Syllabus of transition metals

Characteristics of transition metals

Oxidation states of transition metals
Complex ion and metal complex
Shape of complex ions
d orbital in complex ion( simple explanation by cft ) for octahedral complex
Reason for the coloration of transition metal compounds
Catalytic properties of transition metals

Transition Elements
Transition elements are those elements that have partially filled d-orbitals.
d- block elements: The elements which involve the filling of d-orbitals in the penultimate shell.
d-block elements are often called transition elements because,
a. their position in the periodic table is between the s-block and p-block elements and
b. Their properties are transitional between the highly reactive elements of s-block which typically
form ionic compounds and elements of p-block which are largely covalent
Elements of group 12 (Zn, Cd and Hg) are not regarded as true transition elements as they have
completely filled d-orbital and also they don’t show the properties as other transition elements like
catalytic properties, colorful compounds, variable oxidations state etc.
Importance of Transition elements for mankind
1. Transition elements form colored compounds which are used as pigments for traffic lane paints,
ceramics glaze and oil paints.
2. Hemoglobin is a complex of Fe. 7. Rh, Pt, Pd mixture is used as catalytic
3. Cu is used for making wires. converter in car exhaust.
4. Cr is used in making car bumpers. 8. V is used for fat metabolism.
5. Fe is used for making pipes. 9. Cr is used for glucose metabolism.
6. Light bulbs use Tungsten. 10. Cu and Mn are used in cell respiration.
Electronic Configuration of Transition Elements
General electronic configuration of transition metal is (n-1)d 1-10 ns1-2. It can be noted that in some of these
elements, the configuration of electrons corresponds to (n-1)d 5 ns1 or (n-1)d10 ns1. This is because of the
stability provided by the half-filled or completely filled electron orbitals.
It can be observed that the Aufbau principle is not followed by many transition elements like chromium,
copper etc. The reason for this is believed to be the relatively low energy gap between the 3d and 4s
orbitals, and the 4d and 5s orbitals.
All the transition (d-block) elements are classified into four series:
 i. First transition series (3d-series):
It includes elements from Sc (21) to Zn (30) with valance shell electronic configuration 3 d 1-10
4s2. These elements belong to 4th period.
ii. Second transition series (4d-series):
It includes elements from Y (39) to Cd (48) with valance shell electronic configuration 4d 1-10
5s2. These elements belong to 5th period.
iii. Third transition series (5d- series):
It includes elements from La (57) to Hg (80) with valance shell electronic configuration 5d 1-10
6s2. These elements belong to 6th period.
iv. Fourth transition series (6d-series):
It includes elements Ac (89) and those beyond Rf (104) with valance shell electronic
configuration 6d1-10 7s2.These elements belong to 7th period.

Characteristics of transition elements

1. General valance shell electronic configuration of transition elements is (n-1)d 1-10 ns2.
2. They have variable valency and oxidation states in their compounds because electrons from both (n-1)d
and ns orbitals participate in bonding due to their comparable energy.
3. They have high melting and boiling point because electrons in partially filled d-orbitals participate in
metallic bonding. Exception: Zn, Cd & Hg have low melting and boiling. This is because of their
complete d-orbitals and d-electrons do not participate in metallic bonding.
4. The compounds of transition metals are colored due to the presence of unpaired electrons in their d-
orbitals and d-d electronic transition. Metals having d 0 and d10 configurations are colorless because
there is no possibility of d-d electronic transition due to empty and completely filled d-orbitals
respectively.
5. They are good at forming complexes. Because they have small and highly charged ions and have vacant
low energy orbitals to accept lone pair of electrons donated by other groups (ligands).
6. Many transition metals and their compounds have catalytic properties. This is because,
In some cases, the transition metals with their variable valency/oxidation state may form unstable
intermediate compounds with reactants.
In other cases, transition metals provide a suitable reaction surface on which reactant may be absorbed.
7. Most of the transition elements are paramagnetic. Para magnetism arises from the presence of unpaired
electrons in atoms, ions, complex ions or molecules. Eg. Fe, Ni, Co etc.
In diamagnetic substance, all the electrons are paired. Eg. Sc3+, Ti4+, Cu+ etc.
Magnetic moment is obtained by, µ = √ n(n+ 2) , Where n is number of unpaired electron.
Mn has 5 unpaired and has maximum magnetic activity.
In case of Fe, Co and Ni unpaired electrons are more pronounced so they are more paramagnetic than
others and are said to be ferromagnetic i.e. They can be magnetized.
8. They can form both ionic and covalent compounds.
In low oxidation state they form ionic compounds and
in higher oxidation state they for covalent compounds
9. These elements can form solid solution and alloy because they are quite similar in size and can be
substituted mutually to one another in crystal lattice.
Oxidation state of transition elements
The outermost electronic configuration of transition elements is (n-1)d 1-10 ns2. Since (n-1)d and ns orbitals
are close in energy, both ns and (n-1)d –electrons participate in bonding showing variable oxidation
states.
Eg. Sc (3d1 4s2) could have an oxidation number +II if two s-electrons are used in bonding and +III if two
s-electrons and one d-electron are used in bonding.

