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MODULE 1 - INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Description:

Module 1 provides a discussion of some of the preliminary aspects of structural analysis. The
phases of activity necessary to produce a structure are presented first, followed by an
introduction to the basic types of structures, their components, and supports, followed by a
brief explanation of the various types of loads that must be considered for an appropriate
analysis and design. Finally the criteria for structural stability and kinematic indeterminacy are
discussed.

Objectives:

After completing the module, the students are expected to:

1. Understand the preliminary aspects of structural analysis
2. Become familiar with the common structural elements that comprise typical buildings
and bridges
3. Become familiar with loads that engineers must consider in the design +5of buildings
4. Classify determinate and indeterminate structures, and determine the degree of
indeterminacy for the latter; determine if a structure is stable or unstable.
5. Determine the degree of kinematic indeterminacy of beam, truss and frame.

Duration:

Contents:
I. Introduction to Structural Analysis
1. Historical Background
2. Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
3. Classification of Structures
4. Types of Connections
5. Loads on Structures
6. Fundamental Relationships for Structural Analysis
7. Supports on Structures
8. Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability
9. Kinematic Indeterminacy

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Discussion:
I. INTRODUCTION

Course Philosophy

In the design of engineering structures, a thorough knowledge of Structural Theory is very essential
w/out this knowledge, it may not be possible to achieve an efficient structural design w/c should
lead to structural integrity as well as economy of materials.

Structural Analysis. The application of loads to structures causes these structures to deform. As a
result, various stresses are produced in the structures. The calculation of these stresses (axial
forces, shear forces and bending moments) and deformations as well as support reactions is
referred to as structural analysis.

Theory of Structures or structural analysis deals with the prediction of the performance of a
given structure under prescribed loads and/or other external effects such as movements and
temperature changes. The performance characteristics commonly of interest in the design of
structures are (1) stresses or stress resultants, such as axial forces, shear forces, and bending
moments; (2) deflections; and (3) support reactions. Thus, the analysis of a structure usually
involves determination of these quantities as caused by a given loading condition.

Structural Analysis (ST 314) is concerned with (a) the analysis of structures that are statically
determinate and (b) the analysis of structures that are statically indeterminate. A structure is
statically determinate if all support reactions can be determined using the equations of
equilibrium. While for statically indeterminate structures the equations of equilibrium are not
enough to determine all the support reactions and additional conditions are needed to analyze
the structure.

Structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load; composed of one or
more solid elements so arranged that the whole structure as well as their components are
capable of holding themselves without appreciable geometric change during loading and
unloading.

Civil Engineering Structures. The principal structures of concern to civil engineers are bridges,
buildings, walls, dams, towers, and shell structures.

Structural engineering . The science and art of planning, designing and constructing safe and
economical structures that serve their intended purposes. Structural analysis is an integral part
of any structural engineering projects, its functions being the prediction of the performance of
the proposed structures.

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Analysis and Design of Structures

The design of structures involves many considerations among which are four objectives that
must be satisfied:

a. The structure must meet the performance requirement (utility).

b. The structure must carry the loads safely (safety).
c. The structure should be economical in material, construction and cost (economy).
d. The structure should have a good appearance (aesthetics).

Consider for example the roof truss resting on columns below.

The purposes of the roof truss and of the columns are, on the one hand, to hold in
equilibrium their own weights, the load of the roof covering and the wind and the snow. Also to
provide rooms for housing a family, for a manufacturing plant, or for other uses. During the
development, the design is generally optimized to achieve minimum expenditure for materials
and construction.

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Steps in the Structural Design of an engineering project :

1. Planning Phase

The planning phase usually involves the establishment of the functional requirements of the
proposed structure, the general layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration of the
possible types of structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be feasible and the types of
materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced concrete). This phase may also involve
consideration of nonstructural factors, such as aesthetics, environmental impact of the
structure, and so on. The outcome of this phase is usually a structural system that meets the
functional requirements and is expected to be the most economical. This phase is perhaps the
most crucial one of the entire project and requires experience and knowledge of construction
practices in addition to a thorough understanding of the behavior of structures.

2. Preliminary Structural Design

In the preliminary structural design phase, the sizes of the various members of the structural
system selected in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate analysis, past
experience, and code requirements. The member sizes thus selected are used in the next phase
to estimate the weight of the structure.

3. Estimation of Load

Estimation of loads involves determination of all the loads that can be expected to act on the
structure.

