6.

WEATHERING AND SOILS

6.1 Weathering
Weathering is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at
or near the Earth’s surface. Weathering itself involves little or no movement
of the decomposed rocks and minerals. This material accumulates where it
forms and overlies unweathered bedrock.
6.1.1Types of Weathering
Weathering involves specific processes acting on rock materials at or near
the surface of the Earth. These processes are both mechanical and chemical.
Weathering occurs by both mechanical and chemical processes.
6.1.1.1 Physical (Mechanical) Weathering
Physical (mechanical) weathering reduces solid rock to rubble but does not
alter the chemical composition or rocks and minerals
Rock Before Weathering = Rock After Weathering (just fragments).
Physical weathering increases surface area of the rocks.
There are four main sources of power for mechanical
weathering: gravity, water, wind, and waves.
Of these, water appears to be the leader in changing the surface.

Five major processes cause mechanical weathering :

pressure-release fracturing, frost wedging, abrasion,
organic activity, and thermal expansion and contraction.
a. Pressure-release fracturing
Many igneous and metamorphic rocks form deep below the Earth’s surface. For
example, that a granitic pluton solidifies from a magma at a depth of 15 km. At that
depth, the pressure from the weight of overlying rock is about 5000 times that at
the Earth’s surface. Over millennia, tectonic forces may raise the pluton to form a
mountain range. The overlying rock erodes away as the pluton rises and the
pressure on the buried rock decreases. As the pressure diminishes, the rock
expands, but because the rock is now cool and brittle, it fractures as it expands.
This process is called pressure-release fracturing. Many igneous and
metamorphic rocks that formed at depth, but now lie at the Earth’s surface, have
been fractured in this manner.
b. Frost wedging
Water expands when it freezes. It takes up about 10% more space when it freezes.
If water accumulates in a crack and then freezes, its expansion pushes the rock
apart in a process called frost wedging.
Often occurs in places where temperatures vary from below the freezing point of
water to above the freezing point. In a temperate climate, water may freeze at night
and thaw during the day. Ice cements the rock together temporarily, but when it

melts, the rock fragments may tumble from a steep cliff.

c. Abrasion
Abrasion is the mechanical wearing and grinding of rock surfaces by friction and
impact.

Caused by rocks colliding against each other

Agents that move rock include:

Wind; Liquid water (streams, rivers); Solid water (glaciers); and Gravity alone
(along a cliff face). Note that pure water itself is not abrasive; the collisions among
rock, sand, and silt cause the weathering.
d. Organic activity

Plants and animals are also important agents of physical weathering. If soil
collects in a crack in solid rock, a seed may fall there and sprout. The roots
work their way down into the crack, expand, and may eventually push the
rock apart.

Soil burrowing creatures abrade small rock particles: earthworms are

especially important.
e. Thermal expansion and contraction

Rocks at the Earth’s surface are exposed to daily and yearly cycles of
heating and cooling. They expand when they are heated and contract
when they cool. When temperature changes rapidly, the surface of a
rock heats or cools faster than its interior and, as aresult, the surface
expands or contracts faster than the interior. The resulting forces may
fracture the rock.
6.1.1.2 Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering occurs when air and water chemically react with rock to alter its
composition and mineral content. In this process the final products differ both
physically and chemically from starting material. The most important processes of
chemical weathering are dissolution, hydrolysis and oxidation.
Water, carbon dioxide. Acids and bases, and oxygen are common substances that cause
these processes to decompose rock,.
a. Dissolution
The process by which soluble rocks and minerals dissolve in water or water solution. A
few minerals dissolves readily in water. Acids and bases often markedly enhance the
solubility of minerals. Rainwater is slightly acidic due to reactions between water and
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide mixes with water and produces Carbonic Acid (a weak acid).
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Carbonic acid will slowly dissolve rocks and minerals.
Most strongly affected are calcite minerals: limestone and
marble.
In dissolution process the acid dissolves the mineral
completely, with no clay left over. It produces caves,
caverns, and sinkholes features.
b. Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the weathering reaction that occurs when the two surfaces of water
and compound meet. It involves the reaction between mineral ions and the ions of
water (OH- and H+), and results in the decomposition of the mineral by forming
new compounds, and by increasing the pH of the solution involved through the
release of the hydroxide ions.
The carbonic acid attacks many common minerals such as feldspar,
hornblende, augite and biotite mica. The original mineral is changed into a
clay mineral.
Example 1. Hydrolysis of orthoclase
2KAlSi3O8 + 2 (H+ + HCO3-) + H20  Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3- +
4SiO2
Where
KAlSi3O8 - potassium feldspar;
(H+ + HCO3-) - carbonic acid;
H2O - Water;
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 – kaolinite (clay formed through weathering);
K+ - potassium ion (dissolved in water);
HCO3- - bicarbonate ion (dissolved in water); and,
SiO2 - silica (dissolved in water).
c. Oxidation
The chemical reaction of oxygen with other substances is called oxidation. It
occurs when free oxygen combines chemically with metallic elements (usually
iron).
Oxygen is added to other elements. Rusting of magnetite into hematite.
2Fe2SiO4 + 2H2O + O2  2Fe2O3.H2O + SiO2
6.2 Soil
Soil is the layer of weathered material overlying the bedrock.
6.2.1 Soil constituents
There are three basic soil constituents:
(a) Solid Particles
Mineral Material: Sand, clay and silt
Organic matter - very valuable
(b) Water
(c) Air
● The mineral matter and organic matter make up the solid contents
of the soil while the water and the air represent the soil pores.
● From a structural point of view, air is irrelevant but it helps in
aeration for plant growth.
● In an average agricultural soil, half will be solid solids, 45%
minerals and about 5% organic matter. The other 50% which is
called soil pores or voids will occupy 50%.
● Voids are dynamic and we can get 20 – 30% air and 30 – 20%
water by volume.

