BDU

CHAPTER TWO

2 Limit and Continuity

2.1 Definition of Limit

Definition 2.1. :- Let f be a a function defined in some open interval containing a except at a itself, then we say that L is
the limit of f (x) as x approaches a if the value of f (x) approaches to L and We write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

and we say that "the limit of f (x) , as x approaches a ,is equal to L".

If we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a
(on both side of a ) but not equal to a.
Example:- Let f (x) = x 2 + 5 determine the limit of f (x) as x approaches to 2.
Solution: The value of f (x) as x approaches to 2 listed in the following table.

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 8.61 8.9601 8.99601 9.004 9.04 9.4

On the basis of the values in the tables, we can conclude that

lim (x 2 + 5) = 9
x→2

Remark: The limit of the function does not depend on the value of the function at the point for which the limit is com-
puted.
x −1
Example: Guess the value of limx→1 .
x2 − 1
x −1
Solution: Notice that the function f (x) = 2 is not defined at x = 1, but that doesn’t matter because the definition of
x −1
limx→1 f (x) says that we consider values of x that are close to 1 but not equal to 1.
The tables below give values of f (x) (correct to six decimal places) for values of x that approach 1 (but are not equal to
1).

x <1 f (x) x >1 f (x)

0.5 0.666667 1.5 0.400000
0.9 0.526316 1.1 0.476190
and
0.99 0.502513 1.01 0.497512
0.999 0.500250 1.001 0.499750
0.9999 0.500025 1.0001 0.499975

On the basis of the values in the tables, we make the guess that

x −1
lim = 0.5
x→1 x2 − 1
x −1
This can be is illustrated by the graph of y = in Figure below.
x2 − 1

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2.1 Definition of Limit BDU

Figure 2.1: limit f as x approaches to 1

Exercise: Estimate the value of

p
x2 + 9 − 3 x −1 π
a). limx→0 . b) limx→0 c). limx→0 sin
x2 x2 − 1 x
Definition 2.2. Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a, except possibly at a itself.
Then
lim f (x) = L
x→a

if for every number ² > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that

| f (x) − L |< ² whenever 0 <| x − a |< δ

Another way of writing the last line of this definition is

If 0 <| x − a |< δ t hen | f (x) − L |< ²

Since | x − a | is the distance from x to a and | f (x) − L | is the distance from f (x) to L,and ² can be arbitrarily small, the
definition of a limit can be expressed in words as follows:
limx→a f (x) = L means that the distance between f (x) and L can be made arbitrarily small by taking the distance from x
to a sufficiently small (but not 0).
Alternatively, limx→a f (x) = L means that the values of f (x) can be made as close as we please to L by taking x close
enough to a (but not equal to a). We can also reformulate definition in terms of intervals by observing that the inequality
| x −a |< δ is equivalent to −δ < x −a < δ , which in turn can be written as a −δ < x < a +δ. Also 0 <| x −a | is true if and only
if x − a 6= 0 , that is, x 6= a. Similarly, the inequality | f (x) − L |< ² is equivalent to the pair of inequalities L − ² < f (x) < L + ².
Therefore, in terms of intervals, definition can be stated as follows:
limx→a f (x) means that for every ² > 0 (no matter how ² is small) we can find δ > 0 such that if x lies in the open interval
(a − δ, a + δ) and x 6= a, then f (x) lies in the open interval (L − ², L + ²)
Example:- Prove that limx→3 (4x − 5) = 7.
Solution:- Let ² be a given positive number. We want to find a number δ such that
|(4x − 5) − 7| < ² whenever 0 < |x − 3| < δ
But |(4x − 5) − 7| = |4x − 12| = 4|x − 3|. Therefore, we want
4|x − 3| < ² whenever |x − 3| < δ
²
this implies |x − 3| < whenever |x − 3| < δ
4
²
This suggests that we should choose δ = .
4
Example: Using formal definition of limit prove that limx→2 x 2 = 4
Solution: We must show that for any ² > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that
|x 2 − 4| < ² when ever 0 < |x − 2| < δ
Factoring, we get |x 2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2| we want to show that |x 2 − 4| is small when x is close to 2. To do this, we first
find an upper bound for the factor |x +2|. If x is close to 2, we know that the factor |x −2| is small, and that the factor |x +2|

