APPLICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF GIS

a. Cartographic Application
b. Socio-Economic Application
c. Environmental and Natural Resources Management
d. Facilities and Land Management Application
e. GIS Implementation Issues

CARTOGRAPHIC APPLICATION
INTRODUCTION
The field of cartography (map making) was the foremost area that GIS readily found
application. In fact, the earliest GIS software packages were mostly used for map
visualisation and analysis. Many consider GIS to be an advanced form of digital
cartography. Today, the use of GIS in undertaking various cartographic activities is
increasingly becoming quite fashionable. Some of the cartographic functions of GIS are
discussed in this unit.
The Concept of Visualisation

Maps have traditionally been used to explore the earth. GIS technology has enhanced
the efficiency and analytical power of traditional cartography. GIS have advanced tools
for map layout, placement of labels, large symbol and font libraries, and interfaces for
high quality output devices. As the scientific community recognises the environmental
consequences of human activity, GIS technology is becoming an essential tool in the
effort to understand the process of global change. Map and satellite information sources
can be combined in models that simulate the interactions of complex natural systems.

Through a process known as visualisation, a GIS can be used to produce images - not
just maps, but drawings, animations, and other cartographic products. These hot-linked
images allow researchers to display and view their subjects in ways that they never
could before. The visualised images often are helpful in conveying the technical
concepts of a GIS to nonscientists.

Map Production

Researchers are working to fully incorporate the map-making processes of traditional

cartographers into GIS technology for the automated production of maps. One of the
most common products of a GIS is a map. Maps are generally easy to make using a
GIS and they are often the most effective means of communicating the results of the
GIS process. Therefore, the GIS is usually a prolific producer of maps. The users of a
GIS must be concerned with the quality of the maps produced because the GIS
normally do not regulate common cartographic principles. One of these principles is the
concept of generalisation, which deals with the content and detail of information at
various scales. The GIS user can change scale at the push of a button, but controlling
content and detail is often not so easy. Mapmakers have long recognised that content
and detail need to change as the scale of the map changes.
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Another important aspect of GIS application in map making is seen in the ability of GIS
to combine maps with some other means of communication. This is known as
multimedia cartography, and by extension, multisensory cartography. In multimedia
cartography, the map is hot-linked with some relevant pictures, videos, text and
soundtracks relating to some of the mapped features. The hot-linked items are usually
not permanently visible on the map; in other words, one can hide and unhide them.
Usually, by pointing or clicking the move

the mouse on a feature shown on the map, the hot-linked items will automatically pop
up and then perceived.

3-D Cartographic Modelling

To realistically analyse the effect of the earth's terrain, we use three-dimensional

models within a GIS. A GIS can display the earth in realistic, three-dimensional
perspective views and animations that convey information more effectively and to wider
audiences than traditional, two-dimensional, static maps. For example, if a mining
company seeks development rights to a mineral deposit in a place, GIS can be used to
cartographically model the post-mining landscape impact by creating perspective views
of the area to depict the terrain as it would appear after mining. The resulting model can
guide the regulatory or approving agency in deciding on whether or not to grant the
approval.

Web Mapping

GIS is equally powering Web mapping. This involves using GIS and Web-enabled
facilities to create and distribute both static and editable (smart) maps via the Internet.
Web Map Servers facilitate distribution of generated maps through Web browsers using
various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces (AJAX, Java,
Flash, etc.).
Advantages of GIS Map over Paper Map

Electronic map display in a GIS environment offers significant advantages over the
paper map, such as:

ability to browse across an area without interruption by map sheet boundaries

ability to zoom and change scale freely

ability to apply a filter to isolate a particular type of data and refresh to display
only the selected data

large amounts of cartographic data can be processed quickly and displayed in

different ways

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 potential for the animation of time dependent data

display in "3-dimensions" (perspective views), with "real-time" rotation of viewing

angle

potential for continuous scales of intensity and the use of color and shading
independent of the constraints of the printing process, ability to change colors as
required for interpretation.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC APPLICATION
INTRODUCTION

All socio-economic activities of man take place over geographical space. In other words,
every socio-economic activity of man requires the use of some form of geographical
data. This explains why GIS easily finds application in every conceivable socio-
economic endeavour. Some examples are used in this unit to illustrate the utility of GIS
in socio-economic activities.