20%

45% MINERALS
OM
Water
Air
30%
5%
a. Mineral (Inorganic) Component of the Solid Particle of
the Soil
Except in the case of organic soils, most of a soil’s solid framework consists of
mineral particles. These minerals are variable in size and composition.
Composition of Solid Particle of the Soil
(a) The mineral can be raw (quartz and other primary materials – coarse fractions
which have not changed from parent material)
(b)They can also be silicate clays and iron oxides formed by the breakdown and
weathering of less resistant minerals as soil formation progressed. These are called
secondary minerals.
b. Size of Solid Particle of the Soil
In terms of size , the solid particles they can vary from small rock particles to
colloids. The existence such a range in grain sizes of the solid particles of the soil,
affects the engineering properties of soil.
In soil mechanics, it is virtually always useful to quantify the size of
the grains in a type of soil. Since a given soil will often be made up
of grains of many different sizes, sizes are measured in terms of
grain size distributions.
Grain size distribution (GSD) information can be of value in
providing initial rough estimates of a soil’s engineering properties
such as permeability, strength, expansivity, etc.
When measuring GSDs for soils, two methods are generally used:
−> For grains larger than 0.075mm sieving is used;
−> For grains in the range of.075mm > D > 0.5μm, the hydrometer
test is used.
Geological classification of soil clasts.
Rock fragment with size greater than 256 mm - Boulder
64–256 mm - Cobble
32–64 mm - Very coarse gravel (Pebble)
16–32 mm - coarse gravel (Pebble)
8–16 mm - Medium gravel (Pebble)
4–8 mm - Fine gravel (Pebble)
2–4 mm - Very fine gravel (Granule)
1–2 mm - Very coarse sand
½–1 mm - Coarse sand
¼–½ mm - Medium sand
125–250 µm - Fine sand
62.5–125 µm - Very fine sand
4–62.5 µm – Silt
1-4 µm – Clay
1-1000 nm - Colloid
USCS 4.75 0.075

BS 2.0 0.06 0.002

USCS: Unified Soil Classification

BS: British Standard

Unit: mm
16
•Experiment

Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:

Gravel Sand Silt Clay
0.075 mm (USCS)
0.06 mm (BS) (Hong Kong)

(Head, 1992)

Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

17
c. Shape of Solid Particle of the Soil

Coarse- Rounded Subrounded

grained
soils

Subangular Angular
 Important for granular soils
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
 Angular soil particle  higher friction
 Round soil particle  lower friction
 Note that clay particles are sheet-like.

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6.2.2 Soil Texture
This refers to the relative proportions of the various soil separates (sand, silt and
clay) in a soil.
Terms such as sandy loam, silty clay, and clay loam are used to identify soil
texture.
The various soil components can be separated using Mechanical Analysis.
Coarse-grained soils (Gravel, Sand) can be separated by Sieve analysis. For silt
and clay, separation is by the rate of settling which can be obtained in a pipette or
hydrometer analysis. They are put in a solution and the time of settling is noted.
From the Mechanical analysis, the proportions of sand, silt and clay are obtained.
The actual soil texture is determined using the Soil Textural Triangle ( Fig. 1.1.),
e.g. for a soil with 50% sand, 20% silt and 30% clay, the texture is Sandy Clay
Loam.
.
6.2.3 Soil’s Specific Surface Area (s, m2/g):
Soil Specific surface area “SSSA" is a property of solids which is
the total surface area of a solid particle of a soil per unit of mass of
the soil, solid or bulk volume, or cross-sectional area.
It is a derived scientific value that can be used to determine the type
and properties of a soil. It is defined either by surface area divided
by mass (with units of m²/kg), or surface area divided by the
volume (units of m²/m³ or m−1).
It has a particular importance for adsorption, heterogeneous
catalysis, and reactions on surfaces.
Depends on shape of soil particle.
For example, if spherical (r = radius and r = density)
Surface area (a) = 4p r2
Mass (m) = rV = r[4pr3/3]
Thus, specific surface area (s=a/m): s = 3/rr (inversely proportional
to radius).
Surface area of soil affects its physical and chemical properties and is largely
determined by amount of clay present in soil.