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2.2 Basic limit theorems BDU

is close to 4. Because we are considering values of x close to 2, we can concern ourselves with only those values of x for
which |x − 2| < 1; that is, we are requiring the δ, for which we are looking, to be less than or equal to 1. The inequality
|x − 2| < 1 is equivalent to −1 < x − 2 < 1 which is equivalent to 1 < x < 3 or, equivalently, 3 < x + 2 < 5 This means that
if |x − 2| < 1, then 3 < |x + 2| < 5 therefore, we have |x 2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2| < 5|x − 2|
1
Now we want 5|x − 2| < ² or, equivalently |x − 2| < ²
5
² 1
Thus, if we choose δ to be the smaller of 1 and , then when ever |x − 2| < δ, it follows that |x − 2| < ² and |x + 2| < 5
5 5
because this is true when |x − 2| < 1 and so |x 2 − 4| < ² Therefore, we conclude that
|x 2 − 4| < ² whenever 0 < |x − 2| < δ
² ²
if δ is the smaller of the two numbers 1 and , which we write as δ = mi n{1, }.
5 5
Exercise Prove that
x2
a) limx→3 (−2x + 7) = 1 b) limx→0 = 0, c) limx→3 (x 2 ) = 9
x2 + 1
d) limx→−3 (x 2 − 9) = 0, 2
e) limx→0 (x ) = 0 f ) limx→a (−bx + c) = ab + c

2.2 Basic limit theorems

Theorem 2.1. : Suppose that c is a constant and the limits limx→a f (x) = L and limx→a g (x) = M exist. Then

1. The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.

lim [ f (x) + g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim g (x) = L + M .

x→a x→a x→a

2. The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.

lim [ f (x) − g (x)] = lim f (x) − lim g (x) = L − M .

x→a x→a x→a

3. The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the function.

lim [c f (x)] = c lim f (x) = cL.

x→a x→a

4. The limit of a product is the product of the limits

lim [ f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) lim g (x) = LM .

x→a x→a x→a

5. The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits (provided that the limit of the denominator is not 0)

f (x) limx→a f (x) L

lim [ ]= = i f lim g (x) 6= 0.
x→a g (x) limx→a g (x) M x→a

Example Use the Limit Laws and the graphs of f (x) and g (x) in the following figure to evaluate the following limits,
if they exist.

Figure 2.2: given function f and g

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2.2 Basic limit theorems BDU

f (x)
a) limx→−2 [ f (x) + 5g (x)] b) limx→1 [ f (x)g (x)] c) limx→2 [ ]
g (x
Solution (a) From the graphs of f and g we see that

lim f (x) = 1 and lim g (x) = −1

x→−2 x→−2
Therefore, we have

lim [ f (x) + 5g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim 5g (x) b y l ow 1

x→−2 x→−2 x→−2

= lim f (x) + 5 lim g (x) b y l ow 3

x→−2 x→−2

= 1 + 5(−1)

= −4

b) We see that limx→1 f (x) = 2.

But limx→1 g (x) does not exist because the left and right limits are different: limx→1− g (x) = −2 and limx→1+ g (x) =
−1

So we can’t use Law 4. The given limit does not exist, since the left limit is not equal to the right limit.
c) The graphs show that limx→2 f (x) ≈ 1.4 and limx→2 g (x) = 0 Because the limit of the denominator is 0, we can’t use
Law 5.
The given limit does not exist because the denominator approaches 0 while the numerator approaches a nonzero
number.

If we use the Product Law repeatedly with f (x) = g (x) , we obtain the following law.

6. limx→a [ f (x)]n = [limx→a f (x)]n where n is a positive integer.

7. limx→a c = c where c is any real number.

8. limx→a x = a.

9. limx→a x n = a n where n is a positive integer.

p
n
p
n
10. limx→a x= a where n is a positive integer (If n is even, we assume that a > 0).
More generally, we have the following law, which is proved as a consequence of Law 10
¡p ¢ p
11. limx→a n f (x) = n limx→a f (x) where n is a positive integer (If n is even, we assume that limx→a f (x) > 0).

Direct Substitution Property If f (x) is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f (x) , then

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

Example:- Evaluate the followingrlimits and justify each step.

