By : kibrom A.

Chapter Seven

7. Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and Practices

7.1. Definition of concepts

7.1.1. Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS

IKS is embodied in culture and is described as an integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs
and behavior. It consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools,
techniques, artifacts, rituals, ceremonies, folklores and gender. This culture is passed down from
one generation to the next generation and generally it provides a holistic view of how to use
natural resources based on traditional ethical perspectives (Atteh,1991). Indigenous knowledge
systems (IKS) refer to a body of empirical knowledge and beliefs handed down through
generations of long-time inhabitants of a specific locale, by cultural transmission, about the
relationship of living beings with each other and their environment (Warren 1991).

In sum, IKS refers to “ a total of knowledge and practices, whether explicit or implicit, used in
the management of socioeconomic, ecological and spiritual facets of life (Hoppers, 2005:

2), stored in the collective memory and communicated orally among members of the community
and to the future generations [through, stories, myth, songs, etc].

7.1.2. Indigenous peoples and Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous peoples

In international context, while the term ‘indigenous’ is understood (mostly by Europeans) as

being similar or synonym to ‘traditional’, ‘aboriginal’, ‘vernacular’, ‘African’, ‘Black’, and
‘native American’, the phrase ‘indigenous people' refers to a specific group of people occupying
a certain geographic area for many generations (Loubser, 2005).

Definitions of indigenous in international governing organizations (IGOs), in indigenous

communities, and in the academic literature are highly contested. The World Bank's definition of
indigenous peoples includes close attachment to ancestral territories and the natural resources in
them; presence of customary social and political institutions; economic systems primarily

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oriented to subsistence production; an indigenous language, often different from the predominant
language; and self-identification Territory is also essential in the definitions. Being indigenous is
about “continuity of habitation, aboriginality, and often a ‘natural’ connection to the land”
(Clifford 1997[1994]:287). And identification by others as members of a distinct cultural group
(The World Bank in Corntassel, 2003:86).

Academic definitions focus on the following elements of indigenous identity: living in tradition-
based cultures, having political autonomy prior to colonialism, and seeking to preserve cultural
integrity in the present (Corntassel, 2003). They also recognize the role of land to indigenous
peoples—noting that they are descended from inhabitants of the land they occupy (ibid).

In sum, despite the lack of an authoritative / formal universal definition for the concept of
indigenous peoples, the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) sets
outs distinguishing features as a guide for the identification of indigenous peoples across the
globe. This includes the:

 Self- identification as Indigenous peoples at the individual level and accepted by the
community as their member;
 Historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies;
 Strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources;
 Distinct social, economic or political systems;
 Distinct language, culture and beliefs;
 Formation of non-dominant groups of society; and
 Resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems as
distinctive peoples and communities.

Indigenous Knowledge (IK)

According to Warren, indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge – knowledge that is unique
to a given culture or society. Since every population is unique in terms of its environment, its
resources, and its tools (both physical and conceptual), IK will also be unique. IK contrasts with
the international knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions and private
firms. It is the basis for local-level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation,
education, natural-resource management, and a host of other activities in rural communities.

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7.1.3. Special Features of Indigenous Knowledge

1. Local, in that it is rooted in a particular community and situated within broader cultural
traditions; it is a set of experiences generated by people living in those communities. Separating
the technical from the non-technical, the rational from the non-rational could be problematic.
Therefore, when transferred to other places, there is a potential risk of dislocating IK.

2. Tacit knowledge and, therefore, not easily modifiable.

3. Transmitted orally, or through imitation and demonstration. Codifying it may lead to the loss
of some of its properties.

4. Experiential rather than theoretical knowledge. Experience and trial and error, tested in the
rigorous laboratory of survival of local communities constantly reinforce IK.

5. Learned through repetition, which is a defining characteristic of tradition even when new
knowledge is added. Repetition aids in the retention and reinforcement of IK.

6. Constantly changing, being produced as well as reproduced, discovered as well as lost; though
it is often perceived by external observers as being somewhat static.

