Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

4. Introduction to Special Types of Concretes

Recent advancements in construction technology have resulted in concretes that have

almost surmounted these constraints and are close to optimal circumstances. Modifying
the microstructure of the cement paste, inducing more air to make it lighter, allowing
flexibility in reducing or raising the setting pace, and so on are some of the ways used to
improve its qualities. Concrete’s versatility allows it to be used for a variety of
applications. However, it has several disadvantages, including low tensile strength,
reinforcement corrosion, and vulnerability to chemical attacks, all of which limit its
endurance.

“Special concrete” is described as “concrete that must meet special performance and
consistency standards that are not always met by normal materials and mixing,
installation and curing processes.”.” Technology is used to improve its special features
that are helpful for specific types of work, such as structures, where lightweight concrete
is favored for roofs to save money while maintaining the aesthetic element while taking
into account the surroundings.

4.1 Light Weight Concrete

Lightweight concrete is a specialized concrete mixture made with lightweight coarse

aggregates, and sometimes lightweight fine aggregates, instead of traditional
aggregates. This type of concrete possesses an in-place density (unit weight) typically
ranging from 90 to 115 lb/ft³ (1440 to 1840 kg/m³), in contrast to the density of normal
weight concrete, which falls within the range of 140 to 150 lb/ft³ (2240 to 2400 kg/m³).
For structural applications, lightweight concrete must exhibit a compressive strength
greater than 2500 psi (17.0 MPa). The lightweight aggregates used in structural
lightweight concrete are usually materials such as expanded shale, clay, or slate, which
undergo a firing process in a rotary kiln to develop a porous structure. Additionally,
products like air-cooled blast furnace slag are also utilized.

1
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

There are other classes of non-structural lightweight concrete (LWC) with lower density
made with different aggregate materials and higher air voids in the cement paste matrix,
as seen in cellular concrete.

4.1.1 Classification of Lightweight Concrete

Various types of lightweight concrete can be classified based on their method of

production:

1. Lightweight Aggregate Concrete: Utilizes porous lightweight aggregates with a

low apparent specific gravity, typically lower than 2.6.

2. Aerated Concrete: Incorporates large voids within the concrete or mortar mass,
achieved through methods such as aeration with stabilized foam or air
entrainment.

3. No-Fines Concrete: Opts to omit fine aggregate from the mix, resulting in a large
number of interstitial voids. Normal weight coarse aggregate is generally used in
this concrete type.

Lightweight concrete can also be classified according to its intended use, distinguishing
between structural lightweight concrete (ASTM C 330-82a), concrete used in masonry
units (ASTM C 331-81), and insulating concrete (ASTM C 332-83). This classification of
structural lightweight concrete is based on a minimum strength requirement, as per
ASTM standards.

4.1.2 Types of Lightweight Concrete

1. Lightweight Aggregate Concrete

In the early 1950s, the use of lightweight concrete blocks gained acceptance in the UK
for load-bearing inner leaf of cavity walls. New types of artificial lightweight aggregates
(LWA) paved the way for introducing lightweight concrete (LWC) suitable for structural
work. Some types of lightweight aggregates suitable for structural reinforced concrete
include:

2
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

 Pumice: Used for reinforced concrete roof slabs, mainly for industrial roofs in
Germany.
 Foamed Slag: The first lightweight aggregate suitable for reinforced concrete
produced in large quantities in the UK.
 Expanded Clays and Shales: Capable of achieving sufficiently high strength for
prestressed concrete, established under various trade names.

2. Aerated Concrete

Characterized by its lowest density, thermal conductivity, and strength, aerated concrete
can be sawn, screwed, and nailed like timber. It is usually high-pressure steam-cured and
available as precast units for floors, walls, and roofs.

3. No Fines Concrete

Composed of cement and coarse aggregate only, with uniformly distributed voids
throughout its mass. It finds applications in load-bearing walls, internal wall casting, non-
load-bearing walls, and under-floor filling.

4.1.3 Types of Lightweight Concrete Based on Density and Strength

Lightweight concrete can be classified into:

1. Low Density Concrete: Primarily used for insulation purposes with low unit
weight, high heat insulation value, and relatively low compressive strength.

2. Moderate Density Concrete: Positioned between low density and structural

concrete, offering a balance of strength and insulation.