6.2.4 Basic Definitions and Terminology

6.2.4.1 Phase Diagrams

Soil mass consist of solid particles, water, air. In soil mass volume of solid
particles is highest. The voids may be filled of water or air.
Some Assumptions are made
Mass of air in soil is zero.
All soil particles are of same size.
Moisture is uniformly distributed.
Case 1: Partially dry and
partially saturated soil
Va= volume of air
Vw= volume of water
Vs= volume of solids
Vt=total volume of soil
From the fig;
Vt= Vs+Vw+Va
Similarly;
Mt= Ms+Mw+Ma (but Ma= 0)
Mt= Ms+Mw
Case 2: Fully Dry Soil
In this case, two phases, solids and air are
present. Water is absent and void are filled
with the air.
From, the fig;
Va Wa
V = Vs + Va AIR
Now, W
W = Wa + Ws
Wa = 0 SOLIDS
W = Ws Ws
Vs
Case 3: Fully Saturated Soil
In this case two phases, solid and water are present. Air is absent.
Voids are filled with water only.

V  Vv  Vs
but , Vv  Vw
V  Vw  Vs Vw WATER Ww
W  Wv  Ws W

but , Wv  Ww
SOILDS
W  Ww  Ws Vs
Ws
6.2.4.2 Basic definitions and Terminology of Soils
Soil is a three phase material, and it is useful to consider each
phase individually as shown in the table below.

Table. Distribution by Volume, Mass and Weight

Phase Volume Mass Weight

Air Va 0 0
Water Vw Mw Ww
Solids Vs Ms Ws
Units
For most engineering applications the following units are used.
Length Meters
Mass Tonnes (1 tonne = 1000 Kg)
Density (mass/unit volume) t/m3
Weight Kilonewtons (kN)
Stress Kilopascals (kPa) (1 kPa = 1 kN/m2)
Unit Weight kN/m3

To sufficient accuracy the density of water ρw is given by

ρw = 1 tonne/m3
ρw = 1 g/cm3
In most applications it is not the mass that is important, the force due to the
mass. The weight , W, is related to the mass, M, by the relation

W = Mg

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity. If M is measured in tonnes and W in

kN, g = 9.8 m/s2.

Because the force is usually required it is often convenient in calculations to

use the unit weight, γ (weight per unit volume).

γ = W/V

γ = Mg/V

γ = ρg

Hence the unit weight of water, γw = 9.8 kN/m3.

Unit Weights
Several unit weights are used in soil mechanics. These are bulk, dry, saturated
and submerged unit weights.
Bulk unit weight (kN/m3): is defined as the weight per unit of total volume of
soil mass.

γ bulk = W/V
Dry unit weight (kN/m3): is defined as the weight of soil solids per unit of total
volume of soil mass..
γdry = Ws/V
Saturated unit weight (kN/m3): is defined as total weight of saturated soil
mass per total volume of soil mass.

γ sat = Wsat/V
Submerged unit weight (kN/m3): is defined as the ratio of submerged weight
of soil solids to the total volume of the soil mass.

γsub = (Wd)sub/V
Unit weight of solids (kN/m3): is the ratio of weight of solids to the volume of
solids.

γs = Ws/Vs
Water Content /Moisture Content
The water content (W), also known as natural water content or natural moisture
content, is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the solids in given
mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as percentage.
W = (Ww/Ws)x100
Specific Gravity (G)

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of soil
solids to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water. It can also be defined
as the ratio of the density of material to the density of water.

G =Ws/Ww

G = ρm/ρw

It is often found that the specific gravity of the materials making up the soil
particles are close to the value for quartz, that is G ≈ 2.65. for all the common
soil forming minerals 2.5 < Gs < 2.8.

Void Ratio (e): is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids, Vv, to the volume
of solids, Vs.

e = Vv/Vs
Porosity(n)
It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids, Vv, to the total volume, V.
n = Vv/V
The relationship between e and n
e = n/1-n
n = e/1+e
Degree of Saturation (Sr)
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of water, Vw, to the volume of voids, Vv.
Sr = Vw/Vv
In case of fully saturated soil, voids are completely filled with water. There is
no air.
V w = V v , Sr = 1
In case of fully dry soil, voids are completely filled with air. There is no water.
Vw = 0, Sr = 0.
Air Content(ac)
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the volume of voids.
ac = Va/Vv

Percentage Air Voids (na)

It is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume. This ratio is
usually expressed as percentage.
na = (Va/V) x 100

Exercise 1.

A moist sand sample has a volume of 450 cm3 and a wet mass of 786 g. The
particle density is 2.65 g/cm3 and the dry mass is 731 g. Determine the void
ratio, porosity, percentage water content and the degree of saturation. Density
of water is (w) is 1g/cm3.