Transportation

A list of application areas of GIS to transport management may include the following
items:

Naming streets
House numbering
Street network analysis
Managing mailing lists

Vehicle routing and scheduling

Traffic congestion analysis and control
Development of evacuation plans
Address matching
Highway and other routes planning and design
Monitoring highway condition

Road maintenance
Road mapping
Accident analysis

Transport facilities inventory and management

Assessment of environmental impact of transportation
Air traffic control

Airport facilities mapping, monitoring and maintenance

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 Production of navigational and bathymetric charts
Planning and management of inland waterways

Monitoring rail systems

Siting of terminals (e.g. bus stops, motor parks, railway stations, etc.).

Agriculture

The following are some of the specific agricultural projects for which the powerful GIS
technology could be efficiently and economically used.

Inventory, mapping and management of agricultural land parcels (field units) and
records.
Mapping and management of agricultural biodiversity.

Provision of field-specific condition information for precision agriculture (farming).

Mapping of crop patterns.
Crop area identification and delineating crop-soil relation.

Estimating crop yield.

Provision of accurate, relevant and timely information for effective

agro extension services.

Monitoring of crop health and growth conditions.

Identifying the presence of pests and diseases.

Monitoring effects of pesticides and herbicides.

Agro-risk assessment and management (for Insurance companies,

agro managers and agribusiness entrepreneurs).
Planning and implementation of mitigation measures.
Inventory of crops and livestock.

Agricultural land evaluation and classification.

Management of grazing fields.

Assessment of environmental impacts of existing agro projects, or

the likely impacts of proposed ones.
Monitoring crop and livestock production.
Measuring crop hectare age.
Determining harvesting system options.
Mapping soil characteristics.

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 Site selection for locating agricultural projects and infrastructural
facilities.

Assessment of the impacts of changes in crop and livestock

management practices.
Delineation of agro-climatic/ecological zones.

Valuation of agricultural land.

Soil suitability analysis.
Effective and efficient maintenance of crop calendar.

Assessment of the environmental impact of various cropping

techniques and other agricultural activities.
Health

Some of the areas of GIS application in health management are:

Mapping of disease locations and spread.

Location of health facilities.
Public health planning.
Health services delivery.

Planning/monitoring sanitary inspection.

Street cleaning.
Hazardous (toxic) facility siting.

Solid waste management and preparation of waste disposal routes.

Selection of solid waste disposal sites.
Monitoring atmospheric pollution.
Mapping water pollution.
Air pollution monitoring/control.
Wastewater management and disposal.
Water quality monitoring and management.
Sewage network design and tracking.
Analysis of access to health care providers and facilities.

Spatial analysis of environmental, economic, political and socio-cultural causes

of health problems.
Assessment of spatial and temporal distribution of epidemiology.
Mapping and management of healthcare facilities.

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Mining and Minerals Production

Some of the key roles GIS plays in mineral production are:

Geological mapping.
Geological survey and analysis.

Mine planning and development.

Planning for mineral resources exploration.
Map integration of geophysical and geochemical surveys.

Analysis of seismic data.

Locating oil wells (identifying suitable sites for drilling oil wells).
Inventory/Monitor oil wells/facilities.

Simulation and analysis of exploitation scenarios in view of environmental

acceptability and economic viability.
Interpretation of subsurface data from boreholes.

Designing cost-effective and stable routes for oil and gas pipelines.
Siting a refinery.

Siting fuel/gas stations.

Managing leases, wells, pipelines, facilities, retail outlets, etc.

Mapping and management of health, safety and environmental concerns.

Mapping the distribution of oil, gas and solid mineral resources.

