Theory of Structures 1

MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Description:
In this module, the process on how structural design works in real practice is to be discuss
followed by the presentation of different classification of structures and its different types of
connections and support reactions. Afterwards, different loads that may act on the structure that is
needed for analysis are to be discussed and followed by the calculation of how the structure will
respond due to that loads by the concept of equilibrium
Objectives:
At the end of this module, students must:
1. Be able to understand how structural analysis works in real practice.
2. Be able to familiarize themselves on the different structural members, connections and
reactions.
3. Be able to distinguished the different loads acting on every structural members.
4. Be able to solve problems regarding equilibrium of structures.

Contents:
I. Introduction to Structural Analysis
1. Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
2. Classification of Structures
3. Types of Connections and Support Reactions
4. Loads on Structures
5. Equilibrium of Structures

Discussion

Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects

Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing, and constructing safe
and economical structures that will serve their intended purposes. Structural analysis is an integral
part of any structural engineering project, its function being the prediction of the performance of
the proposed structure.
1. Planning Phase – it usually involves the establishment of the functional requirements of
the proposed structure, the general layout and dimensions of the structure, and
consideration of the possible types of structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be
feasible and the types of materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced concrete).
This phase may also involve consideration of nonstructural factors, such as aesthetics,
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environmental impact of the structure, and so on. The outcome of this phase is usually a
struc tural system that meets the functional requirements and is expected to be the most
economical. This phase is perhaps the most crucial one of the entire project and requires
experience and knowledge of construction practices in addition to a thorough
understanding of the behavior of structures.

2. Preliminary Structural Design – in this phase, the sizes of the various members of the
structural system selected in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate
analysis, past experience, and code requirements. The member sizes thus selected are used
in the next phase to estimate the weight of the structure.

3. Estimation of Loads - involves determination of all the loads that can be expected to act
on the structure.

4. Structural Analysis - the values of the loads are used to carry out an analysis of the
structure in order to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the
deflections at various points of the structure.

5. Safety and Serviceability Check - The results of the analysis are used to determine
whether or not the structure satisfies the safety and serviceability requirements of the
design codes. If these requirements are satisfied, then the design drawings and the
construction specifications are prepared, and the construction phase begins.

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6. Revised Structural Design – If the code requirements are not sat isfied, then the member
sizes are revised, and phases 3 through 5 are repeated until all the safety and serviceability
requirements are satisfied.

Classification of Structures
Commonly used structures can be classified into five basic categories, depending on the
type of primary stresses that may develop in their members under major design loads. However, it
should be realized that any two or more of the basic structural types described in the following
may be combined in a single structure, such as a building or a bridge, to meet the structure’s
functional requirements.

1. Tension Structures
The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under the action of external
loads. Tension structures composed of flexible steel cables are frequently employed to support
bridges and long-span roofs. Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness
and can develop only tension. Thus, under external loads, a cable adopts a shape that enables it to
support the load by tensile forces alone. Example of tension structures are suspension bridge,
vertical rods used as hangers and membrane structures such as tents.

2. Compression Structures
Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the action of external loads.
Two common examples of such structures are columns and arches. Because compression
structures are susceptible to buckling or instability, the possibility of such a failure should be
considered in their designs; if necessary, adequate bracing must be provided to avoid such failures.
• Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads

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• An arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable Arches
develop mainly compressive stresses when subjected to loads and are usually designed so
that they will develop only compression under a major design loading

3. Trusses
Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connections to form
a stable configuration. When the loads are applied to a truss only at the joints, its members either
elongate or shorten. Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always either in uniform tension or in
uniform compression.

4. Shear Structures
Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls, are used in multistory buildings to reduce
lateral movements due to wind loads and earthquake excitations. Shear structures develop mainly
in-plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the action of external loads.

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5. Bending Structures
Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external loads. In some
structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in bending moments may also be
significant and should be considered in their designs. Some of the most commonly used structures,
such as beams, rigid frames, slabs, and plates, can be classified as bending structures.
• A beam is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis, such as
joists, girders, rafters and purlins. The simplest type of beams are simply supported and
cantilever beams, more complicated are the fixed supported beams, propped beams and the
continuous beams which has three or more supports

• Rigid frames are composed of straight members connected together either by rigid
(moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections to form stable configurations.
Unlike trusses, which are subjected only to joint loads, the external loads on frames may
be applied on the members as well as on the joints. The members of a rigid frame are, in
general, subjected to bending moment, shear, and axial compression or tension under the
action of external loads.

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Types of Connections and Reactions

Connections
Two types of connections are commonly used to join members of structures:
• Rigid Connections
• Flexible or hinged connections
1. Rigid Connections
A rigid connection or joint prevents relative translations and rotations of the member ends
connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to a rigid joint have the same translation and
rotation. In other words, the original angles between the members intersecting at a rigid joint are
maintained after the structure has deformed under the action of loads. Such joints are, therefore,
capable of transmitting forces as well as moments between the connected members.

2. Flexible or hinged connections

A hinged connection or joint prevents only relative translations of mem ber ends connected to it;
that is, all member ends connected to a hinged joint have the same translation but may have
different rotations. Such joints are thus capable of transmitting forces but not moments between
the con nected members. Hinged joints are usually depicted by small circles at the intersections of
members on the line diagram of the structure.