7.2 Significance of indigenous knowledge

7.3. Indigenous knowledge and development

Indigenous knowledge passes from one generation to the next and enable indigenous people to
survive, manage their natural resources and the ecosystems surrounding them like animals,
plants, rivers, seas, natural environment, economic, cultural and political organization.
Knowledge of these elements form a set of interacting units known as indigenous coping
systems. In other words, ''IK is relevant to development process such as agriculture, animal
husbandry, traditional medicine, saving and credit, community development, poverty alleviation,
and peaceful coexistence'' ( Boven and Morohashi, 2002).

7.4. Preservation, Challenges and Limitations of IK

Indigenous knowledge, which has generally been passed from generation to generation by word
of mouth, is in danger of being lost unless it is formally documented and preserved (Amare,

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2009). The future of IK, that reflects many generations of experience and problem solving by
thousands of indigenous people across the globe, is uncertain (Warren, 2004). The loss of IK
would impoverish society because, just as the world needs genetic diversity of species, it needs
diversity of knowledge systems (Labelle, 1997). The rapid change in the way of life of local
communities has largely accounted for the loss of IK. Younger generations underestimate the
utility of IK systems because of the influence of modem technology and education
(Ulluwishewa, 1999). If IK is not recorded and preserved, it may be lost and remain inaccessible
to other indigenous systems as well as to development workers. Development projects cannot
offer sustainable solutions to local problems without integrating local knowledge (Warren,
1991). "Since IK is essential to development, it must be gathered, organized and disseminated,
just like Western knowledge''(Agrawal, 1995 in Amare, 2009).

Regarding the challenges and limitations of IK, Amare (2009) states the following:
Although the knowledge of indigenous communities has been found to be very useful, the,
exploitation of natural resources, and increased competition for employment has set off a
problematic chain of events. This modernization has influenced indigenous traditional spread of
industrialization threatens the preservation and continued development of IK systems (Sherpa,
2005). Industrialization, along with its attendant processes of urbanization African which
generates IK and practices can break down. Added to this is the commercial society in many
ways and Ethiopia is no exception.

7.5. The Erosion of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS)

 With rapid population growth—often due to in-migration or government relocation

schemes in the case of large development projects, such as dams — standards of living
may be compromised. With poverty, opportunities for short-term gain are selected over
environmentally sound local practices. With increasing levels of poverty, farmers, for
example, may also have less time and fewer resources to sustain the dynamic nature of IK
systems through their local experiments and innovations.
 The introduction of market-oriented agricultural and forestry practices focused on
monocropping is associated with losses in IK and IK practices, through losses in
biodiversity and cultural diversity. For instance, policies promoting generic rice and
wheat varieties devalue locally adapted species. With the ready availability of many

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 commercial foods, some biodiversity seems to become less relevant, such as seed and
crop varieties selected over the years for their long-term storage attributes.
 In the short term, chemical inputs seem to reduce the need to tailor varieties to difficult
growing conditions, contributing to the demise of local varieties.
 With deforestation, certain medicinal plants become more difficult to find (and the
knowledge or culture associated with the plants also declines).
 More and more knowledge is being lost as a result of the disruption of traditional
channels of oral communication. Neither children nor adults spend as much time in their
communities anymore (for example, some people travel to the city on a daily basis to go
to school, to look for work, or to sell farm produce; many young people are no longer
interested in, or do not have the opportunity for, learning traditional methods). It is harder
for the older generation to transmit their knowledge to young people.
 As IK is transmitted orally, it is vulnerable to rapid change — especially when people are
displaced or when young people acquire values and lifestyles different from those of their
ancestors.
 Farmers traditionally maintained their indigenous crop varieties by keeping household
seed stocks and by obtaining seed through traditional family and community networks
and through exchanges with nearby communities. Some of these traditional networks
have been disrupted or no longer exist.
 In the past, outsiders (for example, social, physical, and agricultural scientists, biologists,
colonial powers) ignored or maligned IK, depicting it as primitive, simple, static, “not
knowledge,” or folklore.

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