Business Management

The GIS technology can be used to accomplish the following activities in business
management:

investment analysis

locating businesses (e.g. shops and supermarkets) close to customers

siting of industries
selection of shortest path (i.e. the best route for the quick delivery
of goods and services)

travelling salesman scheduling/routing

inventory/monitoring business outlets

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 market survey and business investment analysis
spatial analysis/simulation of consumer behaviour
analysis of customer population and distribution

customer services
managing mailing lists (addresses of customers)
defining service boundary or sales territory

advertising.

Education

The application areas of GIS in education include, but not limited to, the following:

research and training

teaching and learning

career outlet for graduates

geographical analysis and simulation modelling
mapping and management of school facilities

library management

mapping and analysis of the distribution of the categories and

population of teachers and students
illustrating/reporting results of research works
consultancy services.

Population and Housing Census

Some of the possible areas of GIS application to pre- and post-census activities and
census data handling include:

assessment of total workload

estimation of the amount of human and material resources needed

for a survey
Delineation of Enumeration Areas (EAs)
distribution of enumerators’ and supervisors’ workload

census database management

spatial and aspatial census data querying and retrieval
spatial aggregation and cross-area referencing of census data

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 integration or spatial overlay of census data with some other
relevant geo-referenced data layers
geostatistical analysis of demographic variables

three-dimensional modeling of census results

production of thematic maps of census variables
publication of population atlas
updating of census data
inter-censal population estimation.

Electoral Administration

Some of the more specific tasks that could be accomplished using the GIS technology
before, during and after an election include the following:

locating polling places

tracking voter turnout, voting methods, as well as analysing election results

assigning polling staff to polling places
thematic mapping of real-time election results

voter education (GIS allows registered voters to access information such as their
assigned district, polling location, and election results from a computer linked to
the internet).

delimiting boundaries of electoral districts as well as redistricting and re-zoning

maintaining voter registration files
mapping voters' locations

relaying of information on the collection, distribution and verification of ballot

boxes and other voting materials.
post-election creation of an electoral atlas

updating voter registration files.

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Tourism

The GIS can be very useful in the following broad thematic areas of tourism
development and management. These areas include:

conservation of endangered species

wild and scenic rivers preservation

park and recreation planning/management

wildlife habitat and migration route management
monitoring and forecasting natural disasters

assessment of tourism-induced environmental problems

management of tourist site records
production of tourist Guide maps

mapping tourism facilities

tourism land allocation/zoning

modelling the capacity of individual tourism sites to attract tourists.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Issues relating to environmental challenges and natural resources analysis and

management are increasingly being put on the front burner. The power of GIS as a
veritable tool for environmental and natural resources management has long been
recognised. Hence, many agencies involved with environmental management,
emergency and disaster management as well as those engaged in natural resources
planning, development and management are turning to GIS for assistance.
Emergency Response Planning

In particular, GIS can assist emergency handlers in:

planning emergency evacuation routes

determining possible areas of influence of an anticipated imminent natural

disaster

provision of Early Warning information about an impending disaster

selecting suitable site for relocating evacuees

search and rescue operations

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 design and development of emergency and safety plans

prompt and effective allocation and distribution of resources (relief

materials)
estimating emergency response times
fire prevention systems

natural hazard monitoring

estimation of damages.

Natural Resource- Based Application

One of the major areas of application of GIS is natural resources management and
environmental impact analysis in relation to:

wildlife habitat
wild and scenic rivers
recreation resources
floodplains

aquifers
wetlands preservation
natural resources inventory/monitoring

desert encroachment control

erosion and flood control
conservation of endangered species.

Today, biologists use collar transmitters and satellite receivers to track the migration
routes of caribou and polar bears to help design programs to protect the animals. In a
GIS, the migration routes were indicated by different colors for each month for 21
months. Researchers then used the GIS to superimpose the migration routes on maps
of oil development plans to determine the potential for interference with the animals.