4. Structural Analysis

In structural analysis, the values of the loads are used to carry out an analysis of the structure
in order to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the deflections at
various points of the structure.

5. Safety and Serviceability Checks

The results of the analysis are used to determine whether or not the structure satisfies the
safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes. If these requirements are satisfied,
then the design drawings and the construction specifications are prepared, and the
construction phase begins.

6. Revised Structural Design

If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes are revised, and phases 3
through 5 are repeated until all the safety and serviceability requirements are satisfied.

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Classification of Structures

Commonly used structures can be classified into five basic categories, depending on the type of
primary stresses that may develop in their members under major design loads.

A. Tension Structures

The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under the action of external
loads. Because the tensile stress is distributed uniformly over the cross-sectional areas of
members, the material of such a structure is utilized in the most efficient manner. Tension
structures composed of flexible steel cables are frequently employed to support bridges and
long-span roofs. Examples of tension structures are:

1. Suspension bridge. In a suspension bridge, the roadway is suspended from two main
cables by means of vertical hangers. The main cables pass over a pair of towers and are
anchored into solid rock or a concrete foundation at their ends.

2. Vertical rods used as hangers (for example, to support balconies or tanks) and
3. Membrane structures such as tents

Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing
struts. Due to the nature of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often chosen
from rods, bars, angles, or channels.

B. Compression Structures

Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the action of external
loads. Two common examples of such structures are:

1. Columns. Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads. When a
straight member is subjected to lateral loads and/or moments in addition to axial loads,
it is called a beam-column.

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2. An arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable. Such
structures are frequently used to support bridges and long-span roofs.

C. Trusses

Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connections to
form a stable configuration. When the loads are applied to a truss only at the joints, its
members either elongate or shorten. Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always either in
tension or in compression.

D. Shear Structures

Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls are used in multistory buildings to
reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and earthquake excitations. Shear structures
develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the action of
external loads.

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E. Bending Structures

Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external loads. In some
structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in bending moments may also be
significant and should be considered in their designs.

Some of the most commonly used structures, such as beams, rigid frames, slabs, and plates
(surface structures), can be classified as bending structures.

1. A beam is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis, such
as joists, girders, rafters and purlins. The simplest type of beams are simply supported
and cantilever beams, more complicated are the fixed supported beams, propped
beams and the continuous beams which has three or more supports.

2. Rigid frames are composed of straight members connected together either by rigid
(moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections to form stable configurations.
Unlike trusses, which are subjected only to joint loads, the external loads on frames may
be applied on the members as well as on the joints. The members of a rigid frame are, in
general, subjected to bending moment, shear, and axial compression or tension under
the action of external loads.

3. Slabs

4. Plates Surface Structures. A surface structure is made from a material having a very
small thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this material is very

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flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated structure. In both cases the
material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure tension. Surface structures may
also be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete. As such they may be shaped
as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as thin plates
or shells. These structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in
tension or compression, with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell structures
are generally very difficult to analyze, due to the three-dimensional geometry of their
surface.

LOADS ON STRUCTURES

1. Dead Loads

Dead loads are gravity loads of a constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently
on the structure. Dead loads include the weight of the structure itself, weight of the footings,
weight of the walls, beams, columns, flooring materials, ceiling, electrical and mechanical
installations and fixed construction equipment and fixtures.

2. Live Loads

Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the structure.
The magnitude of the design live loads may change, so each member of the structure must be
designed for the position of loads that caused the maximum stress in members. Live loads in
building are usually specified as uniformly distributed surface loads in pounds per square foot
(lb/ft2) or kilopascals (kN/m2).

When live loads are applied rapidly to the structure, they cause large stress than those that
would be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually. The dynamic effect of
the load that caused this increase in stress in the structure is referred to as impact.

Example are moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over a bridge, and
therefore they impart an impact to the deck.

For highway bridges, the AASHTO Specification gives the expression for the impact factor as

In which L is the length in feet of the portion of the span loaded to cause the maximum stress in
the member under consideration.