Conclusion from observed oxidation states

1. Most common oxidation state shown by 3d-series is +2.
2. The highest oxidation states are observed in Ru & Os and is +8.
3. The transition elements in +2 & +3 oxidation states mostly form ionic compound while in higher
oxidation state form covalent compounds.
4. They also form compounds in low oxidation states such as +1 & zero.
eg. In Ni (CO)4, Ni is in zero oxidation state.
 Element At. Electronic Oxidation no.
s No. Configuration

Catalytic properties of Sc 21 [Ar] 3d1 4s2 +2, +3

transition elements
Many transition metals and their Ti 22 [Ar] 3d2 4s2 +2, +3, +4
compounds have catalytic
properties V 23 [Ar] 3d3 4s2 +2, +3, +4, +5
Some examples are:
1. Fe: in the Haber’s synthesis of +1, +2, +3, +4,
Cr 24 [Ar] 3d5 4s1
ammonia +5, +6
2. V2O5 : In Contact process in
converting SO2 to SO3. +2, +3, +4, +5,
Mn 25 [Ar] 3d5 4s2
3. MnO2: In the decomposition of +6, +7
KClO3 to O2.
4. TiCl4: In the polymerization of +2, +3, +4, +5,
Fe 26 [Ar] 3d6 4s2
ethene. +6
5. Ni: In hydrogenation.
6. Pt/Rh: In Ostwald’s synthesis Co 27 [Ar] 3d7 4s2 +2, +3, +4, +5
of nitric acid.
Explanation: Ni 28 [Ar] 3d8 4s2 +2, +3, +4
Transition elements have
partially filled/empty d-orbitals Cu 29 [Ar] 3d10 4s1 +1, +2
and show variable oxidation
states due to which they can Zn 30 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 +2
form unstable intermediate
product with reactants. These intermediate products decompose to give the final product regenerating the
catalyst.
X + Y + Catalyst → X.Y.catalyst → Z + catalyst
unstable intermediate
eg. SO2 + O2 → SO3 + Heat V2O5 + SO2→ V2O4 + SO3 V2O4 + O2→ V2O5
In some cases finely divided metals or their compounds provide suitable surface for the reaction to take
place. The reactants are absorbed on the surface of the catalyst where reaction occurs. This increases the
concentration of reactant molecule in the surface of catalyst and weakens the bond of reactant (lowers
activation energy). Transition metal ions can change their oxidation state and therefore can act as
effective catalyst.
Color of transition metal complexes
According to CFT, the color of transition metal complexes is due to d-d electronic transition between e g and
t2g orbitals by the absorption of light in the visible region, then the transmitted light is coloured with
complementary color of absorbed light. For example, [Cu(H2O)6]++ ion absorb red radiation and appear
blue-green (blue-green is a complementary colour to red). However, if radiations of the wavelength except
one are absorbed, then the colour of the substance will be the colour of the transmitted radiation. For
example, if a substance absorbs all colours except green, then it would appear green to the light .
The color of transition metal compounds depends on the energy difference between e g and t2g levels. The
difference in energy between eg and t2g orbitals vary with nature of metal ion, nature of ligands and
geometry of complex. Therefore different complexes absorb different frequency of light and hence appear
different in color.
 In the metal ions with partially filled d-orbitals, it is possible to promote electrons from one d-level
to another. The energy required for this falls in the visible region. So, when light falls on the
compound of transition elements, they absorb a particular color for the promotion of electron and
the remaining colors are emitted. The color of the compound is due to the emitted radiations.
 However metal ions having do and d10 configurations do not exhibit d-d transition and hence they
are colorless.
