MatE 215 SPR 2016

Laboratory 1
Crystal Structure
and Material Behavior
Goal
To investigate and demonstrate how the different crystal structures of materials
influences their properties and performance.

Background
Importance of Material Structure
Materials are all around us, yet we rarely stop to think of their underlying structural
complexity. They must be somewhat complex because there are so many different
types of materials: hard, soft, strong, flexible, shiny, transparent, electrically
conductive, magnetic, and so on. It turns out that many of these material properties
in the brief list just presented can be traced to the type of atoms and how they are
arranged in the material. Atomic arrangements tend to be quite important; we can
look at materials at several different levels of magnification (Figure 1).

Macroscopic Level Microscopic Level

Steel wrench Steel microstructure: ferrite (light), pearlite (dark)

Single Atom Level

Unit Cell Level
One Fe atom on a nitride surface imaged
Iron atoms in the BCC unit cell with a Scanning Tunneling Microscope

Figure 1. The four basic length scales of materials. Microstructures and unit cell arrangements can have
profound effects on the macroscopic scale.

It’s amazing that the structural details at the micron (10-6 m, m, micrometers) and
atomic (10-10 m) levels can control the material’s macroscopic behavior. These two
length scales are important here. The micron scale can be viewed under the proper

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conditions in an optical microscope. We call the structure on this scale the

microstructure of a material. We can learn a lot from a material’s microstructure,
but this is not our focus here. Second, and more important for this laboratory, is
what happens on the atomic scale where we can describe the atomic
structure of a material. Usually, we do not need to deal with individual
atoms but rather groups of atoms arranged in regularly repeating three-
dimensional patterns. These patterns are known as crystal structures,
and this is the subject of the laboratory. Most metals and ceramics are
crystalline materials; the steel wrench is crystalline iron (with a few
other alloying elements in there), an example of a crystalline ceramic
component (silicon nitride ball bearings) is shown at right.

Introduction to Crystal Structure – Tiled Patterns

A crystal structure is a regularly repeating arrangement of atoms (in metals) or ions
(in ceramics). Sometimes this is called a lattice. Because the crystal structure will
repeat throughout the solid, we need only identify a small convenient repeat unit
that will describe the entire structure. This repeating unit is called the unit cell. The
unit cell can completely reproduce the crystal structure of that material. This is
handy because we only need to deal with a few atoms in the structure, not all of
them.

Consider a two-dimensional analog to the three-dimensional unit cell – Escher

patterns (after artist M. C. Escher), which are examples of tiled patterns (Figure 2).
The patterns completely fill space in two dimensions, which, incidentally, is not
possible to do in three dimensions, something we will quantify later on in this lab.
The repeating pattern can be completely described by a simple unit cell (red outlines
in Figure 2 images). The unit cell can reproduce the structure by being translated
(moved) along its edges (axes) through the structure.

Figure 2. Two tiled patterns by artist M. C. Escher. The patterns completely fill space in two dimensions.
The unit cells for the patterns are shown with the red outlines.

There are several interesting things about tiled patterns, which can also be applied to
crystals. The most important for us is that the environment surrounding the unit cell
corners is identical. If you were to place yourself at the corner of a unit cell and look
around, then it would not matter which corner of the unit cell you occupied. You can

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verify this is the case for the unit cells shown in Figure 2. To make a connection to
the crystal structure of materials, some of the atoms are going to sit at the corners
of the unit cell; other atoms will occupy other locations in the unit cell.

Material Crystal Structures

Nature loves simplicity, symmetry. The result is that the crystal structures of most
common materials are relatively simple. The unit cells of nearly all the important
crystal structures are based on either a cube or hexagonal prism (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The two most common unit cells for crystal structures: cube, hexagonal prism.

To identify a cube completely, we need only one measurement: the length of the
cube edge. For cubic crystal structures, this is known as a (or sometimes a0) and it
is called the lattice parameter. Hexagonal prisms require two measurements: the
length of the hexagon edge on the base (a), and the prism height (known as c).