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Minimum Floor Live load for Buildings

Live Load
Occupancy or Use
psf kPa
Hospital patient rooms, residential dwellings,
40 1.92
hotel guest rooms, school classrooms
Library reading rooms, hospital operating rooms
60 2.87
and laboratories
Dance halls and ballrooms, restaurants,
100 4.79
gymnasiums
Light manufacturing, light storage warehouses,
125 6.00
wholesale stores
Heavy manufacturing, heavy storage
250 11.97
warehouses
3. Environmental Loads

a. Wind Loads are produced by the flow of the wind around the structure. The magnitude of
wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,
obstruction in the surrounding terrain such as nearby buildings and the geometry and the
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.

The estimation of wind loads can be obtained using Bernoullie’s principle:

Where:

( ) (1)
To account for the variation in wind speed with the height and the surroundings on which the
structure is located and to account for the consequences of the failure of structures, ASCE 7
standard modifies (1) as

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Where:

b. Snow/Sand Loads. The design snow or sand loads for a structure is based on the ground
snow or sand load for its geographical location which can be obtained from the building codes.

c. Earthquake Loads. Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with
the ground and its response characteristics. These loadings result from the structure’s
distortion caused by the ground’s motion and the lateral resistance of the structure. Their
magnitude depends on the amount and type of ground accelerations and the mass and stiffness
of the structure.

d. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure. When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular
materials, the pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion for their
design. Examples of such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads, and
retaining walls.

e. Other Natural Loads. Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in the
design of a structure, depending on its location or use. These include the effect of blast,
temperature changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication errors and differential settlement of
the foundation.

FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural analysis, in general, involves the use of three types of relationships:

⮚ Equilibrium equations,
⮚ Compatibility conditions, and
⮚ Constitutive relations.

Equilibrium Equations

• A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest

when subjected to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium,
then all of its members and joints must also be in equilibrium.

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• Recall from statics that for a plane (two-dimensional) structure lying in the XY plane
and subjected to a coplanar system of forces and couples, the equations of
equilibrium for plane structures are:
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 ∑M = 0
• For a space (three-dimensional) structure subjected to a general three dimensional
system of forces and couples , the equations of equilibrium are expressed as
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 ∑M = 0
∑Mx = 0 ∑My = 0 ∑Mz = 0
• For a structure subjected to static loading, the equilibrium equations must be
satisfied for the entire structure as well as for each of its members and joints.
• In structural analysis, equations of equilibrium are used to relate the forces
(including couples) acting on the structure or one of its members or joints.

Compatibility Conditions

• The compatibility conditions relate the deformations of a structure so that its various
parts (members, joints, and supports) fit together without any gaps or overlaps.
These conditions (also referred to as the continuity conditions) ensure that the
deformed shape of the structure is continuous (except at the locations of any
internal hinges or rollers), and is consistent with the support conditions.

Compatibility conditions requires that the

deflected shapes of the members of a
structure be continuous and be consistent
with the displacements at the
corresponding ends of the members.

Connections

Two types of connections used to join members of

structures:
• (1) rigid connections
• (2) flexible or hinged connections

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1. Rigid connections

Rigid connection or fixed joint allows no relative rotation between the connected
members or it prevents relative translations and rotations of the member ends
connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to a rigid joint have the same
translation and rotation. Examples are welded connection in metals and connections
between members in concrete.

2. Flexible or hinged connections

Flexible or hinged connected joint allows some freedom for slight rotation. For
most timber structures, the members are assumed to be hinged or pin connected, since
bolting or nailing them will not sufficiently restrain them from rotating with respect to
each other.

Note: A third type of connection, termed a semirigid connection, although recognized

by structural steel design codes, is not commonly used in practice.

Constitutive Relations

The constitutive relations (also referred to as the stress-strain relations) describe the
relationships between the stresses and strains of a structure in accordance with the
stress-strain properties of the structural material. As discussed previously, the
equilibrium equations provide relationships between the forces, whereas the
compatibility conditions involve only deformations. The constitutive relations provide
the link between the equilibrium equations and compatibility conditions that is
necessary to establish the load-deformation relationships for a structure or a member.

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In the analysis of framed structures, the basic stress-strain relations are first used, along
with the member equilibrium and compatibility equations, to establish relationships
between the forces and displacements at the ends of a member. The member force-
displacement relations thus obtained are then treated as the constitutive relations for
the entire structure, and are used to link the structure’s equilibrium and compatibility
equations, thereby yielding the load-deformation relationships for the entire structure.
These load-deformation relations can then be solved to determine the deformations of
the structure due to a given loading.