 The color also arises because of polarization. Cation polarizes large anion effectively. it means,
Cation distorts the electron cloud and implies a greater covalent contribution. for eg, Ag+ polarize
Cl- in AgCl, so it is white in color. AgI is yellow whereas AgBr is pale yellow
 The color also arises because of charge transfer. In case of MnO 4-, an electron is transferred from
oxygen to metal. Here, charge transfer required the energy level on two different atoms in closed
 state. Charge transfer produce very intense color. For eg KMnO 4 is pink colored, K2Cr2O7 is orange
colored etc.
Complex ions and metal complexes
Transition elements are good at forming complexes due to the following factors:
a. They have small and highly charged ions which help to accept lone pair of electrons from the ligands.
b. Transition metal ions have low energy vacant d-orbitals to accept lone pair of electrons from the
ligands.
In the Complex compounds, coordinate covalent bond is formed between ligand and metal ion therefore
complex compounds are also called coordinate compounds.
Complex compound
• Complex compounds are those addition compounds which retain their identities even when dissolved
in water and any other solvents.
• Their properties are completely different from constituents.
• Eg. [Cu (NH3)4] SO4, K3[Fe (CN)6], K4[Fe (CN)6]
• Compounds containing complex ions are called complex compounds.
Complex ion
• Complex ion is an electrically charged species formed by the combination of central metal ion and
ligands.
OR
• Complex ion is an electrically charged species which consist of a central metal atom or ion surrounded
by one or more neutral molecules or anions.
• Eg. [Ni (NH3)6]2+, [Cu (NH3)4]2+, [Fe (CN)6]4-
• Complex ion may be cationic or anionic.
• The charge carried by complex ion is equal to sum of charge carried by central ion and ligands
coordinated with it. These are enclosed in square bracket.
Central atom or ion
• The metal atom or ion to which two or more anions of neutral molecules (ligands) are attached is called
central atom or ion.
Eg. In the complex ion [Co (NH3)6]3+, Co3+ is the central ion.
Ligands
The molecular or ionic species which are capable of donating lone pair of electrons to central metal ion are
called ligands.
• Ligands are attached to the metal atom through the coordinate bonds. Therefore ligands are also
called coordinating groups.
• Ligands are commonly negative ions such as Cl-, F-, CN-, OH- etc. or neutral molecules such as NH3, CO,
NO, H2O etc. containing lone pair of electrons.
• The atom in the ligand which donates lone pair of electrons is called donor atom.
Coordination number
The total number of ligands attached directly to the central metal atom or ion in a complex is called
coordination number.
Eg. In [Ag (NH3)2], coordination number of Ag+ is 2
In [Ag (CN)2]-, coordination number of Ag+ is 2
In [Fe (CN)6]4-, coordination number of Fe+2 is 6
Coordination sphere
• In a complex compound, the central atom along with the ligands directly attached to it is always written
in a square bracket. This part of complex is called coordination sphere.
Eg. [Cu (NH3)4] SO4.
[Cu (NH3)4]2+ is called coordination sphere.
The species present in coordination sphere are non-ionizable.
The portion of the complex outside the bracket is called ionization sphere.
Here, SO4–- is ionization sphere. The species present in the ionization sphere are ionizable.
Shape of Complex ion
In 1893 Alfred Werner proposed a theory to explain the bonding in coordination complexes called Werner’s
coordination theory.