2 3
x
a) limx→5 2x − 3x + 4 b) limx→4
−7x + 1
Solution:a)

lim (2x 2 − 3x + 4) = lim (2x 2 ) − lim (−3x) + 4 b y r ul e 1 and 2

x→5 x→5 x→5
2
= 2 lim x − 3 lim x + 4 r ul e 3 and 7
x→5 x→5
2
= 2(5 ) − 3(5) + 4 b y r ul e 9

= 50 − 15 + 4

= 39

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2.2 Basic limit theorems BDU

b)
r r
3 x 3 x
lim = lim [ ] b y l ow 11
x→4 −7x + 1 x→4 −7x + 1
s
3 limx→4 x
= b y l ow 5
limx→4 (−7x + 1)
s
3 4
= b y l ow 3, 9 and 1
−7(4) + 1
r
4
3
=
−27
p
3
4
=−
3

Theorem 2.2. If f (x) É g (x) when x is near a (except possibly at a ) and the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches a,
then
lim f (x) É lim g (x)
x→a x→a

Theorem 2.3. The Squeeze Theorem: If f (x) É g (x) É h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a ) and

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

x→a x→a

then
lim g (x) = L
x→a

which is sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem

1
Example: Show that 1) limx→0 x 2 sin =0
x
1
Solution: First note that we cannot use product rule because limx→0 sin does not exist. However, since
x
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤1
x

Multiply both side by x 2 we get

1
−x 2 ≤ x 2 sin ≤ x2
x
1
We know that limx→0 −x 2 = 0 and limx→0 x 2 = 0 taking f (x) = −x 2 , h(x) = x 2 and g (x) = x 2 sin by the Squeeze theorem,
x
we obtain
1
lim x 2 sin =0
x→0 x
sin θ
2) limθ→0 =1
θ
Proof: To show that the limit is 1, we begin with positive values of θ less than π.
Notice that from the following figure

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2.3 One sided limits BDU

We have Ar ea 4 O AP É Ar ea sec t or O AP É Ar ea 4 O AT .
We can express these areas in terms of θ as follows:
1 sin θ
Ar ea 4 O AP = 21 base × hi eg ht = (1)(sin θ) =
2 2
1 θ
ar ea sec t or O AP = 21 r 2 θ = (12 )(θ) =
2 2
1 1 tan θ
ar ea 4 O AT = base × hi eg ht = (1)(tan θ) =
2 2 2
sin θ θ tan θ
Thus É É .
2 2 2
2
This last inequality goes the same way if we divide all three terms by the number sin θ which is positive since 0 < θ < π/2

θ 1
1É É
sin θ cos θ
Taking reciprocals reverses the inequalities:
sin θ cos θ
1Ê Ê
θ 1
cos θ
Since limθ→0 = 1 and limθ→0 1 = 1 then by the Sandwich theorem gives
1
sin θ
lim =1
θ→0 θ

sin θ
Recall that sin θ and θ are both odd functions . Therefore, f (θ) = is an even function, with a graph symmetric about
θ
the y-axis (see the above figure). This symmetry implies that the left-hand limit at 0 exists and has the same value as the
right-hand limit:
sin θ sin θ
lim = 1 = lim−
θ→0+ θ θ→0 θ
sin θ
So limθ→0 =1
θ

2.3 One sided limits

Definition 2.3. Let f be a function which is defined at every number in some open interval (a, c). Then the limit of f (x), as
x approaches from the right a, is L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→a +

if for any ² > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that | f (x) − L| < ² whenever 0 < x − a < δ
p
Example:Use the definition to prove that limx→0+ x =0

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2.4 Infinite limits, limit at infinity and asymptotes BDU

Solution: 1. Guessing a value for δ. Let ² be a given positive number. Here a = 0 and L = 0 so we want to find a number
δ such that
p p
| x − 0| < ² whenever 0 < x − 0 < δ that is x < ² whenever 0 < x < δ or, squaring both sides of the inequality
p
x < ², we get x < ²2 whenever 0 < x < δ
This suggests that we should choose δ = ²
2. Showing that this δ works. Given ² > 0, let δ = ²2 .
p p p p
If 0 < x < δ, then x < δ = ²2 = ² So | x − 0| < ²
p
According to the definition, this shows that limx→0+ x =0

Definition 2.4. Let f be a function which is defined at every number in some open interval (d , a). Then the limit of f (x), as
x approaches from the left a, is L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→a −

if for any ² > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that
| f (x) − L| < ² whenever −δ < x − a < 0
p
Example:prove that limx→4− 4−x = 0

Solution: For every ² > 0 we need to find a δ > 0 such that

p
if −δ < x − 4 < 0 then | 4 − x − 0| < ²
p p
Since | 4 − x − 0| = | 4 − x| < ² ⇒ |4 − x| < ²2 ⇒ −²2 < (x − 4) < ²2 ⇒ −²2 < (x − 4) < 0
then if −δ < (x − 4) < 0 then −²2 < (x − 4) < 0
This suggests that we should choose δ = ²2
Therefore, we conclude that
p
lim− 4 − x = 0
x→4