Environmental Management

Some of the areas of GIS application in environmental management include:

mapping ecological disasters (e.g. soil erosion, flooding,

desertification, landslide, bush fire, etc.)
hazardous (toxic) facility siting
solid waste management and preparation of waste disposal routes
selection of solid waste disposal sites
monitoring atmospheric pollution
mapping water pollution

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 air pollution monitoring/control
wastewater management and disposal
water quality monitoring and management

sewage network design and tracking

identifying deforestation and its effects
mapping the distribution of Greenhouse gases

assessment of environmental quality

environmental modelling
environmental impact assessment (EIA)

formulation of environmental regulations

environmental auditing.

FACILITIES AND LAND MANAGEMENT APPLICATION

INTRODUCTION

Arguably, one of the most popular uses of the GIS technology is the management of
land and physical infrastructural facilities. Many land administrators as well as facility
managers have found in GIS a worthy tool for the effective and efficient discharge of
their responsibilities. With some examples, we will highlight in this unit the role of GIS in
facilities and land management.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

discuss the role of GIS in physical facilities mapping and management

highlight the application of GIS in handling street network information

identify possible land use management application of GIS.
Facilities Mapping and Management

One of the largest areas of GIS application has been in facilities mapping and
management. Uses for GIS in this area have included:

mapping the locations and distribution of facilities

locating underground pipes and cables for maintenance

balancing loads in electrical networks

planning facility maintenance

tracking energy use.

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Street Network- Based Application

GIS has been found to be particularly useful in handling information based on street-
networks for different purposes such as:

address matching
vehicle routing and scheduling
location analysis or site selection
development of evacuation plans

disaster management.

Land-Use Planning and Management

Local, state, and federal governments have found GIS particularly useful in land
management. GIS has been commonly applied in areas like:

zoning
subdivision planning and review
land acquisition

create and update land-use maps

display vacant or marginal lands
analyse land accessibility
identify areas of land dereliction
inventory present land uses
monitor and analyse changing patterns of land-use

assess suitability of land for different forms of use

manage records of land ownership
facilitate land-use analysis, planning and allocation

identify areas suitable for further physical development.

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 GIS IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES

INTRODUCTION

As already noted, GIS is a multi-faceted system comprising hardware, software, data,

people, and methods. For GIS to be used it has to be first implemented. Implementation
has been described as the act of

combining the technology with people and methods

(http://lagic.lsu.edu/gisprimer/phased_implementation.asp).

The key to developing an effective Geographic Information System (GIS) solution is

taking the time to develop a plan that fully meets the business needs of the prospective
user. Full GIS database development should follow a proven, formal design process to
identify the end-user’s requirements. This among other things, requires calculating and
comparing the value of alternative options, define the detailed specifications of the
database, and set up the progress measurement tools, quality control procedures and
delivery activities to meet the user’s needs.

There are often challenges associated with building a successful GIS. This makes it
quite imperative engaging the services of experts who have sufficient experience in GIS
design and data conversion and who can also provide assistance throughout the
implementation process. Moreover, expert assistance will be required in providing all
the necessary training and technology transfer to help the organisation maximise their
investment in GIS.

This unit provides an overview that explains the steps and activities involved in
developing, building, and managing a GIS. The issues discussed include: planning a
GIS program or project, requirements analysis, system and database design,
determining and specifying
system components, determining resource requirements, developing an implementation
plan, managing GIS implementation, procuring GIS products and services, data
development, system installation, and GIS operations management. GIS
implementation success factors, trends, and challenges are also discussed.
Requirements for GIS Implementation

In a nutshell, the GIS implementation process involves the following:

Functional Requirements Analysis

Feasibility Studies
Database Modeling
Implementation Planning
Data Migration Planning

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 Application Design and Development

Systems Integration Design

Project Management
Implementation and User Training.

The implementation of GIS in an organisation is done in phases. On the basis of the

above listed activities, the technical approach to GIS implementation could be divided
into three broad phases namely, Planning, Design, and Operational (Installation and
Execution). Putting the implementation process in phases allows all aspects of the
project to be thoroughly accounted for. The overall technical approach is shown in
Figure 5.1.