Cubic Crystal Structures

Nearly two thirds of all elements in the periodic table fall into one of the two cubic
crystal structures of body-centered cubic (BCC) and face-centered cubic (FCC) shown
in Figure 4.

(a) Body centered cubic (BCC) (b) Face centered cubic (FCC)

Figure 4. The cubic crystal structures (a) body centered cubic, and (b) face centered cubic. The top view
shows the “reduced sphere” model of the unit cell. The bottom view indicates how much of each atom is
contained within each unit cell. The atoms are of one element, different colors emphasize which atoms
are in the center (BCC) or on the faces (FCC) of the unit cells.

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The body centered cubic (BCC) unit cell has atoms at the cube corners and at the
center of the unit cell. The face centered cubic (FCC) unit cell has atoms at the cube
corners and at the center of each face. You will be building these unit cells in the
laboratory.

Directions and Planes in Cubic Crystals

Let’s stay with the high symmetry of the cubic crystal structures for a bit. We have
seen that the atoms lie in specific positions in the unit cell. We can also identify
certain directions (vectors) and planes in the unit cell that contain atoms. This is
important because there are properties of materials that depend on crystallographic
direction or on the behavior of certain crystallographic planes. If a crystal has
different values of the same property in different directions, then that crystal is
termed anisotropic. If a certain property is the same in all crystallographic
directions, then that crystal is called isotropic.

A few examples of anisotropic behavior may help to illustrate. Nickel-base alloy

turbine blades made for the hottest sections of jet engines are strongest along a
certain cubic direction. That direction is aligned with the direction of greatest stress
in the engine. Semiconducting materials will conduct electricity differently in
different crystallographic directions. The process of permanent deformation of
crystalline materials (called plastic deformation) occurs by planes of atoms sliding
over one another.

Everything for directions (vectors) and planes begins with a coordinate system with
the origin at a cube corner. Because the cube corners are equivalent positions for
our unit cell, the origin can be at any corner. The most convenient corner is
probably the “back corner” shown in Figure 5. This figure shows two labeled
directions in a cubic unit cell. Directions are easy because they are just vectors.
Everything is based on the lattice parameter, which corresponds to a unit
measurement. The vectors, crystallographic directions, go from the origin to some
point in the unit cell. For example, the direction [001] is a vector that goes 0 units
on the x-axis, 0 units on the y-axis, and 1 unit on the z-axis. The [110] direction
shown follows the same procedure. The notation for directions is for the numbers to
be surrounded by square brackets.

Figure 5. Directions (vectors) in the cubic unit cell. The numbers in the directions are based on the lattice
parameter unit of measurement.

Directions are straightforward; crystallographic planes are a bit strange. The way we
identify planes still starts with the same coordinate system origin at a unit cell
corner, but then it becomes much different from directions. Planes are identified by

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the reciprocal of their intercepts on the three axes. The reciprocals are called the
Miller indices of the planes. The notation for planes is that the numbers are
surrounded by parentheses. Three planes are labeled in Figure 6. An example might
make this notation clearer. The (100) plane – read “the one zero zero plane” – has
the Miller indices 1, 0, 0. That means that it intercepts the axes at the reciprocals of
those indices: 1/1, 1/0, 1/0 or 1, , . An intercept of  means that plane is parallel
to that axis. So, the (100) plane intersects the x-axis at 1/1 and is parallel to the y-
and z-axes. Other planes follow the same procedure for identifying the Miller indices
and physical location in the unit cell.

Figure 6. A few of the important planes in the cubic unit cell. The numbers shown in parentheses
correspond to the reciprocals of the intercepts on the coordinate axes.

There is so much symmetry in the cubic unit cell that many directions are equivalent
to one another. For example, there is no difference between the [100], [010], and
[001] directions – they all go from the origin to the corner of the cube along an axis.
We can refer to all of the directions that are equivalent as a family of directions. The
notation here for the family of directions just mentioned is <100>.