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Supports
Supports for plane structures are commonly idealized as either fixed supports, which do not allow
any movement; hinged supports, which can prevent trans lation but permit rotation; or roller, or
link, supports, which can prevent translation in only one direction.

Loads on Structures
Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads
In most common buildings, bridges, and other civil engineering facilities, two or more of the basic
structural types (e.g., beams, columns, slabs, trusses, etc.) are assembled together to form a
structural system that can transmit the applied loads to the ground through the foundation. Such
structural systems are also referred to as framing systems or frameworks, and the components of
such an assemblage are called structural members.

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Different Types of Loads

1. Dead Loads
Dead loads are gravity loads of a constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on
the structure. Dead loads include the weight of the structure itself, weight of the footings, weight
of the walls, beams, columns, flooring materials, ceiling, electrical and mechanical installations
and fixed construction equipment and fixtures.
2. Live Loads
Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the structure. The
magnitude of the design live loads may change, so each member of the structure must be designed
for the position of loads that caused the maximum stress in members. Live loads in building are
usually specified as uniformly distributed surface loads in pounds per square foot (lb/ft 2) or
kilopascals (kN/m2).
When live loads are applied rapidly to the structure, they cause large stress than those that would
be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually. The dynamic effect of the load
that caused this increase in stress in the structure is referred to as impact.
Example are moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over a bridge, and therefore
they impart an impact to the deck.
For highway bridges, the AASHTO Specification gives the expression for the impact factor as:
50
𝐼= ≤ 0.3
𝐿 + 125

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In which L is the length in feet of the portion of the span loaded to cause the maximum stress in
the member under consideration.
Minimum Floor Live Loads

3. Environmental Loads
a. Wind Loads are produced by the flow of the wind around the structure. The magnitude of wind
loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure, obstruction
in the surrounding terrain such as nearby buildings and the geometry and the vibrational
characteristics of the structure itself.
b. Snow/Sand Loads. The design snow or sand loads for a structure is based on the ground snow
or sand load for its geographical location which can be obtained from the building codes.
c. Earthquake Loads. Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with
the ground and its response characteristics. These loadings result from the structure’s distortion
caused by the ground’s motion and the lateral resistance of the structure. Their magnitude depends
on the amount and type of ground accelerations and the mass and stiffness of the structure.
d. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure. When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular
materials, the pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion for their
design. Examples of such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads, and retaining
walls.
e. Other Natural Loads. Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in the
design of a structure, depending on its location or use. These include the effect of blast, temperature
changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication errors and differential settlement of the foundation.

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Fundamental Relationships for Structural Analysis

Structural analysis, in general, involves the use of three types of relationships:

• Equilibrium Conditions
• Compatibility Conditions
• Constitutive Relations

Equilibrium Conditions
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected
to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all of its members and joints
must also be in equilibrium.
For plane structure (two dimensional), we recall:

∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 ; ∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 ; ∑𝑴 = 𝟎

For space structure (three dimensional), we recall:

∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 ; ∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 ; ∑ 𝑭𝒛 = 𝟎

∑ 𝑴𝒙 = 𝟎 ; ∑ 𝑴𝒚 = 𝟎 ; ∑ 𝑴𝒛 = 𝟎

Compatibility Conditions
The compatibility conditions relate the deformations of a structure so that its various parts
(members, joints, and supports) fit together without any gaps or overlaps. These conditions (also
referred to as the continuity conditions) ensure that the deformed shape of the structure is
continuous (except at the locations of any internal hinges or rollers), and is consistent with the
support conditions.

Two – Force and Three – Force Structures

1. If a structure is in equilibrium under the action of only two forces, the forces must be equal,
opposite, and collinear.
2. If a structure is in equilibrium under the action of only three forces, the forces must be either
concurrent or parallel.

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External and Internal Forces

External forces are the actions of other bodies on the structure under con sideration. For the
purposes of analysis, it is usually convenient to further classify these forces as applied forces and
reaction forces. Applied forces, usually referred to as loads (e.g., live loads and wind loads), have
a tendency to move the structure and are usually known in the analysis. Reaction forces, or
reactions, are the forces exerted by supports on the structure and have a tendency to prevent its
motion and keep it in equilibrium. The reactions are usually among the unknowns to be determined
by the analysis. The state of equilibrium or motion of the structure as a whole is governed solely
by the external forces acting on it.

Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a member or portion of the structure by the
rest of the structure. These forces develop within the struc ture and hold the various portions of it
together. The internal forces always occur in equal but opposite pairs, because each member or
portion exerts back on the rest of the structure the same forces acting upon it but in opposite
directions, according to Newton’s third law. Because the internal forces cancel each other, they do
not appear in the equations of equilibrium of the entire structure. The internal forces are also among
the unknowns in the analysis and are determined by applying the equations of equilibrium to the
individual members or portions of the structure.

Computations Regarding Equilibrium

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the reactions of plane statically
determinate structures subjected to coplanar loads.
1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the structure.
2. Determine the unknown reactions by applying the equations of equilibrium and condition (if
any) to the entire structure. To avoid solving simultaneous equations, write the equilibrium and
condition equa tions so that each equation involves only one unknown.
3. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation that has not been used before to the entire structure
to check the computations.

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Problems:
From the given systems below, Calculate all the reactions at all supports as well as at the internal
support (if present).
1.

2.

3.

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4.

5.

6.

7.

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