GIS Implementation Planning

The Planning phase is a feasibility study and decision-making stage.

Activities that could be undertaking at this phase include:

development of a strategic plan

identification of goals and objectives

appraisal of current situation: tasks, users, data, and data flow

review of the experience of others
identification of user requirements

assessments, e.g. cost-benefit analyses and pilot project

choice of implementation strategy.

Awareness - this involves:

Introducing/sensitising/selling the GIS to the organisation

Reasons for considering a GIS?
- Data management issues

- Data retrieval & manipulation issues

Obtaining the support of management and staff for your GIS

proposal.

System Requirements:

Identify components of your organisation

- Data Input and Output

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 - Procedures and Policies

- Applications
- Users

Functional Requirements
- Identify Current Technology

- Identify Current Users

- Identify Current Tasks

Current System Analysis

- Data quality and completeness

- Hardware scalable?
- Recommendations

Perform User Requirements and Needs Analysis:

Study – written survey, interviews, document review, map utilisation cross-

reference chart, review of existing information system

recording organisational goals, objectives, and functions

identifying facilities and entities

Data Source
Primary Applications

Identify Users
Deadlines

Situational analysis:

This involves a study of organisational internal relationships and atmosphere,

positions and attitudes of potential users and influential stakeholders

Strategic Planning:

Method of introduction

What is to be automated and when

Level of investment, budget, financing
Data flow and policies

Project organisation

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 Personnel and training

Establishing Long-range Planning Objectives:

Potential applications -prioritised for implementation

Max organisation-wide benefits

Resources

Cost-Benefit Analysis:

Purpose: Improve the basis for decision, increase profit, increase

economy consciousness, improve planning

Impact on: ranking of projects, further considerations/planning,

adaptations for increased benefits, ranking of solutions internally,
final decision

Costs: planning, establishment, operations and maintenance

Benefits: resources, products and services, effect (communication,

less work); intangible benefits
System Cost / Expense Analysis

- What to Purchase? (Hardware, Software, Data, and Staff

Training)

- When to Purchase?

- What are the costs?

- Hardware Conversion

- Software Conversion & Training

- Data Conversion

- Where is the funding source?

Design and Development Phase

Database design
Selection of hardware and software
Application Design and Development
Data conversion and

Technology upgrades

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 Systems Integration Design

Application Development
- Purpose

- Goals
- Methods

- Procedures

- Instructions
Data Conversion/Development
- Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)

- Accuracy Issues
- Metadata (information about database and data items)

Specify System Maintenance

- Technical Support
- Product Upgrades
- Application trouble-shooting

Operational Phase

Implementation Approach: Define & Implement Procedures taking into consideration the
following:

Updates/Upgrades
- Hardware Upgrades

- Software Updates

- Training

- Data Management

Actively Promote GIS to remind all of benefits. This ensures that organisation is
constantly aware of budgetary needs
Establish Security & Accountability

- Develop information distribution and accessibility policies, taking into

consideration the technical, legal, economic, and political implications of
distribution.

Decide on Method of Introduction/Implementation of system

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–Pilot project followed by main project

–Massive introduction in one main project

–Gradual introduction in defined phases

It should be noted that before finally installing, integrating and operating the GIS in the
organisation it is usually advisable to test-run the system through a pilot project
application. To run a pilot project:

Develop complete dataset for small study area

Test feasibility of applications

Refine cost/benefit estimates

Demonstrate system capabilities
Determine user acceptance

Select implementation methods

Spark users’ imagination

Evaluate the system

Report Results (Here details of failures and corrections are necessary).

GIS Implementation Problems

Certain problems can actually challenge the successful adoption and implementation of
the GIS technology in an organisation. Such problems must, therefore, be identified and
thoroughly addressed before attempting to fully introduce GIS into the business of an
organisation. Some of such problems are presented below; additional issues can be
sourced at Uluocha (2007) and http://dusk.geo.orst.edu/buffgis/imp.html.