The same can be said of crystallographic planes in the cubic structure. Equivalent
planes form families, notation {hkl}, where h, k, and l are the Miller indices of the
planes in the family. Examples of families of planes are shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Three important planar families in a cubic unit cell. Examples of the {100}, {110}, and {111}
families are shown. The bar above the Miller index indicates a negative number.

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Hexagonal Close Packed

There is only one unit cell based on the hexagonal prism, and that structure is called
HCP – hexagonal close-packed. The unit cell for HCP is shown on the right hand side
of Figure 8.

Figure 8. The HCP unit cell (far right) showing the three layers of atoms that make up this structure.

The positions of the atoms in HCP may be a bit difficult to visualize, which is why the
three layers are shown in Figure 8. The HCP structure is important: Be, Zn, Zr, Ti
have this unit cell, along with other elements. We will not do anything formal with
directions or planes in the HCP unit cell because these require another type of
notation.

Ceramic Crystal Structures

To this point we have dealt with three crystal structures: BCC, FCC, HCP. Most
metals have one of these structures. So, the unit cells of most metallic elements are
relatively simple. We need to move on to more complex unit cells, and crystal
structures for other materials.

Ceramic crystal structures are more complicated than those of metals. The
complexity comes from the fact that ceramics tend to be composed of multiple
elements. A group of ceramics is the metal oxides like alumina (Al2O3), zirconia
(ZrO2), or magnesia (MgO). Ceramics also can be metal carbides or nitrides such as
tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum nitride (AlN), or silicon nitride (Si3N4). There are
even ceramics that are single elements like silicon (Si) and carbon when in the
diamond structure. Ceramics tend to be hard, strong, stiff, brittle, and melt at high
temperatures. As with metal crystals, the unit cells of ceramic crystal structures
have the ions or atoms arranged in a regular pattern.

We will concentrate on three common ceramic crystal structures (Figure 9):

 Rock salt (NaCl)
 Zinc blende (ZnS)
 Cesium chloride (CsCl)
Notice that each of these unit cells is based on a cube. This is convenient because
they are similar to the FCC and BCC unit cells we have already seen. It appears that

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the CsCl structure is BCC; however, it is not BCC because the CsCl unit cell contains
two types of ions. To be BCC, we must have only one type of atom. We should note
that there are crystal structures for ceramic materials that have noncubic unit cells,
but these go outside the scope of our laboratory.

(a) NaCl structure (b) CsCl structure (c) ZnS structure

Figure 9. Three common ceramic crystal structures. Two types of ions are shown in each.

One of the most important ceramic crystal structures is that associated with
diamond, and it is called the diamond cubic structure (Figure 10). This is the
structure of the pure semiconducting materials Si and Ge. It is interesting that the
structures of diamond cubic and ZnS look similar. The positions of the atoms (Si,
Ge) or ions (Zn, S) are the same in both. But the two structures are different
because diamond cubic contains just one type of atom and the ZnS structure always
has two types of ions.

(a) Diamond cubic unit cell (b) Tetrahedral bonding arrangement

Figure 10. (a) The diamond cubic unit cell made up of carbon atoms. (b) Each carbon atom is bonded to
four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement.

A bit more on the ceramics Si and Ge is in order. These two elements are also
semiconducting materials; they are the main materials of electronic devices like
computers and cell phones. A big difference between metals and semiconductors lies

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with their atomic arrangements (crystal structures) and bonding. Both Si and Ge
have the diamond cubic crystal structure. They are in Group IV of the periodic table
and therefore have four valence electrons. In pure Si or Ge, the atoms will share the
electrons equally with four other atoms through covalent bonding (the sp3-hybridized
bond, tetrahedral bonding arrangement like diamond cubic). Covalent bonds are
strong and do not change angles easily. Covalent bonds are the only type of primary
atomic bond that is directional. This results in a material that is hard, strong, and
brittle.

Allotropy
As you know already, carbon can exist in two crystalline forms: diamond and
graphite (Figure 11). We can say that carbon is allotropic – capable of forming more
than one crystal structure. And crystal structure can greatly change the properties
of the material. Other allotropic elements include Fe and Sn.