Basic postulates of Werner’s theory

1. Metal atom in a complex shows two types of valency known as primary valency and secondary valency.
 Primary valency is ionizable and corresponds to the charge on the complex ion (oxidation no).
Secondary valency is non-ionizable and corresponds to the coordination number.
Eg. [Cu (NH3)4] SO4 ionizes as . [Cu (NH3)4]++ + SO4-- . In this complex,
SO4–- satisfy primary valency of Cu atom.
Four NH3 molecules satisfy secondary valency. Hence coordination number of Cu +2 is 4.
2. The secondary valencies are always directed to fixed position in space about the central metal ion. The
no. and arrangement of ligands give structure of complex ion.
eg. If secondary valency (no. of ligand) is 6, geometry is octahedral.
If secondary valency (no. of ligand) is 4, geometry is either tetrahedral or square planar.
Generally the shape of complexes is octahedral, tetrahedral or square planar. The shape of the complex
can be explained by hybridization.
Octahedral complex Tetrahedral complex
These type of complexes are formed either by These type of complexes are formed by sp3
2 3 3 2
d sp (inner orbital) or sp d (outer orbital) hybridization.
hybridization. Eg. [Zn (NH3)4]++, [FeCl4]-, [MnCl4]2-, [Ni (CO)4]
3+ 4-
Eg. (inner orbital [Cr (NH3)6] , [Fe (CN)6] , [Fe Square planar complex
(CN)6]3-, These type of complexes are formed by dsp2
3- 2+
(outer orbital) [Co F6] , [Fe (NH3)6] , [Cu hybridization.
(NH3)6]2+, [Fe (H2O)6]3+ Eg. [Ni (CN)4]2- [Cu (NH3)4]2+, [Fe (H2O)4]3+
Crystal Field Theory (CFT)
This theory was proposed by Bethe and Van Vleck.
Basic postulates of CFT
1. Central metal atom in a complex is regarded as positive ion and ligands are treated as point charge
which are either negative ions or neutral molecules having lone pair of electrons.
2. It assumes that the attraction between the central metal atom and ligands in the complex is purely
electrostatic.
3. There is no orbital overlap between the metal and ligands.
4. In an isolated metal ion, all the d-orbitals have same energy and are said to be degenerate. When
ligands approach the central metal ion, repulsion takes place between the electrons of metal and those
of ligands. Due to this d-orbitals split into two sets of orbital having different energy.
Classification of d-orbitals
Axial d-orbitals/eg-orbitals [dz2 , d(x2-Y2),] b. non-axial d-orbitals/t2gorbitals [dxy,dyz,dxz]
a.

Crystal Field
splitting of d-
orbitals in octahedral complex
In an octahedral complex, metal is at the centre and the ligands are at the six corners of the octahedron as
shown in the diagram. In an isolated gaseous ion, the 5 d-orbitals are identical in energy and are said to be
degenerate. Under the influence of solvent molecules or any other ligands, d-orbitals are no longer
degenerate and split into two sets of orbitals eg and t2g having slightly different energies.