Theorem 2.4. limx→a f (x) = L if and only if

lim f (x) = L = lim− f (x)
x→a + x→a

|x|
Exercise: Show that a) limx→0 |x| = 0 and limx→0 does not exist.
x

2.4 Infinite limits, limit at infinity and asymptotes

Definition 2.5. Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a, except possibly at a itself.
Then

i limx→a + f (x) = ∞ means that for every positive number M there is a positive number δ such that
f (x) > M whenever 0 < x − a < δ

ii limx→a − f (x) = ∞ means that for every positive number M there is a positive number δ such that
f (x) > M whenever −δ < x − a < 0

iii limx→a f (x) = ∞ means that for every positive number M there is a positive number δ such that
f (x) > M whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ
1
Example:By using the definition prove that limx→0 =∞
x2

Solution: Let M be given large number, we want to find a δ > 0 such that

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2.4 Infinite limits, limit at infinity and asymptotes BDU

f (x) > M when ever 0 < |x − 0| < δ

1
or 2 > M when ever 0 < |x| < δ
x
1
that is, x 2 < when ever 0 < |x| < δ
M
1
or |x| < p when ever 0 < |x| < δ
M
1
This suggests that we should take δ = p
M
1
Therefore limx→0 2 = ∞
x
1
Example:Show that limx→0− = −∞
x

Solution: Let N be given negative small number, we want to find a δ > 0 such that

f (x) < N when ever −δ < x − 0 < 0

1
or < N when ever −δ < x − 0 < 0
x
1
that is, x > when ever −δ < x < 0
N
1
This suggests that we should take δ = −
N
1
Therefore limx→0− = −∞
x
Definition 2.6. We say that f (x) has the limit L as x approaches infinity and write

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

if, for every number ² > 0 there exists a corresponding positive number M such that for all x

x > M ⇒ | f (x) − L| < ²

Example: Show that

1
lim =0
x→∞ x
Solution: Let ² > 0 be given. We must find a positive number M such that for all x
1 1 1
x>M ⇒ | − 0| = | | < ² x > M ⇒ x > because x is positive
x x ²
1
The implication will hold if M = or any larger positive number.
²
This proves that
1
lim = 0
x→∞ x

Definition 2.7. We say that f (x) has the limit L as x approaches negative infinity and write
if, for every number ² > 0 there exists a corresponding negative number N such that for all x

x < N ⇒ | f (x) − L| < ²

Example:Show that
1
lim =0
x→−∞ x
Solution: Let ² > 0 be given. We must find a negative number N such that for all x
1 1
x<N ⇒ | − 0| = | | < ²
x x

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2.4 Infinite limits, limit at infinity and asymptotes BDU

1
x<N ⇒ x <− because x is negative
²
1
The implication will hold if N = − or any small number.
²
This proves that
1
lim =0
x→−∞ x
Theorem 2.5. Suppose that c is a constant and the limits limx→±∞ f (x) = L and limx→±∞ g (x) = M exist. Then

1. Sum rule limx→±∞ [ f (x) + g (x)] = limx→±∞ f (x) + limx→±∞ g (x) = L + M .

2. Difference rule limx→±∞ [ f (x) − g (x)] = limx→±∞ f (x) − limx→±∞ g (x) = L − M .

3. Constant Rule limx→±∞ [c f (x)] = c limx→±∞ f (x) = cL.

4. Product Rule limx→±∞ [ f (x)g (x)] = limx→±∞ f (x) limx→±∞ g (x) = LM .

f (x) limx→±∞ f (x) L
5. Quotient Rule limx→±∞ [ ]= = i f limx→±∞ g (x) 6= 0.
g (x) limx→±∞ g (x) M

p Using the above theorem evaluate the following limits at infinity

Example:
4x 2 + 2 x2 + 1
a). limx→∞ b). limx→∞
3x + 1 2x − 3

Solution: a).
r
p 1
x 2 (4 +)
4x 2 + 2 x2
lim = lim
x→∞ 3x + 1 x→∞ 1
x(3 + )
x
r
1
(4 + 2 )
x
= lim
x→∞ 1
(3 + )
x
r
1
limx→∞ (4 + 2 )
x
=
1
limx→∞ (3 + )
x
r
1
(limx→∞ 4 + limx→∞ )
x2
=
1
(limx→∞ 3 + limx→∞ )
x
p
(4 + 0)
=
(3 + 0)
2
=
3

