess the property of
absorbing a certain amount of light and emitting it slowly. The most
important of these is calcium sulphide. This property has been
utilised by mixing the mineral with paint as a covering for surfaces
where the light is required. The illumination, however, is very feeble.
Candles.—Candles will long retain a place in domestic lighting
from their safety and convenience for carrying about. At the same
time they are an expensive source of light, and not very powerful. It
may here be mentioned that there is a right and a wrong way of
blowing out a candle. If the candle is held on a level with the
blower’s mouth, or blown down upon, as usual, as it stands on a
shelf or table, the wick will smoulder and smoke till the room is filled
with its disagreeable smell, and the wick burned away so that it can
be lit next time with difficulty. If the candlestick is held well above
the blower’s head, and the flame blown out from below, the ignited
wick will almost immediately be extinguished, and no trouble will be
found in re-lighting the candle. Avoid cheap candles; they burn
rapidly to waste and play havoc with clothes and furniture by
“dropping.” The best form of candlestick yet introduced is the “silver
torch,” made by Wm. Nunn & Co., 204 St. George Street, London, E.
By this the candle is converted into a lamp, with or without a globe
as desired; the candle is completely consumed, leaving no ends, and
guttering and dropping are quite prevented. Nightlights should
always be burned under a glass shade, such as Clarke’s.
Oil Lamps.—All lamps intended for burning animal, vegetable, or
mineral oils as illuminants should have the following objects in view:
—To supply oil regularly to the wick; to apportion the supply of air to
the description and quantity of oil to be burnt; to provide simple
means for regulating the height of the wick, and consequently, the
flame; and finally, to place the burning portion of the lamp in such a
position as not to be obscured by the reservoir and other portions.
The oldest lamps, as the antique Etruscan, and the cruisie of
Scotland, were on the suction principle, and the wick depended for
its supply upon its own capillary action. As the level of the oil was
constantly varying, so the light varied also, and the first attempts of
inventors were directed to maintaining an equal level of oil. The bird-
fountain and hydrostatic reservoirs partly attained this end, and the
Carcel and Moderator systems were perfect of their class,
mechanical or pressure lamps. It is evident that suction lamps
depend for their efficacy upon the gravity of the combustible. A spirit
lamp, with a good wick, will burn very well, though the wick be
several inches above the liquid. With liquids volatilising at low
temperatures, there is always a danger of the formation of explosive
mixtures.
 In the Silber lamp the burner is a simple aggregation of concentric
tubes. The use of these, especially of the innermost, bell-mouthed
pipes, becomes very apparent in the lighted lamp. Remove the
interior tube, and immediately the flame lengthens and darkens,
wavers and smokes. The current of air which is, by this internal
conduit, directed into the interior flame surface, is the essential
principle of Silber’s invention. The wick is contained in a metal case,
surrounded by an air-jacket, which passes down the entire length of
the lamp, leaving a small aperture at the base, through which the oil
flows from the outer reservoir to the wick chamber. Thus, by the
interposition of an atmospheric medium, the bulk of the oil is
maintained throughout at a low temperature; 2 concentric bell-
mouthed tubes pass down the interior of the wick case, and
communicate with the air at the base of the lamp, which is
perforated for the purpose; 2 cones, perforated, the inner and
smaller throughout, the largest only at the base, surround the wick,
and heat the air in its passage through the holes to the flame. The
effect of these appliances is, firstly, by the insulation of the outer
reservoir, to avoid all danger of vaporisation of the oil, till actually in
contact with the wick. As it is drawn nearer and nearer the seat of
combustion, the hot metal wick-holder heats, and ultimately
vaporises the luminant, so that at the opening of the wick tube
concentrically with the air conduits—all of which are exceedingly hot
—a perfect mixture of vapour and hot air is formed, and burned. An
all-important feature is the shape and position of the chimney, which
influences the flame to the extent of quadrupling its brilliancy if
properly adjusted. (Field, Cantor Lecture.)
The many fires and fatal
accidents arising from
explosions of mineral oil lamps
has drawn official attention to
the subject of rendering them
safe. Sir F. Abel has stated that
all channels of communication
between the burner and the
reservoir of mineral oil lamps 48. Hinks’s Safety Lamp.
should be protected on the
principle of the miners’ safety lamp; he added that a simple
arrangement which effected the desired object “with perfect safety”
was to attach to the bottom of the burner a cylinder of wire gauze of
the requisite fineness, which prevented the transmission of fire from
the lamp flame to the air-space of the reservoir. Acting upon this
suggestion, Hinks and Son, 60 Holborn Viaduct, have introduced a
wire-gauze cylinder for use with their duplex lamps, which renders
them absolutely safe. Another advantage with their lamps is the
ease with which they are lit and extinguished, as shown in Fig. 48:
for lighting, a turn of the thumb-key a gently raises the cone, globe,
and chimney, giving free access to the wicks; to extinguish them, it
is only necessary to press the lever b.