3. Structural Concrete: Featuring aggregates suitable for structural efficiency, with

minimum compressive strength requirements.

Most structural LWC is capable of producing concrete with compressive strength in

excess of 34.47 N/mm². While the unit weight of structural LWC is considerably greater

3
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

than that of low-density concrete, its thermal insulation values are substantially better
than those of normal-weight concrete.

4.1.4 Uses and Advantages of Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight concrete finds diverse applications, including screeds, walls, insulation, and
structural elements. Its advantages include reduced dead load, faster building rates, lower
transportation costs, and enhanced thermal insulation properties, contributing to energy
efficiency in buildings.

4.1.5 Durability of Lightweight Concrete

Durability is defined as the ability of a material to withstand the effects of its

environment. Lightweight concrete faces challenges such as chemical attack, physical
stress, and mechanical damage, which require proper precautions and protective measures
to ensure long-term performance in various environmental conditions.

4.2 Aerated Concrete

Aerated concrete is made by introducing air or gas into a slurry composed of Portland
cement or lime and finely crushed siliceous filler so that when the mix sets and hardens, a
uniformly cellular structure is formed. Though it is called aerated concrete it is really not
a concrete in the correct sense of the word.

4
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

As described above, it is a mixture of water, cement and finely crushed sand. Aerated
concrete is also referred to as gas concrete, foam concrete, cellular concrete.

4.2.1 Manufacturing of Aerated Concrete

There are several ways in which aerated concrete can be manufactured.

(a) By the formation of gas by chemical reaction within the mass during liquid or plastic
state.

(b) By mixing preformed stable foam with the slurry.

(c) By using finely powdered metal (usually aluminium powder) with the slurry and
made to react with the calcium hydroxide liberated during the hydration process, to give
out large quantity of hydrogen gas. This hydrogen gas when contained in the slurry mix,
gives the cellular structure.

Powdered zinc may also be added in place of aluminum powder. Hydrogen peroxide and
bleaching powder have also been used instead of metal powder. But this practice is not
widely followed at present.

In the second method preformed, stable foam is mixed with cement and crushed sand
slurry thus causing the cellular structure when this gets set and hardened. As a minor
modification some foam-giving agents are also mixed and thoroughly churned or beaten
(in the same manner as that of preparing foam with the white of egg) to obtain foam
effect in the concrete. In a similar way, air entrained agent in large quantity can also be
used and mixed thoroughly to introduce cellular aerated structure in the concrete.
However, this method cannot be employed for decreasing the density of the concrete
beyond a certain point and as such, the use of air entrainment is not often practised for
making aerated concrete.

Gasification method is of the most widely adopted methods using aluminium powder or
such other similar material. This method is adopted in the large scale manufacture of
aerated concrete in the factory wherein the whole process is mechanised and the product
is subjected to high pressure steam curing i.e., in other words, the products are

5
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

autoclaved. Such products will suffer neither retrogression of strength nor dimensional
instability.

The practice of using preformed foam with slurry is limited to small scale production and
in situ work where small change in the dimensional stability can be tolerated. But the
advantage is that any density desired at site can be made in this method.

4.2.2 Properties of Aerated Concrete

Use of foam concrete has gained popularity not only because of the low density but also
because of other properties mainly the thermal insulation property. Aerated concrete is
made in the density range from 300 kg/m3 to about 800 kg/m3. Lower density grades are
used for insulation purposes, while medium density grades are used for the manufacture
of building blocks or load bearing walls and comparatively higher density grades are used
in the manufacture of prefabricated structural members in conjunction with steel
reinforcement.

4.3 No-fines concrete

No-Fines Concrete is a lightweight concrete made up of only coarse aggregate, cement

and water by omitting fines (sand or fine aggregates) from normal concrete. Advantages,
limitations and mix proportions of no-fines concrete is discussed. Very often only single
sized coarse aggregate, of size passing through 20 mm retained on 10mm is used. No-
fines concrete is becoming popular because of some of the advantages it possesses over
the conventional concrete. The single sized aggregates make a good no-fines concrete,
which in addition to having large voids and hence light in weight, also offers
architecturally attractive look.

4.3.1 Advantages of No-Fines Concrete

 No fines concrete is a lightweight concrete i.e. density is about 25 to 30% less

than the normal concrete due to no fine aggregates, thus self-weight of structure is
less.