(a) Carbon as diamond (b) Carbon as graphite

Figure 11. The two allotropic forms of carbon. Changing crystal structures can lead to vast differences in
the material’s properties.

We can take advantage of a material’s allotropic behavior in applications. The

example of carbon above is a good one; we need graphite for pencils and for
industrial lubricants, and it’s much different from diamond. There are alloys,
mixtures of two or more metallic elements, that can also use allotropic behavior in
applications. The example that we will use for this laboratory is Nitinol (pronounced
nī-tә noሶl). Nitinol is an alloy of nickel and titanium. It is used in numerous
biomedical applications because of its shape-memory properties. It will “remember”
a certain shape that it can return to when heated. Also, Nitinol has “superelastic”
properties, meaning that it can elastically deform much more than most metals. An
application that takes advantage of the superelastic and shape memory properties of
Nitinol is an arterial stent. Stents are small tubular components that act to open up
blocked arteries (Figure 12).

Figure 12. A Nitinol stent (wire mesh component shown) is deployed into a blocked artery. The stent
takes advantage of some of Nitinol’s unique properties.

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Filling Space and Density

Let’s return to tiled patterns once again. It is possible to fill space
completely in two dimensions. The situation changes when we go to three
dimensions and crystal structures. If we model atoms as hard spheres, a
reasonable approximation for crystal structure, it is not possible to fill
space completely in three dimensions. Like tennis balls in a container,
shown at right, there will always be some space between the balls (atoms).

We can quantify how much space the atoms occupy, or how much space is
empty, by calculating the atomic packing factor (APF).

APF = total volume of atoms in unit cell (1)

volume of unit cell

Moving on to mass density… Due to the crystalline nature of metals and ceramics –
that repeating pattern in three dimensions – we can use calculations of a single unit
cell to give us a good approximation of some bulk properties. By knowing how many
atoms are in a unit cell, and how large the unit cell is for a particular crystalline
material, we can calculate the mass density (mass  volume) rather accurately.

Key Terms
Micron
Microstructure
Atomic structure
Crystal structure
Lattice
Unit cell
Tiled pattern
Lattice parameter
Body centered cubic structure
Face centered cubic structure
Anisotropic
Isotropic
Crystallographic directions, including notation
Crystallographic planes, including notation
Miller indices
Family of directions, including notation
Family of planes, including notation
Hexagonal close packed structure
Ceramic
NaCl structure
Zinc blende structure
CsCl structure
Diamond cubic structure
Tetrahedral bonding in diamond
Nitinol
Stent
Atomic packing factor

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Always Be Safe
1. The metal rods for the crystal structure models tend to “pop out” of the bases
when being removed. Take care when removing the metal rods.
2. Liquid nitrogen is at -196C (-321F) and it can give you a bad burn if it touches
your skin. Take care when pouring the liquid nitrogen and when freezing the
pennies.
3. The heat gun used for heating the Nitinol shape memory wire gets extremely hot.
Take care when using the heat gun.

Lab Snapshot
You will be investigating BCC, FCC, HCP, and ceramic unit cells by building each of
them and performing calculations relevant to these crystal structures. You will
demonstrate the effect of crystal structure on the mechanical deformation of
materials. You will get a chance to experience the shape memory and superelastic
properties of Nitinol.

Directions (and Questions)

Building Common Unit Cells
Your team will build the three most common unit cells: FCC, BCC, HCP. Directions
(located at your lab station) and templates and bases (at the lab station, pictured
below) will show you how to do this. Rods will be placed through designated holes
and in the base. Use the single size clear spheres for this part of the lab because
these represent atoms of the same size and identity. You will build up the structure
by adding spheres layer by layer.