The Defries safety lamp (Defries Safety Lamp and Oil Co., 43
Holborn Viaduct) is attracting much notice, on account of economy,
safety, and illuminating power. The construction of the lamp is such
that neither ignition of the vapour, nor outflow of the oil in the event
of the lamp being overturned, can occur. Moreover, the oil reservoir,
being of metal, is not liable to fracture. It therefore follows that the
risks attaching to the employment of mineral oils as illuminating
agents in lamps of the ordinary description are non-existent in this
lamp. The light emitted is remarkably white, the flame is perfectly
steady, and the combustion is effected without the production of the
slightest odour or smoke. Results of photometric tests by Prof.
Boverton Redwood were more favourable than any he had hitherto
obtained with mineral oil lamps of other forms. The illuminating
power is, for the size of the burner, in each case very high, while the
consumption of oil per candle light per hour is remarkably small. The
products of combustion are odourless, even when the normal size of
the flame is much reduced by lowering the wick. Any mineral oil, as
well as the Defries safety oil, can be used in these lamps. This is
quite odourless when spilled or heated, requires a temperature of
308° F. (or 96° F. above the boiling point of water) for its ignition,
and does not vaporise below 270° F. Such oil is no more inflammable
than colza oil, and is moreover free from the risk of spontaneous
combustion. Its price is 1s. 6d. per gal. The absolute necessity for
using, in any and every lamp, the most refined and safest grades of
mineral oil cannot be too seriously insisted upon, Cheap low oils
mean personal risk.
Gas.—Though gas is long since established as one of the most
successful and general illuminants, it is surprising what ignorance
exists as to the simple rules which should govern its use.
This section is not intended for the guidance of the professional
gasfitter, yet some of the points to be noticed are really within his
province, and are mentioned because the householder should be in
possession of such knowledge as will enable him to discover or
prevent faulty work.
Coal gas, being much lighter than air, flows with greatest velocity
in the upper floors of houses; hence the supply pipe may diminish in
size as it rises, say from 1¼ in. at the basement to ¾ in. on the 3rd
floor. At a point near the commencement of the supply pipe it should
be provided with a “siphon,” which is simply a short length of pipe
joined at right angles in a perpendicular position and closed at the
lower end by a plug screwed in. As all gas-tubes should be fixed
with a small rise, this siphon will collect the condensed liquids, which
may be drawn off occasionally by unscrewing the plug end. When
the lights flicker, it shows there is water in the pipes: the siphon
prevents this. The number of gas-burners requisite for lighting a
church or other large building may be computed thus. Take the area
of the floor in ft. and divide by 40, will give the number of fish-tail
burners to be distributed according to circumstances. Example: a
church 120 ft. long by 60 ft. wide, contains 7200 ft. area; divided by
40, gives 180 burners required for the same. Burning gas without a
ventilator or pipe to carry off the effluvia, is as barbarous as making
a fire in a room without a chimney to carry off the smoke. If a pipe
of 2 in. diameter were fixed between the joists, with a funnel elbow
over the gaselier, and the other end carried into the chimney, it
would be a general ventilator. Of course, an open ornamental rosette
covers the mouth of the tube; or an Arnott valve ventilator over the
mantelpiece would answer the same purpose. In turning off the gas-
lights at night, it is usual, first, to turn off all the lights, except one,
and then turn off the meter main cock, and allow the one light to
burn itself out, and then turn it off. The evil of this system is this,—
by allowing the one light to burn itself out, you exhaust the pipes
and make a vacuum, and of course the atmospheric air will rush in.
The proper way is to turn off all lights first, and finally the meter,
thus leaving the pipes full of gas and ready for re-lighting. These few
remarks have been derived from Eldridge’s ‘Gas-Fitter’s Guide,’ an
eminently useful and practical handbook.
It was formerly the practice to make all gas-burners of metal; the
openings, whether slits or holes, from which the gas issued to be
burned being small, in order to check the rate of flow. This was an
error, for heat and light go together, and the metal, being a good
conductor of heat, kept the lower part of the flame cold. The part of
burners actually in contact with the flame is now invariably of some
non-conducting material, such as steatite; and the effect of this
simple improvement is most noteworthy. Bad burners show a great
proportion of blue at the lower part of the flame, and the upper or
luminous portion is small and irregular in shape, and dull in colour.