6
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

 As it does not have sands or fine aggregates, it has less drying shrinkage
compared to normal concrete
 It has better thermal insulating characteristic than normal concrete and thus it is
useful for construction of external wall.
 As it has no fine aggregates, the surface area required for cement coating is
reduced considerably. So, quantity of cement required gets reduced per cubic
meter compared with normal concrete. So, it is economical.
 Lightweight concrete has no effect on quality due to segregation of coarse
aggregates as it has no fine aggregates. Thus, it can be dropped from heights.
 No fines concrete can be compacted without the need of any types of concrete
vibrators and can be easily done by tamping with rods.

4.3.2 Limitations of No Fines Concrete

 As there is no fine aggregates to fill the voids in this concrete, it has high
permeability than normal concrete. Thus, it is not a good idea to construct

7
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

reinforced concrete with no fines concrete, as the reinforcement can easily get
corroded.
 To make this concrete impermeable, extra coat of masonry plaster is required,
which increase the cost.
 No fines concrete can not be tested for workability by using tests for normal
concrete such as slump or compaction factor test. Values of workability and its
test methods are unknown.

4.3.3 Mix-proportion of No-Fines Concrete

No-fines concrete is generally made with the aggregate/cement ratio from 6 : 1 to 10 :1.
Aggregates used are normally of size passing through 20 mm and retained on 10 mm.
Unlike the conventional concrete, in which strength is primarily controlled by the
water/cement ratio, the strength of no-fines concrete is dependent on the water/cement
ratio, aggregate cement ratio and unit weight of concrete. The water/cement ratio for
satisfactory consistency will vary between a narrow range of 0.38 and 0.52.
Water/cement ratio must be chosen with care. If too low a water/cement ratio is adopted,
the paste will be so dry that aggregates do not get properly smeared with paste which
results in insufficient adhesion between the particles. On the other hand, if the
water/cement ratio is too high, the paste flows to the bottom of the concrete, particularly
when vibrated and fills up the voids between the aggregates at the bottom and makes that
portion dense. This condition also reduces the adhesion between aggregate and aggregate
owing to the paste becoming very thin.

No standard method is available, like slump test or compacting factor test for measuring
the consistency of no-fines concrete. Perhaps a good, experienced visual examination and
trial and error method may be the best guide for deciding optimum water/cement ratio.
No-fines concrete, when conventional aggregates are used, may show a density of about
1600 to 1900 kg/m3, but when no-fines concrete is made by using lightweight aggregate,
the density may come to about 360 kg/m3.

No-fines concrete does not pose any serious problem for compaction. Use of mechanical
compaction or vibratory methods are not required. Simple rodding is sufficient for full

8
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

compaction. No-fines concrete does not give much side thrust to the formwork as the
particles are having point to point contact and concrete does not flow. Therefore, the side
of the formworks can be removed in a time interval shorter than for conventional
concrete. However, formwork may be required to be kept for a longer time, when used as
a structural member, as the strength of concrete is comparatively less.

The compressive strength of no-fines concrete varies between 1.4 MPa to about 14 MPa.
The bond strength of no-fines concrete is very low and, therefore, reinforcement is not
used in conjunction with no-fines concrete. However, if reinforcement is required to be
used in no-fines concrete, it is advisable to smear the reinforcement with cement paste to
improve the bond and also to protect it from rusting

4.4 High density concrete

High density concrete, also known as heavyweight concrete, includes a density range of
between 6000 to 6400 kg/m3. This is approximately 50% higher than conventional
concrete. This type of concrete primarily includes aggregates such as iron ore, hematite,
magnetite, or ilmenite. High density concrete is fundamental for radiation shielding,
counterweights, and other applications where the high density is essential.

It exhibits better shielding properties, acting as a protective layer against harmful

radiations, including neutrons, X-rays, and gamma rays.

4.4.1 Composition of High Density Concrete

As mentioned earlier, high density concrete can be achieved through natural or man-
made aggregates like magnetic or barite. It may also include manufactured aggregates
such as lead shot or iron.

The level of density will depend on the types of aggregates we use in the composition.
When using barites, the density can range up to 3500 kg/m3, whereas the magnetite will
be 3900 kg/m3.

9
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

Beyond this range, the iron or lead shot is used as an aggregate to achieve densities of
about 5900 kg/m3 and 8900 kg/m3. Concrete with heavy aggregates like iron ore and
magnetite helps increase the concrete density and fight against radiation.