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2.4 Infinite limits, limit at infinity and asymptotes BDU

1
x+
x2 + 1 x
b). lim = lim
x→∞ 2x − 3 x→∞ 3
2−
x
1
limx→∞ x + limx→∞
= x
3
limx→∞ 2 − limx→∞
x
∞+0
=
2−0
∞
=
2
=∞

Definition 2.8. The line y = b is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either
limx→∞ f (x) = b or/and limx→−∞ f (x) = b

1 1
Example: Find limx→∞ and limx→−∞ .
x x

Solution: Observe that when is large, is small. For instance, In fact, by taking large enough, we can make as close to 0
as we please. Therefore, according to Definition 1, we have Similar reasoning shows that when x is large negative, 1/x.
is small negative, so we also have

Definition 2.9. A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x) if either
limx→a + f (x) = ±∞ or/and limx→a − f (x) = ±∞
2x 2x
Example: Find limx→3− ( ) and limx→3+ ( ).
x −3 x −3

Solution: If x is close to 3 but larger than 3, then the denominator x − 3 is a small positive number and 2x is close to 6.
So the quotient 2x/x − 3 is a large positive number.

2x
lim ( )=∞
x→3+ x −3
Likewise If x is close to 3 but smaller than 3, then the denominator x −3 is a small negative number and 2x is close to 6. So
the quotient 2x/x − 3 is a large negative number.

2x
lim ( ) = −∞
x→3− x −3
2x
The graph of the curve y = is given in the following figure. The line is a vertical asymptote.
x −3

2x
Figure 2.3: Asymptote and graph of y =
x −3

Example: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes for the graph of

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2.5 Continuity; one sided continuity BDU

p s
x2 + 2 p 3 x2 + 3
a). f (x) = b). f (x) = 2x + 1 − 4x 2 + 5 c). f (x) =
x −1 27x 2 − 1

solution:a)Solution
p We are interested inpthe behavior as x → ±∞ p and as x → 1 where the denominator
p is zero.
x2 + 2 x2 + 2 x2 + 2 x2 + 2
and then limx→1− = −∞, limx→1+ = ∞ , limx→∞ = 1 and limx→−∞ = −1
x −1 px − 1 x −1 x −1 p
2
x +2 x2 + 2
∴ x = 1 is the vertical asymptote of f (x) = and also y = 1 and y = −1 are horizontal asymptote of f (x) = .
x −1 x −1

2.5 Continuity; one sided continuity

Definition 2.10. A function y = f (x) is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if

lim f (x) = f (c)

x→c

One side continuity: A function y = f (x) is continuous at a left endpoint a or is continuous at a right endpoint b of its
domain if limx→a − f (x) = f (a) or limx→b + f (x) = f (b), respectively

Continuity Test: A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following three conditions.
1. f (c) exist (c lies in the domain of f )
2. limx→c f (x) exist ( f has a limit as x = c )
3.limx→c f (x) = f (c) (the limit equals the function value)
Example: Show that the following functions continue at the given number.
2
 x
 (
x 6= 0 1 + 2x 2 if x <1
a) f (x) = 1 − cosx at a = 0 b) g (x) = at a = 1

2 x =0 4−x if x ≥1
Solution: a) i) since f (0) = 2 is defined the first condition is satisfied
x2 x 2 (1 + cos x x 2 (1 + cos x) limx→0 (1 + cos x) 2
ii) limx→0 f (x) = limx→0 = limx→0 2
= lim x→0 2
= = 2 =2
1 − cos x) 1 − (cos x) (sin x) sin x 1
limx→0 ( )2
x
iii) limx→0 f (x) = f (0) = 2
∴ f is continues at x = 0
b) i) since g (1) = 3 is defined the first condition is satisfied
ii) limx→1+ g (x) = limx→1+ (4 − x) = 3 and limx→1− g (x) = limx→1− (1 + 2x 2 ) = 3 therefore limx→1 g (x) exist
iii) limx→1 g (x) = g (1) = 3
∴ g is continues at x = 1
If a function f is not continuous at a point c, we say that f is discontinuous at c and c is a point of discontinuity of f . Note
that c need not be in the domain of f .
Example: Explain why the following functions are discontinues at the given number a.
 1 , x 6= 1
a). f (x) = ln |x − 2| at x = 2 b). f (x) = x − 1 at x = 1
2 x =1