These effects are due to gas issuing at too great velocity from small
holes in burners, as well as to improper material in the latter. The
illuminating power of coal gas depends upon the incandescence, at
the greatest possible heat, of infinitesimal particles of carbon which
it contains, invisible until heated. In the lower, or blue portion of the
flame, the heat is not sufficient to render these particles
incandescent; and it is necessary that this effect should be secured
at the nearest point to the burner. Unless this is done, the light is
not only lessened, but the unconsumed carbon passes off and is
deposited as soot on ceilings and furniture. Blackened ceilings are a
measure of the badness of the burners. It will now be seen why a
material which cools the flame should not be used for a burner, for
the hotter the flame, the more perfect is the incandescence of the
carbon for which in reality the consumer pays, and the less danger
there is of blackened ceilings. But in addition to the better material,
the construction of even the cheapest modern burners is very
greatly improved; although even a good burner may be subjected to
such conditions—e.g. allowing gas to be driven through it at a high
velocity, a condition usually accompanied by a hissing or roaring
sound—as to give a bad result. The capacity of burners should
moreover bear a reasonable proportion to the quality of the gas for
which they are required to be used. Thus with rich Scotch gas,
burners with very small holes, consuming only about 1½ cub. ft.
hourly, are sometimes adopted for economical reasons. Occasionally
these burners find their way South, but their use for the ordinary
qualities of English gas is the worst possible economy. It is difficult
to lay down hard and fast rules for the sizes of burners, the
purposes for which gas-light is required being so various. For an
ordinary apartment, however, wherein distributed lights are adopted,
5 ft. burners with 14 or 15 candle gas, 4 ft. burners with 16 or 17
candle gas, 3 or 3½ ft. burners with 18 or 20 candle gas, and 2½ ft.
burners with richer gas will be found to give satisfactory results. It
may be remarked that these figures apply to burners regulated in
some way to the given rates of consumption, and not to those
merely reputed to be of the stated sizes. Various means are adopted
for checking the flow of gas, not at the point of ignition, but at some
prior point of its course; because it has been found that the slower
the rate of flow at the commencement of combustion, the better the
result obtained.
Clustering of gas-lights is bad. All parts of a room should be as
nearly as possible equally lighted, the only noteworthy exception to
this rule being in the case of a dining-room, where concentration of
light upon the table is not only permissible but is even demanded.
Hence in most cases wall brackets give the best effect, and such
masses of light as are afforded by pendants of many arms are to be
avoided, or are only required in very large rooms where portions of
the floor area would otherwise be insufficiently lighted. When it is
desired to light a drawing-room with wax candles—than which
nothing is more beautiful—they are distributed wherever support can
be found for them. As every gas flame may be considered equal to
12 or 15 candles, with all their wicks together, the inadvisability of
further concentration is evident. In fact, gas is if anything too
brilliant for living-rooms, and if it were always properly distributed,
many a dimly-lighted apartment would be perfectly illumined with
the same number of burners which, when massed, appear
insufficient. Where concentrated ceiling lights are needed for dining-
rooms, many-armed pendants are seldom satisfactory, owing to the
shadows which most of them cast. In these cases a single powerful
argand light in a suitable reflecting pendant, or a cluster of flat
flames similarly provided, will give a better result than the usual
branched chandelier, and with a material saving in gas. For it is a
curious and valuable property of gas, that large burners can be
rendered much more economical in proportion than smaller ones.
Thus, if the 4 burners of a branched chandelier give altogether the
light of (say) 50 candles, the same illuminating power may be
obtained from a greatly reduced quantity of gas when concentrated
in a single burner of the most improved kind.
With regard to the smaller flat flames, which are the most general
for ordinary lighting, the selection of glass globes is a very important
matter. It may be said at once that all the old-fashioned style of
glasses, with holes in the bottom about 2½ in. diam., for fitting into
the brass galleries of the older pattern pendants and brackets, are
objectionable. The reasons for this condemnation are few and
simple. It seems never to have occurred to the makers of these
things that the gas flames inside the globes are always wider than
the openings beneath them, through which the air required for
combustion passes; and that, as a rule, the light of the flame is
required to be cast downward. Gas flames always flicker in these
old-fashioned glasses, because the sharp current of entering air
blows them about. And the light cannot come downward because of
the metal ring and its arms, and the glass, which is always thicker
and generally dingier at this part of the globe. Perfectly plain and
clean glass absorbs at least 1/10 of the light that passes through it;
ground glass absorbs ⅓; and the ordinary opal obstructs at least ½,
and generally more. Only those globes should be chosen therefore
which have a very large opening at the bottom, at least 4 in. wide,
through which the air can pass without disturbing the flame. The
glass then fulfils its proper duty, screening the flame from side
draughts, and not causing mischief by a perpetual up-current of its
own. Good opal or figured globes of this pattern may be used
without disadvantage, because the light is reflected down through
the bottom opening more brightly than if there were no globe, while
the flame is shaded and the light diffused over other parts of the
room.