A
Template (cardstock with
Base with or
letter on top left corner)

1. BCC and FCC Unit Cells. Find the correct templates and bases for the BCC and
FCC crystal structures. Build the BCC and FCC unit cells. It’s best to build these
at the same time using two different bases and templates.
2. Unit Cell Sketches. With the two unit cell models in front of you, make a labeled
sketch of each in your lab notebook. Your sketch should be an accurate three-
dimensional representation of the complete unit cells (not the layers of atoms
you used to build it). Also, your sketches should be of what you see and not
copied from this handout or a textbook figure. Label your sketches with the
lattice parameter a0.
3. HCP Unit Cell. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the HCP unit cell. In your diagram, be
sure you clearly show how the middle three atoms fit into the unit cell, that is,
which atoms they are touching in the structure. Label your sketch with the a and
c axes of the HCP structure.
 Show your unit cells to your instructor before moving on with the laboratory.
 Keep the models intact to address the questions below. Do not take them apart until much later on in
the laboratory.

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Question 1 – Elements with FCC, BCC, HCP Structures

The periodic table at your lab station will help with the relevant crystal structures.

a. For each crystal structure: list three examples of common metals with that
structure.
b. For one of your metallic elements for each crystal structure, list an example
of an engineering application that uses that metal.

Question 2 – FCC and BCC Calculations

This question applies to FCC and BCC only. Please show your work.

a. Calculate how many atoms are fully contained within each unit cell.
Remember, in real materials there are other unit cells adjacent to the one you
just built, and so adjacent unit cells share atoms.
b. Indicate in a sketch of a cube for each cubic unit cell which direction is close-
packed. The close-packed direction is the one in which the atoms actually
touch. You can indicate this with a vector shown on your unit cell.
c. Derive the equation that relates the lattice parameter (a0) to the radius of the
atoms (R) for each crystal structure.
d. Look at each unit cell and choose the one with the closer packing of atoms.
Then, calculate the APF for each structure to back up your choice.

Question 3 - Density
Use the table below to choose one common metallic element for a-d. This table will also provide the
proper atomic radius value – do not use the periodic table at your lab station for atomic radii data.

a. List 2 common applications that use this metal.

b. Using the atomic radius along with the crystal structure and unit cell of the
element, calculate the mass density in g/cm3 of your metal. You will need to
derive an equation for the density; begin with the definition of mass density
(m/V). Do not simply look up or copy the equation from course notes or a
textbook. Show your work, include units. Avogadro’s number is 6.022 x 1023/mol.
c. Determine the percentage difference from your calculated value with the
experimentally measured one given in the table. This percentage should be
small. Keep in mind that the measured density values are from bulk samples.
d. Explain why the calculated and measured density values are so close
together.

For Part d, you are NOT investigating why there is a “% difference” between the calculated and
measured values; you are looking into why your percentage is virtually zero. You may want to
consider the volume of matter for the calculation in 3b along with an important property of
crystalline materials.

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Data for Common Metallic Elements

Atomic Weight Measured

Element Atomic Radius (nm) Crystal Structure (g/mol) Density (g/cm3)
Ag 0.144 FCC 107.87 10.49
Al 0.143 FCC 26.98 2.71
Au 0.144 FCC 196.97 19.32
Cu 0.128 FCC 63.55 8.94
Fe 0.124 BCC 55.85 7.87
Ni 0.125 FCC 58.69 8.90
Pb 0.175 FCC 207.2 11.35
Pt 0.139 FCC 195.05 21.45
W 0.137 BCC 183.84 19.3

Question 4 – Planes in FCC, BCC

For your sketches below, use the full size of the sphere relative to the cube (that is, if the atoms touch
along a particular direction, make sure your sketch shows that). Also, make sure the dimensions of the
planar (2D) sections are in the correct proportions (for example, the planes you draw might be square or
rectangular shaped).

a. Sketch and label the atomic arrangements of the {100} planes (or cube
faces) for the BCC and FCC unit cells.
b. Repeat for the {110} planes (or body diagonal planes) for the BCC and FCC
crystal structures.
c. On the FCC unit cell, lift up a bottom corner atom and notice that other
nearby atoms go along with it. Sketch the atomic arrangement of the plane
(2D slice) that is revealed when you lift the corner atom. Rotate the base and
try lifting another bottom corner atom. The result should be identical. This
crystallographic plane is considered the close-packed plane because all the
atoms touch in this plane; this is the most efficient packing of spheres in 2D.
Identify this plane using the proper (hkl) indices.
d. The BCC crystal structure (unit cell) does not have a truly close-packed plane,
and thus, is not as efficiently packed as FCC. However, it does have a plane
of atoms with the maximum planar density for its structure. Identify this
plane using the proper (hkl) indices. You should have a sketch of this plane
above.