( (
ex, if x <1 1 + x2, if x <1
c). f (x) = at x = 1 d). f (x) = at x = 1
x2, x ≥1 4 − x, x ≥1
 2
x −x , i f x 6= 1
e). f (x) = x 2 − 1 at x = 1
1, x =1


Solution Exercise
The point x = a is called a removable discontinuity of a function f if one can remove the discontinuity by redefining the
function at that point x = a. Otherwise, it is called a non removable or an essential discontinuity of f . Clearly, a function
has a removable discontinuity at x = a if and only if limx→a f (x) exists and is finite.

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2.6 Intermediate value theorem BDU

Theorem: Properties of Continuous Functions If the functions f and g are continuous at c then the following combina-
tions are continuous at c

1. Sums: f +g

2. Differences: f −g

3. Products: f ·g

4. Constant multiples: for any number k k·f

5. Quotients: f /g provided g (c) 6= 0

6. Powers: f r /s provided it is defined on an open interval containing c, where r and s are integers

Definition 2.11. : A function f (x) is said to be continuous on (a, b) if it is continues at every point point of (a, b)
2. A function f (x) is said to be continuous on [a, b]
i) f is continues on (a, b)
ii) f is continues from the right at a i.e. limx→a + f (x) = f (a)
iii) f is continues from the left at b i.e. limx→b − f (x) = f (b)
p
Example: 1) f (x) = 1 − x 2 , i s cont i nues on [−1, 1]
1
2) f (x) = p , i s cont i nues on (−2, 2)
4 − x2
Theorem 2.6. :(a) Any polynomial is continuous every where; that is, it is continuous on R = (−∞, ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is continuous on its domain.

2.6 Intermediate value theorem

Theorem 2.7. Intermediate Value Theorem: Suppose that f (x) is continuous on the closed interval[a, b] and let N be any
number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N .

Figure 2.4: the graph of y = f (x) and the line y = N .

If we think of a continuous function as a function whose graph has no hole or break, then it is easy to believe that the
Intermediate Value Theorem is true. In geometric terms it says that if any horizontal line y = N is given between y = f (a)
and y = f (b) as in the above Figure, then the graph of can’t jump over the line. It must intersect y = N somewhere.
It is important that the function f in the above theorem be continuous. The Intermediate Value theorem is not true in
general for discontinuous functions.One use of the Intermediate Value theorem is in locating roots of equations as in the
following example.
Example: Show that there is a root of the equation f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0 between 1 and 2.
Solution Let f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2 we are looking for a solution of the given equation, that is, a number c between 1
and 2 such that f (c) = 0. Therefore we take
a = 1, b = 2 and N = 0 in the above theorem. We have f (1) = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1 < 0 and f (2) = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12 > 0

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2.6 Intermediate value theorem BDU

Thus f (1) < 0 < f (2) that is, N = 0 is a number between f (1) and f (2). Now f is continuous since it is a polynomial, so
the Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that f (c) . In other words, the equation
f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2 has at least one root c in the interval (1, 2).
Exercise a) Evaluate
1 − e 2x x
(1) limx→0 (2) limx→0 =
1 − ex |x|
x3 − 1
(3) limx→0 (x cot x) (4) limx→1 .
x 2 + 2x − 3

sin x tan 2x
(5) limx→0 (6) limx→0 .
tan x 5x
3x + 9 3x + 9
(7) limx→−3 2 (8) limx→3 2 .
x −9 x −9
xe −2x+1
(9) limx→0 2 (10) limx→0+ (x 2 c sc 2 x).
x +x
(1 + x)3 − 1
µ ¶
1 2
(11) limx→1 − 2 (12) limx→0 .
x −1 x −1 x
si n|x|
13) limx→0 (14) limx→1 (x − |x|)
x
b) Find the asymptotes of the graph of f, if
x2 − 3 2x 2x 3 + 7
(1) f (x) = . (2) f (x) = . (3) f (x) = 3 .
2x − 4 x +1 x − x2 + x + 7
c) Classify all the discontinuities and Determine the interval(s) where f is continuous, for
x 2 + 2x − 3 1
(1) f (x) = (2) f (x) = 2 .
x −1 x
1 x 4 − 3x 2 + 2
(3) f (x) = cos . (4) f (x) = 2 .
x x − 3x − 4

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