Resistance to Change
- many organisations are conservative

- resistance to change has always been a problem in

technological innovation

- change requires leadership

- initial followers of the proposed system are required within

an existing department

- commitment of top management and individuals within

departments is also required

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 - despite economic, operational, even political advantages of
GIS, the technology is new and outside the experience of
many senior managers

- leaders take great personal risk

- ample evidence of past failure of GIS projects

- initial missionary is an obvious scapegoat for failure

Over-Emphasis on Technology

- planning teams made up of technical staff will emphasise

technical issues in planning

- perhaps they will ignore managerial issues

- planning teams often forced to deal with short-term issues

- perhaps no time to address longer-term management issues

Rigid Work Patterns

- it may be difficult for the planning team to foresee necessary

changes in work patterns

- a formerly stable workforce may be disrupted e.g., some

jobs may disappear!

- or some jobs may be redefined, e.g., drafting staff

reassigned to digitizing

- some staff may find their new jobs too demanding e.g.,
former keyboard operators may now need to do database
query operations.

- drafting staff may need computing skills people, comfortable

in their roles will not seek change e.g., people must be
persuaded of benefits of change through education/training.
Organisational Inflexibility

- planning team must foresee necessary changes in organisation hierarchy,

organisations wiring diagram

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- departments that are expected to interact and exchange data must be
willing to do so!

Decision-Making Procedures

- many GIS projects are initiated by an advisory group drawn from different
depts.

- adequate for early phases of acquisition but must be replaced by a group

with a more well-defined decision-making responsibility

- usually painful to give a single department authority (funds must be

reassigned to that department), but this usually assures a higher rate of
success.

Decision-Making Procedures

- e.g., many states have assigned responsibility for GIS operation to a

department of natural resources

- consulting is then mandated from related user departments through

committees

- project may be derailed if any important or influential individuals are left

out of the planning process!

Assignment of Responsibilities

- subtle mixture of technical, political, and organisational issues

- typically made on technical grounds

- then modified to meet pressing political, organisational issues

System Support Staffing: at a minimum, a multi-user GIS requires:

- a system manager responsible for day-to-day operation, staffing,

financing, meeting of user requests

- a database manager responsible for database design, planning data input,

data security, database integrity

- staff for data input, report production, applications programming staff for
initial development, although these may be supplied by the GIS vendor.
Management may be tempted to fill these positions from existing staff

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 without adequate attention to qualifications. However, the personnel
department might be unfamiliar with the nature of positions, qualifications,
and salaries of the required GIS personnel.
Challenges of GIS Implementation in Nigeria

Within the Nigerian context, there are particular challenges that often affect the smooth
implementation of GIS. Issues in the implementation of GIS in Nigeria have received
some measure of attention (Balogun & Uluocha, 1998; Uluocha, 1999, etc.).

Low awareness: Despite the fact that GIS has been in use in
Nigeria for more than three decades, the general level of
awareness of the technology in the country is still relatively low
when compared to what obtains in some other African countries.
Many government officials, politicians, captains of industries, and
other top-notch decision-makers are either totally ignorant of the
existence of this technology or not sufficiently aware of what the
technology is all about and what it can actually do. This general low
level of awareness of the GIS technology within the Nigerian
society has equally meant low degree of adoption and
implementation of the technology throughout the country. Currently,
only a handful of government ministries/parastatals could be said to
be GIS compliant. The use of GIS is more in the private domain
where we have a sizeable number of individuals, educational and
research institutes, as well as corporate organisations using the
technology in their various businesses.