4.4.2 Materials and Mix Proportion of High Density Concrete

The constituent materials like water, cement, and admixtures are used in high density
concrete, which are all the same for normal density concrete too. However, the
aggregates can vary and may require special care and attention during batching, mixing,
handling, transporting, and placing.

The desired density is achieved through high-density aggregates such as iron oxides.
Before getting into the process, some considerations will be taken into account, such as
intended use, availability, physical and chemical properties, and cost.

Concrete densities range from 3700 to 3800 kg/m3 and are obtained using certain typical
aggregates with particle relative densities of at least 4500 kg/m3. The densities of 4800
kg/m3 utilise aggregates with a particle relative density of at least 6000 kg/m3.

With naturally occurring aggregates, concrete densities of approximately 4000 kg/m3 can
be obtained. In contrast, with man-made or synthetic aggregates, densities above 4000
kg/m3 can be obtained.

4.4.3 Uses of High-Density Concrete

Due to its unique properties and functionalities, high density concrete can be used in a
wide variety of applications. Here are some common uses such as:

Radiation Shielding: High density concrete can fight against harmful radiation such as
neutrons, X-rays, and gamma rays. The usage of heavy aggregates such as iron ore and
magnetite prevents penetration to the other side.

Counterweights: High density concrete is an ideal choice for counterweights, as it helps

distribute weight evenly to the structures. When using it in strategic locations, stability
can be improved with reduced stress on other components.

10
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

Underwater Structures: Concrete with high strength and density can make it an ideal
choice for underwater structures. It can withstand the immense pressure created inside the
water column. Its fast curing and resistance to corrosion are additional advantages.

4.4.4 Advantages of High Density Concrete

Here are the lists of advantages that you can expect from high-density concrete:

Enhanced Weight-bearing Capacity: Higher-density concrete supports heavy loads

without lifting the structural stress and dimensions. This can be a perfect choice for
structures where they have limited space but need to withstand significant stresses.

Reduced Thermal Cracking: High density concrete has excellent thermal conductivity
when compared to normal concrete. It can dissipate heat and reduce the risk of thermal
cracking when the concrete is exposed to rapid temperature fluctuations.

Space Savings: As known, high-density concrete has an increased strength-to-weight

ratio. It helps create more compact structural elements, resulting in significant space
savings. This is best suited for urban areas where the land space is very limited.

Cost Cutting: The initial investment of high-density concrete may be higher than that of
conventional concrete due to the requirement for heavy aggregates. But it benefits you in
several ways, like reduced thermal cracking and potential space savings.

4.4.5 Disadvantages of High Density Concrete

Reduced Workability: Compared to normal concrete, high-density concrete is quite

difficult to mix, transport, and place. It drastically slows down construction work and
increases labour costs.

Limited Availability: Heavy aggregates are expensive and are hard to obtain in some
regions. It constrains the usage of aggregates during the manufacturing process.

11
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

4.5 Fibre reinforced concrete

Fiber Reinforced Concrete can be defined as a composite material consisting of

mixtures of cement, mortar or concrete and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly
dispersed suitable fibers. Fiber reinforced concrete are of different types and properties
with many advantages. Continuous meshes, woven fabrics, and long wires or rods are not
considered to be discrete fibers. Fiber is a small piece of reinforcing material possessing
certain characteristics properties. They can be circular or flat. The fiber is often described
by a convenient parameter called "aspect ratio". The aspect ratio of the fiber is the ratio of
its length to its diameter. The typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to 150.

Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which

increases its structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly
distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic
fibers, and natural fibers. Within these different fibers, the character of fiber reinforced
concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution,
orientation, and densities. Fibre-reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be
used in normal concrete. Fiber-reinforced normal concrete is mostly used for on-ground
floors and pavements, but can be considered for a wide range of construction parts
(beams, pliers, foundations, etc) either alone or with hand-tied rebars Concrete reinforced
with fibers (which are usually steel, glass or "plastic" fibers) is less expensive than hand-
tied rebar, while still increasing the tensile strength many times. The shape, dimension,
and length of fiber is important. A thin and short fiber, for example, short hair-shaped
glass fiber, will only be effective the first hours after pouring the concrete (reduces
cracking while the concrete is stiffening) but will not increase the concrete tensile
strength

4.5.1 Effect of Fibers in Concrete

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control plastic shrinkage cracking and drying
shrinkage cracking. They also lower the permeability of concrete and thus reduce the
bleeding of water. Some types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion and shatter
resistance in concrete. Generally, fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete,

12
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

so it cannot replace moment resisting or structural steel reinforcement. Some fibers

reduce the strength of concrete.