Crystal Structure and Mechanical Deformation

All pennies look like they are made from copper, but this is not so. Pennies dated
before 1982 are solid copper; those made after 1982 are zinc with a thin copper
plating. For what follows, you will need the crystal structures of copper and zinc;
these are listed on the periodic table at your lab station.
A few important notes before we begin the penny experiments.
 We are not so much interested in how hard/easy it is to bend the pennies as
we are in whether or not they permanently deform.
 We want to investigate the relationship of this permanent deformation ability,
ductility, and crystal structure.

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 The observations you record in your notebook should deal with the ductility of
the pennies and not the ease of deformation.
 The Cu coating on the newer pennies is extremely thin and does not affect its
properties; you can think of these pennies as behaving like Zn.
 The liquid nitrogen temperature will not cause Cu or Zn to change crystal
structure from what it is at room temperature.

1. Pennies and Pliers. Locate 4 pennies at your lab station: 2 are pre-1982, 2 are
post-1982. Also locate two pliers; you will need these to bend test your pennies.
2. Room Temperature Bend Tests. Perform a room-temperature bend test on one
pre-1982 and one post-1982 penny. To do this test, grab the edge of a penny
with one pair of pliers and grip the other end with the second set of pliers. Bend
the penny 90° to give it a large amount of mechanical deformation. Your goal is
to deform the penny plastically with a single bend. Do not bend the pennies
greater than 90°. Record your observations about ductility in your lab notebook.

You should have two pennies left: one pre-1982, one post-1982

3. Liquid Nitrogen Temperature Bend Tests. Pour some liquid nitrogen into the
special foam container at your lab station. Do not fill the container; you just
need an amount of liquid nitrogen so you can immerse each penny in it. Grab
onto one of your remaining pennies with one of the pliers as if you were going to
bend test it, then, still holding onto it with the pliers, immerse it in the liquid
nitrogen bath. Allow the penny to cool completely (this takes a minute or so, the
bubbling should stop; you’ll cool down the ends of the pliers too, that’s OK).
When completely cold, remove the penny from the liquid nitrogen, grab the other
part of it with the other pliers, and perform the 90° bend test as above. Do this
rather quickly because we do not want the penny to warm to room temperature.
Record your observations about ductility in your lab notebook. Repeat this
cooling-and-bend-testing procedure with your remaining penny.

After you are done with the liquid nitrogen for the penny tests, pour it back into the large
container. This will conserve our supply for other lab sections.

Question 5 – Crystal Structure, Temperature, Ductility

Keep in mind that we are relating permanent deformation to crystal structure, and you have the unit cell
models in front of you to aid your explanation. Additionally, the process of permanent deformation
involves close-packed planes of atoms sliding over one another. You will need to refer to certain planes
and directions in each unit cell to explain what is happening. Something else to keep in mind is that the
APF values for FCC (Cu) and HCP (Zn) are the same.

a. For the room temperature tests (pre-1982, post-1982) explain the

relationship of the metal’s ductility to its crystal structure.
b. The cold temperature test is a challenge to explain. You likely saw a big
difference between the two metals. Explain why there was such a difference
in the behavior of Cu and Zn.

 Give your bent and broken penny pieces to your instructor for recycling.
 Dismantle your unit cells. Put the bases, atoms, and rods away in their proper places.