The degree to which the luminosity of gas is utilised depends very
largely upon the burner, people too often setting down as the fault
of the gas, defects which should really be ascribed to the burner. In
1871, the Commission appointed by the Board of Trade to watch
over the London gas supply, and whose prescriptions in these
matters are more or less recognised by the whole country, made an
examination of a collection of gas-burners from a large number of
sources, and including those in general use. The greater portion of
these gave only ½, some even only ¼ of the light that the gas was
actually capable of affording. Two points very often neglected are:
(1) that the size of the burner should be proportionate to the
quantity of gas required to be consumed by it, and (2) that the gas
should issue at a very low velocity. In good argands, the pressure at
the point of ignition is almost nil; and in flat-flame burners, the
pressure should be only just sufficient to blow the flame out into the
form of a fan. It is also very necessary that the body of the chamber
below the point of ignition should be of material with low heat-
conducting power, so that the gas may undergo no increase in
volume which would occasion a proportionate increase of velocity,
and that the heat may not be conducted away from the flame. To
establish this, Evans had 2 argand burners made, differing only in
that one had the combustion chamber of brass, and the other of
steatite. The latter gave more light than the former in the proportion
of 15 to 13 for the same quantity of gas. As another example a No.
8 metal flat-flame burner, consuming 5 cub. ft. of gas per hour, gave
a light equal to 11·5 candles, while a steatite burner of
corresponding size, with non-conducting combustion chamber, gave
14·6 candles. Another metal burner of a description somewhat
generally used, gave about ⅜ of the light that the gas was capable
of yielding. Worn-out metal burners generally give the best results,
as the velocity of the issuing gas is lower than when the burners are
new. A much better result is obtained by burning, say 20 cub. ft. of
gas from one burner, than by using 5 burners, each of which
consumes 4 cub. ft. This is the reason why the modern argands give
so much more light than the older ones, which were drilled with a
very large number of holes, and were more suitable for boiling water
than for illuminating. If the air which is to support the combustion
be heated before it reaches the flame, especially in the case of flat-
flame burners, better results are produced, as was pointed out by
Prof. Frankland more than 10 years ago, and this principle is now
being carried out by some Continental burner makers. Of modern
argands there are many excellent varieties, which can evolve 15-30
per cent. more light for the same quantity of gas than the best flat-
flame burners. One kind consisting of 3 concentric rings of flame
with steatite gas chambers was first used in the public lighting of
Waterloo Road in 1879. In another the products of combustion are
brought down in a flue fastened round the burner, so as to heat the
air which supports the combustion as it passes in pipes through the
flue above mentioned to the flame; while a third kind has an
arrangement for admitting separate currents of cold air to keep the
chimney cool. There seems little doubt that the argand lamp will
play a leading part in the gas lighting of the future. An important
point connected with the use of gas is that the heat generated by
combustion, may be made to do the work of ventilation, as in the
fish-gill ventilator invented by the late Goldsworthy Gurney. In this
strips of calico are nailed, by the two upper corners, across an
opening in the wall, in such a way that each strip laps over the strip
next below it. This contrivance, opening and closing like the gills of a
fish, is self-acting, as the heated air passes away through the porous
material, and cold air is admitted without draught.
 Gas is often accused of heating the rooms; but if persons, when
burning candles would increase the number of the candles so as to
equal the light of the gas-flame, the heat given out would be found
to be less when burning gas than when burning lamps or candles.
It is very beneficial to regulate the
pressure at which gas reaches the
burners, and many complaints of
impurity of the air of a room, caused by
gas, arise from this want of regulation of
pressure. It can be attained by the use
of a governor, placed either at the meter
or in proximity to the light itself. These
are of many forms. Those adapted for
placing near the meter are Stott’s, Fig.
49 (174 Fleet Street, E.C.), Parkinson’s,
Fig. 50 (Cottage Lane Works, City Road),
Strode’s, Fig. 51 (67 St. Paul’s 49. Stott’s Governor.
Churchyard), Hargreaves and Bardsley’s
(Hobson Street, Oldham), Hulett’s, Fig. 52 (55 High Holborn),
Peebles’ (Tay Works, Edinburgh), and Smith’s (130 Fleet Street).
Self-regulating burners are the “Christianson,” made by Sugg (Grand
Hotel Buildings, Charing Cross), and those made by Bolding—Heran’s
patent—(South Molton Street, Oxford Street), Milne, Sons, and
Macfie (2 King Edward Street, E.C.), Parkinson (Fig. 53), Peebles,
and Kinnear (91 Finsbury Pavement). A little steel blade, costing only
a penny, is made by W. H. Howorth, Cleckheaton, Yorkshire, for use
on 2-holed burners, which has the effect of silencing a roaring flame
and increasing the luminosity. Another contrivance having some of
the effects of a regulator, augmenting the light and consuming the
smoke (therefore lessening the contamination of the air), is the
Spencer Corona, Fig. 54 (3 Hyde Street, New Oxford Street), fitting
closely on the top of ordinary gas globes.
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