The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the total
volume of the composite (concrete and fibers) termed volume fraction (V f). Vf typically
ranges from 0.1 to 3%. Aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its
diameter (d). Fibers with a non-circular cross-section use an equivalent diameter for the
calculation of aspect ratio. If the modulus of elasticity of the fiber is higher than the
matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help to carry the load by increasing the tensile
strength of the material. An increase in the aspect ratio of the fiber usually segments the
flexural strength and toughness of the matrix.

However, fibers that are too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create workability
problems. Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has a limited effect
on the impact resistance of concrete materials. This finding is very important since
traditionally people think the ductility increases when concrete reinforced with fibers.
The results also pointed out that the microfibres are better in impact resistance compared
with the longer fibers.

4.5.2 The necessity of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

 It increases the tensile strength of the concrete.

 It reduces the air voids and water voids the inherent porosity of gel.
 It increases the durability of the concrete.
 Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep, while the
same is not true for most resins. Therefore, the orientation and volume of fibres
have a significant influence on the creep performance of rebars/tendons.
 Reinforced concrete itself is a composite material, where the reinforcement acts as
the strengthening fibre and the concrete as the matrix. It is therefore imperative
that the behavior under thermal stresses for the two materials be similar so that the
differential deformations of concrete and the reinforcement are minimized.

13
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

 It has been recognized that the addition of small, closely spaced and uniformly
dispersed fibers to concrete would act as crack arrester and would substantially
improve its static and dynamic properties.

4.5.3 Types of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Following are the different type of fibers generally used in the construction industries.

1. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

2. Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) cement mortar & concrete
3. GFRC Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete
4. Asbestos Fibers
5. Carbon Fibers
6. Organic Fibers

1. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

A no of steel fiber types are available as reinforcement. Round steel fiber the commonly
used type are produced by cutting round wire in to short length. The typical diameter lies
in the range of 0.25 to 0.75mm. Steel fibers having a rectangular c/s are produced by
silting the sheets about 0.25mm thick. Fiber made from mild steel drawn wire.
Conforming to IS:280-1976 with the diameter of wire varying from 0.3 to 0.5mm have
been practically used in India. Round steel fibers are produced by cutting or chopping the
wire, flat sheet fibers having a typical c/s ranging from 0.15 to 0.41mm in thickness and
0.25 to 0.90mm in width are produced by silting flat sheets. Deformed fiber, which are
loosely bounded with water-soluble glue in the form of a bundle are also available. Since
individual fibers tend to cluster together, their uniform distribution in the matrix is often
difficult. This may be avoided by adding fibers bundles, which separate during the
mixing process.

2. Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) cement mortar and concrete

Polypropylene is one of the cheapest & abundantly available polymers polypropylene

fibers are resistant to most chemical & it would be cementitious matrix which would
14
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

deteriorate first under aggressive chemical attack. Its melting point is high (about 165
degrees centigrade). So that a working temp. As (100 degree centigrade) may be
sustained for short periods without detriment to fiber properties. Polypropylene fibers
being hydrophobic can be easily mixed as they do not need lengthy contact during mixing
and only need to be evenly distressed in the mix. Polypropylene short fibers in small
volume fractions between 0.5 to 15 commercially used in concrete.

Fig. : Polypropylene fiber reinforced cement mortar and concrete

3. GFRC - Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Glass fiber is made up of 200-400 individual filaments which are lightly bonded to make
up a stand. These stands can be chopped into various lengths, or combined to make cloth
mats or tape. Using the conventional mixing techniques for normal concrete it is not
possible to mix more than about 2% (by volume) of fibers of a length of 25mm. The
major appliance of glass fiber has been in reinforcing the cement or mortar matrices used
in the production of thin-sheet products. The commonly used verities of glass fibers are
e-glass used. In the reinforced of plastics & AR glass E-glass has inadequate resistance to

15
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

alkalis present in Portland cement where AR-glass has improved alkali-resistant

characteristics. Sometimes polymers are also added in the mixes to improve some
physical properties such as moisture movement.