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Nitinol
Nitinol can transform from one crystal structure to another based on temperature.
One structure is noncubic (monoclinic), while the other has the same atomic
arrangement as the CsCl crystal structure. This crystal structure change gives
Nitinol its shape memory quality.
1. Nitinol Wire. Locate the Nitinol wire that is in some shape or spells out a word at
your lab station (you may need to ask your instructor). Gently deform the wire
to a different shape (for example, pull it out gently to straighten it). Do not
deform it too much. Next, holding onto one end of the wire with the pliers, use
the heat gun to heat the deformed wire. Observe what happens. It’s fine if
another team member repeat this.
2. Nitinol Stent. Locate a Nitinol stent, a small wire mesh tube at your lab station.
It should be in a drawer in the small cabinet on the lab bench. The transition
temperature between the two different crystal structures of Nitinol can be
adjusted to be below room temperature. So, we must cool the alloy to
experience the phase transformation. At room temperature, the stent is in the
CsCl crystal structure, but will go through a phase transformation as it cools.
3. Two Water Baths. Using the two beakers at your lab station, make a cold water
bath (use the cold drinking water from the “water cooler” in the hallway opposite
the 215 lab) and a hot water bath (use hot tap water from the 215 lab sink).
4. Stent Tests.
Hold the stent between your finger and thumb so that you will be
deforming it (pinching it) perpendicular to the long axis of tube,
like the pencil shown at right.

Immerse the stent in the cold water bath. Squeeze it while under
the cold water. It should easily deform.

Keeping the stent gently squeezed between your fingers, quickly

move it into the hot water bath. Experience what happens and
record in your lab notebook.

Allow each member of your team to do this test. After completing the tests,
dispose of your two water baths.

Question 6 – Nitinol Stent and Nitinol Applications

a. Think carefully about the question that follows. Imagine what steps are
involved with the process of deploying a stent in a person’s artery. Consider
your experiment with the Nitinol stent in the cold and warm water baths.
Explain how this applies to the use of stents in opening up blocked arteries.
b. List and explain one idea for an application in which engineers could capitalize
on the shape memory effect in Nitinol. Do not include the applications of
stents, eyeglass frames, car bumpers/fenders/body panels, or orthodontic
wires. Clearly explain how your idea would work. Also, explain what might
be a major impediment to implementing your great Nitinol component idea.

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Ceramic Crystal Structures

Time to build a few ceramic unit cells and investigate their structures. Remember
that ceramics can consist of two different atoms or of a single type of atom. Because
the character of the bonds between atoms in ceramics containing two atomic species
is ionic (and most times a mix of ionic and covalent), the structures (unit cells) are
not made up of atoms but ions. The bonding between ceramics like C or Si
containing one type of atom is covalent.
1. Ceramic Unit Cells. Build the NaCl and CsCl crystal structures. Sketch and label
each unit cell in your lab notebook. 3D drawings of the unit cells are best here.
Do not simply copy the diagrams shown in Figure 9.
2. Diamond Cubic Unit Cell. Build the diamond cubic unit cell. Compared to your
FCC and BCC unit cells, this one is going to be large. When your model is
complete, note how each of the interior atoms touches 4 other atoms – a
consequence of the sp3-hybridized bonding. This is the tetrahedral bonding
arrangement mentioned earlier.

Question 7 – Ceramic Applications, Properties, Structure

For your answers to follow, it is important to use the information in this lab write up in your answer.

a. List three examples of ceramics in applications. Briefly explain why a ceramic

material is best for that application.
b. Explain why ceramics are brittle materials.
c. Is the diamond cubic structure close-packed? Explain your rationale. Note: a
close-packed structure is one where you can find a plane of atoms in that
structure where all the atoms touch. For example, FCC and HCP are close-
packed structures.
d. Calculate how many atoms are contained within the diamond cubic unit cell.
As with other crystal structures, adjacent unit cells will share atoms. Show
your work.
e. Briefly explain why diamond is so hard.

Notebook Check
 Answers to Questions 1 – 7 including diagrams, calculations, observations.
 Some additional observations.

Clean Up
• Return all items to their original locations for the next lab team.
• Generally look around your lab area to make sure it is clean and well
organized for the next lab team.
• Push the stools underneath the lab table.

Page | 15 Lab 1: Crystal Structure