SUPPORTS ON STRUCTURES

Supports are used to attach structures to the ground or other bodies, thereby resisting their
movements under the action of applied loads. The loads tend to move the structures but
supports prevent the movements by exerting opposing forces or reactions to neutralize the
effects of loads, thereby keeping the structures is equilibrium. The type of reaction a support
exerts on a structure depends on the type of supporting device used and the type of movement
it prevents.

Types of Supports on Plane Structures

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DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY AND INSTABILITY OF BEAMS,

TRUSSES AND FRAMES

When all the reactions in a structure can be determined from the equilibrium equations, the
structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown forces than
available equilibrium equations are called statically indeterminate.

Internal Stability

A structure is considered to be internally stable or rigid, if it maintains its shape and remains a
rigid body when detached from the supports. (Fig. 3.7).

A structure is termed internally unstable (or non-rigid) if it cannot maintain its shape and may
undergo large displacements under small disturbances when not supported externally. (Fig.
3.8).

Equations of Condition (Internally Unstable Structures)

The presence of an internal hinge yields an additional equation that can be used with the three
equilibrium equations. The additional equation is based on the condition that an internal hinge
cannot transmit moment; that is, the moments at the ends of the parts of the structure
connected to a hinged joint are zero. Such additional equation(s) are commonly referred to as
the equations of condition or construction.

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For a structure connected by an internal roller, since an internal roller can transmit neither
moment or force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface, the internal roller provides
two equations of condition.

A. Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy and Instability of Beams

Internally Stable:
a. r< 3 the beam is statically unstable externally
b. r= 3 the beam is statically determinate externally*
c. r> 3 the beam is statically indeterminate externally*

The reactions in excess (called external redundants) is referred to as the degree of external
indeterminacy (DSI).
DSI = r – 3

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Internally Unstable (internal supports):

a. r< 3 + c the beam is statically unstable externally
b. r= 3 + c the beam is statically determinate externally*
c. r> 3 + c the beam is statically indeterminate externally*
DSI = r – (3 + c)

Alternative approach (internally unstable):

DSI = ft – 3n ;

B. Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy and Instability of Plane Trusses

Internally Stable:
a. b + r < 2j the truss is statically unstable externally
b. b + r =2j the truss is statically determinate externally*
c. b + r > 2j the truss is statically indeterminate externally*
DSI = (b + r) – 2j

Internally Unstable (internal supports):

a. b + r < 2j + c the truss is statically unstable externally
b. b + r =2j + c the truss is statically determinate externally *
c. b + r > 2j + c the truss is statically indeterminate externally *
DSI = (b + r) – (2j + c)

C. Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy and Instability of Plane Frames

Internally Stable:
a. 3b + r < 3j the truss is statically unstable externally
b. 3b + r = 3j the truss is statically determinate externally*
c. 3b + r > 3j the truss is statically indeterminate externally*
DSI = (3b + r) – 3j

Internally Unstable (internal supports):

a. 3b + r < 3j + c the truss is statically unstable externally
b. 3b + r = 3j + c the truss is statically determinate externally*
c. 3b + r > 3j + c the truss is statically indeterminate externally*
DSI = (3b + r) – (3j + c)

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where: b – no. of members

j – no. of joints
c – equations of condition
c = 1 for internal hinge or pin
c = 2 for internal roller

For a joint where more than two members meet at that joint:
c = (no. of members meeting at the joint – 1) for hinge or pin connection
c = 2(no. of members meeting at the joint – 1) for roller connection

* provided that no geometrical instability is involved

For the two conditions, (b) and (c), the structure may still be unstable due to improper
arrangement of supports or some of the components form a collapsible mechanism. Such
structures are referred to as geometrically unstable externally.

Two types of reaction arrangements that cause geometric instability are:

a. all the member reactions are concurrent
b. all the reactions are parallel

If the structure is unstable, it does not matter if it is statically determinate or indeterminate.

In all cases such types of structures must be avoided in practice.

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Problems:
Classify each of the structures as statically determinate or indeterminate, stable or
unstable. If the structure is stable and indeterminate, specify the degree of indeterminacy.

A. Beams
1.

By inspection, it is stable.
r=3 c=0
3+c=3
r =3+c
it is statically determinate

2.

By inspection, it is stable.
r=5 c=0
3+c=3
r >3+c
it is statically indeterminate
DSI = r – (3+c)
=5–3
DSI = 2o
3.

By inspection, it is stable.
r=8 c=0
3+c=3
r >3+c
it is statically indeterminate
DSI = r – (3+c)
=8–3
DSI = 5o
4.