When
the ligands approach the metal atom from
the axes, they repel the electrons on five
d-orbital of metal to the same extent and
energy of d-orbitals is raised.
Since, eg orbitals (dx2-y2, dz2) are oriented axially, they experience higher repulsion compared to t 2g
orbitals (dxy, dxz, dyz) which are oriented between the axes. Due to this d-orbitals split into two sets
oforbitals having different energy. This is called crystal field splitting.The energy separation between t2g
and eg is called Δo (CFSE).
value of Δo depends upon field given by ligand and charge of metal ion. For strong ligand Δo is large and
for weak ligand Δo is low.order of ligands field strength is I -,< Br- < S-- < F- < OH- < H2O < EDTA < NH3 <
NO2 < CN < CO.
For d4 ions the fourth electrons can either gos to t2g or eg orbital which depends upon:
if Δo < P( pairing energy) electrons enter to eg orbital giving t2g 3eg1 (ie weak ligand and form high
spin complex)
if Δo > P( pairing energy) electrons enter to t2g orbital giving t2g 4eg0 (ie strong ligand and form weak spin
complex)
Application of CFT
a. to identify the complex is in high or low c. color of complex compounds
spin complex d. explaination of catalytic activity
b. magnetic properties e. stability of oxidation state of metal ions
Some more questions
1. Zn, Cd and Hg are normally not considered transition metals. Explain
Zinc, cadmium and mercury are the end-members of the first three series of transition elements. Their
electronic configuration may be described by the general formula (n - 1) d 10 ns2. Since the d-orbitals in
these elements are completely filled, hence these metals do not show the general characteristic
properties of the transition elements, viz ., these elements do not show variable valencies; most of
their compounds are white; their melting temperatures are low etc. Therefore, Zn, Cd and Hg are
normally not considered transition metals.
2. A transition metal forms alloy with other transition metal easily. Explain
Since, the transition metals have similar electronic configurations, nearly equal radii and exhibit
similar packing in their lattices, hence these metals dissolve in each other easily even in the solid
state, ie, one metal can be easily substituted by another. It is because of this reason that the
transition metals form alloys with each other easily.
3. Why does octahedral distortion occur in the presence of ligand? Explain on the basis of CFT.
(2) (Model question)
When the ligands approach the central metal ion, the degeneracy of electronic orbital state
usually d-orbitals is broken due to the static electric field produced by the surrounding
charge distribution. Because electrons repel each other, the d- electrons closer to the
ligands will have higher energy than those further away, resulting in the d-orbitals
splitting. In most cases, the d-orbitals are degenerate, but sometimes they can split with
the eg and t2g subsets having different energy. The dx2 – y2 and dz2 all point directly
along the x,y and z axes. They form an eg set. On the other hand, the lobes of the dxy, dxz
and dyz all line up in the quadrants, with no electron density on the axes. These three
orbitals form the t2g set. CFT is the bonding model that explains many important
properties of transition metal. Central assumption of CFT is that metal-ligand interactions
are purely electrostatic. According to this theory, in a free isolated gaseous ion, the five d
orbitals are degenerate (have equal energy) but in the solution or compound state, the
energy of the d-orbitals is changed which cause the splitting into different energy d-
orbitals. This is called crystal field splitting.
4. On the basis of the given distortion, how can you explain [Cu(H 2O)6]++ is blue coloured
complex. (1) (Model question)
The colour of transition metal ions arises from the excitation of electrons from the d-orbitals
of lower energy to the d-orbitals of higher energy. Light radiations corresponding to such
small amounts of energy which are required for the d-d transition are available in the
visible region. It is for this reason that transition metal ions have the property to absorb
certain radiations from the visible regions and exhibit complementary colours. An
unpaired electron is present in Cu++ (d9) which makes electronic transition feasible and
imparts blue colour.
5. Out of Fe++ and Fe+++ which one is more stable? Explain on the basis of distortion seen in the
above figure. (1) (Model question)
Fe+++ is more stable due to a half-filled stable electronic configuration.
6. Why do such elements which give such splitting show good catalytic properties? (1)
(Model question)
 Due to the presence of vacant d-orbitals and providing a large surface area due to their
finely divided nature, they have the ability to exhibit variable valencies and show good
catalytic properties.
7. To what extent do the electronic configurations decide the stability of oxidation states in the first
series of the transition elements ? Illustrate your answer with examples.
In a transition series, the oxidation states which result in half filled and completely filled of d-subshell
are more stable. For example, in the first transition series, electronic configuration of Mn (Z = 25) is
[Ar] 3d5 4s2. It shows oxidation states from +2 to +7 but Mn (II) is most stable because it has stable
electronic configuration. Similarly, we can say Zn (Z = 30) having electronic configuration [Ar]
3d104s2 exhibits stable +2 oxidation state because of stable completely filled 3d10 configuration.
8. What may be stable oxidation state of the transition element with the following d-electron
configurations in the ground state of their atoms : 3d3, 3d5, 3d8, and 3d4 ?
The stable oxidation states are predicted on the basis that up to Mn, the maximum oxidation states of
stability correspond to sum of s and d-electrons. After Mn, there is decrease in the stability of higher