Data issues: The country is lacking in geo-referenced data. Most of

the existing analogue National map series are significantly
outdated. For instance, most of the existing copies of the Nigeria
1:50,000 topographic map series, which is the most commonly
used map in the country, were produced more than three decades
ago. One attempting to use available mapped data in this country
for GIS operations would soon be disappointed to find out that
much of the data fall short of the positional, attribute and temporal
accuracy, just as a significant portion of the data items lack
completeness (Uluocha, 1997 and 2000). For now, one can only
hope that with the country embracing the space technology,
following the launch of the country’s first remote sensing satellite

Nigeria-Sat1 in 2003 and the proposed launch of Nigeria-Sat2 and Nigeria-SatX

sometime in 2011, that the problem of shortage of geospatial data for GIS operations in
the country will be significantly addressed.

Lack of a functional National Geospatial Data Infrastructure

(NGDI). This problem is further worsened by the non-existence of

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 an operational Freedom of Information (FoI) law. A robust FoI will
greatly enhance access to relevant, timely and useful data for
executing GIS projects.

Economic consideration: The implementation and maintenance of a GIS is

usually an expensive venture. Thus, given the economic realities of a developing
country such as Nigeria, cost consideration becomes a critical factor when
contemplating large-scale implementation of GIS (Balogun and Uluocha, 1998).
Presently, the cost of spatial data acquisition and automation in the country is
rather prohibitively high.

Strategies for Enhancing Successful GIS Implementation

To ensure the success of any GIS implementation project certain factors or conditions
are required. Foley (1988), Forrest et al (1990), as well as Croswell (1991) have all
identified certain critical factors that can facilitate GIS implementation success. The
success factors are summarised below.

Involve the management

- management must take a more active role than just providing money and
resources

- support implementation of multi-disciplinary GIS teams

- help to develop organisational strategies for crossing internal political

boundaries

- support interagency agreements to assist in data sharing and data

acquisition

Training and education

- staff and management must be kept current in the technology and

applications short-term courses, conferences trade and academic journals

Continued promotion

- project staff must continue to promote the benefits of GIS, even after it has
been adopted

- ensures continued financial and political support

- projects should be of high quality and value

- high profile projects often gain public support

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 Responsiveness

- project must be seen to be responsive to user’s needs continue to explore

ways to make GIS quick and efficient to use user interfaces task
automation

Implementation and follow-up plans

- carefully developed implementation plans

- plans for checking on progress

- both necessary to ensure controlled management and

continued support

- follow-up plans must assess progress

- need check points for assessing this. . .

- audits of productivity

- perhaps study of costs and benefits

References

1. School of Civil, Environmental and Geospatial Engineering (SCEGE), College of

Engineering & Technology(CoETec), Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture
and Technology(JKUAT), JUJA

2. School of Surveying and Geospatial Sciences (SSGS), Faculty of Engineering

and the Built Environment (FEBE), Technical University of Kenya (TUK),NRB

3. Kenya Institute of Surveying and Mapping(KIS), Ministry of Lands and Physical

Planning,NRB

4. Regional Centre for Mapping, NRB

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TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Lo, C.P. and Albert K.W. Yeung, (2002). Concepts and Techniques of Geographic
Information Systems, Pearson Education Canada, Inc., Toronto.

Chakraborty, D. & Sahoo, R. N. (2007). Fundamentals of Geographic Information

Systems. New Delhi: Viva Books.

Maguire D J , Goodchild M F, and Rhind D W (eds) 1991 Geographic Information

systems : Principles and Applications : Harlow, UK, Longman

Chang, K. (2006). Introduction to Geographic Information Systems. (3rd ed.). Boston:

McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

DeMers, M. N. (2000). Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. New York:

John Wiley & Sons. 110

Uluocha, N. O. (2007). Elements of Geographic Information Systems. Lagos: Sam

Iroanusi Publications.
Wise, S. (2002). GIS Basics. London: Taylor & Francis.

Training material „Elements of Geographic Information System“ (GII-01)

Authors Brad Maguire, Andrew Miller, Gennady Gienko, 2008-Civil Servants Learning
Programme, Distance Learning of Geographics Information Infrastructure

Web sites

www.gis.com

www.giscafe.com

gis.abaut.com

www.geocomm.com

www.directionsmag.com

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