By inspection, it is unstable.
Since reactions are parallel
(Note: Useless to compare r with 3 + c)
unstable

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5.

By inspection, it is unstable.
Since reactions are concurrent
(Note: Useless to compare r with 3 + c)
unstable
6.

hinge

By inspection, it is stable.
r=6 c=1
3+c=4
r >3+c
it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 6 – 4
DSI = 2o
Alternate solution:
ft = r + ri n=2
=6+2=8 3n = 6
ft > 3n it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 8 – 6
DSI = 2o
7.

By inspection, it is stable.
r=6 c=2
3+c=3
r >3+c
it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 6 – 5
DSI = 1o

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Alternate solution:
ft = r + ri n=2
=6+1=7 3n = 6
ft > 3n it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 7 – 6
DSI = 1o

8.

r=3 c=2
3+c=5
r <3+c
it is unstable
Alternate solution:
ft = r + ri n=3
=3+4=7 3n = 9
ft < 3n it is unstable
Or by inspection, top member can be move horizontally without restrain, it is
unstable.

Trusses
1.

By inspection, it is stable.
b=5 j=4
r=3 c=0
b+r=8 2j = 8
b + r = 2j + c , it is statically determinate

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2.

By inspection, it is stable.
b = 14 j=8
r=4 c=0
b + r = 18 2j = 16
b + r > 2j + c , it is statically indeterminate.
DSI = 18 – 16
DSI = 2o

3.

By inspection, it is internally unstable (jt. C)

Check if it is stable as a whole:
r=4 c=1
r=3+c 3+c=4
it is stable
Determine if it is determinate or indeterminate:
b = 14 j=9
r=4
b + r = 18 2j = 18
b + r = 2j , it is statically determinate.
4.

By inspection, it is internally unstable (BC // GH)

Check if it is stable as a whole:
r=4 c=1
r=3+c 3+c=4
it is stable

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Determine if it is determinate or indeterminate:

b = 14 j=9
r=4
b + r = 18 2j = 18
b + r = 2j , it is statically determinate.

5.

By inspection, it is internally unstable (member CD)

Check if it is stable as a whole:
r=4 c=2
3 +c=5
r <3+c 4<3+2
it is unstable
Note: Useless to compare (b + r) with 2j, even though b+r = 2j

6.

By inspection, it is stable:
b=6 j=5
r=3
b+r=9 2j = 10
b + r < 2j , it is unstable

7.

By inspection, it is internally unstable (// members)

Check if it is stable as a whole:
r=3 c=1
3+c=4
r <3+c 3<3+1
it is unstable
Note: Useless to compare (b + r) with 2j, even though b+r = 2j

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C. Frames
1.

By inspection, no // or concurrent reactions, it is stable:

b=3 j=4
r=5 c=2
3b + r = 14 3j + c = 14
Since 3b + r = 3j +c , it is statically determinate

Alternative solution:
free body diagrams:

f t = r + ri = 5 + 4 = 9 3n = 3(3) = 9

ft = 3n , it is statically determinate

or: r = 5 c=2
r = 3 + c , it is statically determinate
2.

By inspection, no // or concurrent reactions, it is stable:

b=4 j=5
r=8 c=1
3b + r = 20 3j + c = 16
Since 3b + r > 3j +c , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 20 – 16
DSI = 4o

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Alternative solution:
free body diagrams:

ft = r + ri = 8 + 2 = 10 3n = 3(2) = 6
ft > 3n , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 10 – 6
DSI = 4o
or: r = 8 c=1 ; 3+c=4
r > 3 + c , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 8 – 4
DSI = 4o

3.

By inspection, no // or concurrent reactions, it is stable:

b=8 j=8
r=9 c=0
3b + r = 33 3j + c = 24
Since 3b + r > 3j +c , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 33 – 24
DSI = 9o
Alternative solution:
free body diagrams:

ft = r + ri = 9 + 9 = 18 3n = 3(3) = 9
ft > 3n , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 18 – 9
DSI = 9o

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4.

By inspection, no // or concurrent reactions, it is stable:

b=7 j=8
r=9 c=0
3b + r = 30 3j + c = 24
Since 3b + r > 3j +c , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 30 – 24
DSI = 6o
Alternative solution:
free body diagrams:

ft = r + ri = 9 + 9 = 18 3n = 3(4) = 12
ft > 3n , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 18 – 12
DSI = 6o
or: r = 9 c=0
r > 3 + c , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 9 – 3
DSI = 6o

5.