oxidation state.
3d3 4s2 : + 5 3d8 4s2 : + 2
3d5 4s2 = + 2 and + 7 3d4 4s2 or 3d5 4s1 : + 6 (and + 3)
9. Transition elements show high melting points. Why?
The high melting points of transition metals are due to the involvement of a greater number of
electrons of (n-1)d in addition to the ns electrons in the interatomic metallic bonding.
10. When a brown compound of manganese (A) is treated with HCl it gives a gas (B). The gas
taken in excess, reacts with NH to give an explosive compound (C). Identify compounds A, B and C.
When brown compound Mn3O4 is treated with HCl, it gives chlorine gas.Mn3O4 + 8HCl → 3MnCl2 + 4H2O
+ Cl2↑ Chlorine gas taken in excess reacts with ammonia to give an explosive compound NCl 3. NH3 +
3Cl2 (excess) → NCl3 + 3HCl The compounds A, B and C are A = Mn3O4 , B = Cl2 gas , C = NCl3 .
11. When an oxide of manganese (A) is fused with KOH in the presence of an oxidising agent
and dissolved in water, it gives a dark green solution of compound (B). Compound (B)
disproportionates in neutral or acidic solution to give purple compound (C). An alkaline solution of
compound (C) oxidises potassium iodide solution to a compound (D) and compound (A) is also formed.
Identify compounds A to D and also explain the reactions involved.
Compound A to D are, A = MnO2, B = K2MnO4, C = KMnO4, D = KIO3
When Manganese dioxide (A) is fused with KOH, it gives a green solution of potassium manganate (B).
2MnO2 (A) + 4KOH + O2 → 2K2MnO4 (B) +2H2O
Potassium manganate disproportionates to give purple potassium permanganate (C).
3MnO42- + H+ → 2MnO4– (C) + MnO2 + 2H2O
Potassium permanganate reacts with KI to give potassium iodate (D) and manganese dioxide.
2MnO4– + H2O + KI → 2MnO2 + 2OH– + KIO3 (D)
12. Although Cr3+ and Co2+ ions have same number of unpaired electrons, but the magnetic
moment of Cr3+ is 3.87 B.M. and that of Co2+ is 4.87 B.M. Why?
Due to symmetrical electronic configuration, there is no orbital contribution in the Cr 3+ ion. However,
appreciable orbital contribution takes place in Co2+ ions.
13. While filling up of electrons in the atomic orbitals, the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbital
but reverse happens during the ionisation of the atom. Explain why?
Atomic orbitals are filled in order of increasing energies. Since the energy of 3d orbital is more than 4s
orbital, based on the (n+l) rule, it is filled after 4s orbital. But during ionisation, electrons in the
outermost orbital are lost. Since 4s will be the outermost orbital, in this case, electrons from this
orbital will be ionised first.
14. Reactivity of transition elements decreases almost regularly from Sc to Cu. Explain.
Reactivity of transition elements decreases almost regularly from Sc to Cu due to the regular increase
in ionisation enthalpy.
15. Explain the following observations :
a. Generally there is an increase in density of elements from titanium (Z = 22) to copper (Z = 29)
in the first series of transition elements.
From titanium to copper the atomic size of elements decreases and mass increases as a result
of which density increases.
b. Transition elements and their compounds are generally found to be good catalysts in chemical
reactions.
The catalytic properties of the transition elements are due to the presence of unpaired
electrons in their incomplete d- orbitals and variable oxidation states.
c. Cr2+ is reducing in nature while with the same d-orbital configuration (d 4) Mn3+ is an oxidising
agent.
 Cr2+ has the configuration 3d4 which easily changes to d3 due to stable half filled t2g orbitals.
Therefore Cr2+ is reducing agent. While Mn2+ has stable half filled d5 configuration. Hence
Mn3+ easily changes to Mn2+ and acts as oxidising agent.
d. In a transition series of metals, the metal which exhibits the greatest number of oxidation
states occurs in the middle of the series. (All India 2011)
Due to presence of more unpaired electrons and use of all 4s and 3d electrons in the middle of
series.
e. Cr2+ is a stronger reducing agent than Fe2+ in aqueous solutions
The highest oxidation state for Cr is +6, therefore it can loose 3 more electrons, whereas Fe
needs to loose only 1 electron to achieve its highest oxidation state of +3. Thus, Cr 3+ is more
reducing than Fe2+.
f. Transition metals are much harder than the alkali metals.
In transitional elements, in addition to metallic bonding there is extra covalent bonding due to
presence of unpaired electrons in their ‘d’ orbitals, hence they are much harder.
g. With the same d-orbital configuration d4, Cr2+ ion is a reducing agent but Mn3+ ion is an
oxidising agent.
Cr2+ has the configuration 3d4 which easily changes to d3 due to stable half filled t2g orbitals.
Therefore Cr2+ is reducing agent. While Mn2+ has stable half filled d5 configuration. Hence
Mn3+ easily changes to Mn2+ and acts as oxidising agent.
h. Mn2+compounds are more stable than Fe2+ compounds towards oxidation to their +3 state.
The electronic configuration of Mn+2 is [Ar] 3d5 i.e. all the five d-orbitals are singly occupied.
Thus, this configuration is stable and resists further oxidation i.e. loss of further electrons
requires high energy. On the other hand, the electronic configuration of Fe +2 is [Ar]3d6. Hence it
loses one electron and achieves the stable configuration i.e. oxidation of Fe +2 to Fe+3 is easily
achieved.
i. Zn, Cd and Hg are soft metals.
Zn, Cd and Hg are soft metals because they do not exhibit covalency due to completely filled
d-orbitals. Absence of unpaired d electrons causes weak metallic bonding.
j. Cupric salts are blue while cuprous salts are colorless.
Cu+ ion has an electronic configuration 3d10 whereas Cu2+ ion has an electronic configuration 3d9.
Hence an unpaired electron is present in Cu2+ which makes electronic transition feasible in case
of Cu2+ ion, thus imparting color. Due to lack of unpaired electrons, Cu+ is colorless