By inspection, no // or concurrent reactions, it is stable:

b = 14 j = 13
r = 11 c = (4-1) + (2-1) + 2(3-1) = 8
3b + r = 53 3j + c = 47
Since 3b + r > 3j +c , it is statically indeterminate
DSI = 53 – 47
DSI = 6o

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DEGREE OF KINEMATIC INDETERMINACY

Definition of Terms:

1. Nodes – are points at which equilibrium will be enforced and displacements found. They are
generally located at the ends of members for most common structural shapes such as rods
or beams. However, it is also possible that nodes may be located at interior points of a
member.

2. Degrees of freedom (DOFs). The number of degrees of freedom at a node is equal to the
number of possible displacements (translations - x and y directions /rotations) of that node.
That is, the number of displacements that need to be specified in order to define uniquely
the position of a node equals the number of degrees of freedom of that node.

For a one-dimensional bar or rod element, where displacements are restricted to a

translation in the axial direction of the bar, each node has a single degree of freedom.

For a two-dimensional truss element, each node has two degrees of freedom that
correspond to translations in two directions (say x and y directions).

For a two-dimensional beam element, we have one translation and one rotation possible at
each node, yielding two degrees of freedom per node.

For a two-dimensional frame element, each node has the capability of translating in two
directions and rotating about one axis. Thus we have three degrees of freedom for each
node.

3. Degree of kinematic indeterminacy (DKI) – is equal to the total number of degrees of

freedom (DOFs) of a structure that must be constrained to ensure zero displacements of the
structure excluding boundary conditions. It is equal to the total number of DOFs of the
structure minus the number of restraints (or reactions) present.

DKI = DOFs (total no.) – no. of reactions/restraints

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Problems:

Specify the degree of kinematic indeterminacy of the following structures:

A. Rod

1. 2.

No. of nodes = 4 No. of nodes = 4

Tot. no. of Dofs = 4(1) = 4 Tot. no. of Dofs = 4(1) = 4
No. of Restraints, r = 2 No. of Restraints, r = 2
DKI = 4 – 2 DKI = 4 – 2
DKI = 2o DKI = 2o

B. Truss

1. 2.

No. of nodes = 14 No. of nodes = 8

Tot. no. of Dofs = 14(2) = 28 Tot. no. of Dofs = 8(2) = 16
No. of Restraints, r = 4 No. of Restraints, r = 3
DKI = 28 – 4 DKI = 16 – 3
DKI = 24o DKI = 13o

C. Beam
1. 2.

No. of nodes = 4 No. of nodes = 4

Tot. no. of Dofs = 4(2) = 8 Tot. no. of Dofs = 4(2) = 8
No. of Restraints, r = 4 No. of Restraints, r = 5
DKI = 8 – 4 DKI = 8 – 5
DKI = 4o DKI = 3o

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D. Frame
1. 2.

No. of nodes = 8 No. of nodes = 24

Tot. no. of Dofs = 8(3) = 24 Tot. no. of Dofs = 24(3) = 72
No. of Restraints, r = 8 No. of Restraints, r = 21
DKI = 24 – 8 DKI = 72 – 21
DKI = 16o DKI = 51o

3. 4.

Frame elements: Frame elements:

No. of nodes = 4 No. of nodes = 6
No. of Dofs = 4(3) = 12 No. of Dofs = 6(3) = 18
Truss elements: Truss elements:
No. of Dofs = 6(2) = 12 No. of Dofs = 1(2) = 2
Tot. no. of Dofs = 12 + 12 = 24 Tot. no. of Dofs = 18 + 2 = 20
No. of Restraints, r = 6 No. of Restraints, r = 6
DKI = 24 – 6 DKI = 20 – 6
DKI = 18o DKI = 14o

Reference Books
1. Hibbler, R.C., Structural Analysis, 8th Ed., Prentice Hall ; p. 3-55
2. Leet, Kenneth, Uang, Chia-Ming, Lanning, Joel and Gilbert, Anne M., FUNDAMENTALS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, FIFTH EDITION; McGraw-Hill Education, Copyright © 2018 ; p. 3 - 113
3. Kassimali, Aslam; Understanding Structural Analysis; CENGAGE Learning; 2011; p. 12 - 52

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