4. Asbestos Fibers

The naturally available inexpensive mineral fiber, asbestos, has been successfully
combined with Portland cement paste to form a widely used product called asbestos
cement. Asbestos fibers here thermal mechanical & chemical resistance making them
suitable for sheet product pipes, tiles and corrugated roofing elements. Asbestos cement
board is approximately two or four times that of unreinforced matrix. However, due to
relatively short length (10mm) the fiber have low impact strength.

5. Carbon Fibers

Carbon fibers from the most recent & probability the most spectacular addition to the
range of fiber available for commercial use. Carbon fiber comes under the very high
modulus of elasticity and flexural strength. These are expansive. Their strength &
stiffness characteristics have been found to be superior even to those of steel. But they are
more vulnerable to damage than even glass fiber, and hence are generally treated with
resign coating.

6. Organic Fibers

Organic fiber such as polypropylene or natural fiber may be chemically more inert than
either steel or glass fibers. They are also cheaper, especially if natural. A large volume of
vegetable fiber may be used to obtain a multiple cracking composite. The problem of
mixing and uniform dispersion may be solved by adding a superplasticizer.

4.6 Self-compacting concrete

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) can be defined as fresh concrete that flows under its
own weight and does not require external vibration to undergo compaction. It is
used in the construction where it is hard to use vibrators for consolidation of concrete.

16
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

Filling and passing ability, segregation resistance are the properties of self-compacting
concrete.

SCC possess superior flow ability in its fresh state that performs self-compaction and
material consolidation without segregation issues.

4.6.1 Advantages of Self Compacting Concrete

 The permeability of the concrete structure is decreased

 SCC enables freedom in designing concrete structures
 The SCC construction is faster
 The problems associated with vibration is eliminated
 The concrete is placed with ease, which results in large cost saving
 The quality of the construction is increase
 The durability and reliability of the concrete structure is high compared to normal
concrete structures
 Noise from vibration is reduced. This also reduce the hand arm vibration
syndrome issues

4.6.2 Disadvantages of Self Compacting Concrete

SCC construction face the following limitations:

 There is no globally accepted test standard to undergo SCC mix design

 The cost of construction is costlier than the conventional concrete construction
 The use of designed mix will require more trial batches and lab tests
 The measurement and monitoring must be more precise.
 The material selection for SCC is more stringent

4.6.3 Applications of Self Compacting Concrete

The major applications of self compacting concrete are:

 Construction of structures with complicated reinforcement

 SCC is used for repairs, restoration and renewal construction

17
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

 Highly stable and durable retaining walls are constructed with the help of SCC
 SCC is employed in the construction of raft and pile foundations

4.6.4 Materials Used for Self Compacting Concrete

The main ingredients used in design of self compacting concrete are:

1. Cement: Ordinary Portland cement either 43 or 53 grade cement can be used.

2. Aggregates

The size of the aggregates used for SCC design is limited to 20mm. If the reinforcement
employed for the structure is congested, the aggregate size used can be in the range 10 to
12mm. Well graded aggregates either round or cubical shape are a best choice. The fine
aggregates used in SCC can be either natural aggregates or manufactured aggregates (M-
Sand) with a uniform grade. The fine aggregates with particle size less than 0.125mm are
generally employed.

3. Water

The quality of water used is same that followed for reinforced concrete and prestressed
concrete construction.

4. Mineral Admixtures

The mineral admixtures used can vary based on the mix design and properties required.
Mentioned below are the different mineral admixtures that can be used and their
respective properties they provide. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
(GGBS): The use of GGBS helps to improve the rheological properties of the self
compacting concrete. Fly ash: The fine fly ash particles help to improve the filling of the
internal concrete matrix with fewer pores. This improves the quality and durability of the
SCC structures. Silica Fumes: The use of silica fumes helps to increase the mechanical
properties of the self compacting concrete structure. Stone Powder: The use of stone
powder in SCC is used to improve the powder content of the mix.

18
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

5. Chemical Admixtures

New generation superplasticizers are commonly used in SCC mix design. In order to
improve the freeze and thaw resistance of the concrete structure, air entraining agents are
used. To control the setting time, retarders are employed.

Fig.: Material Composition of Ordinary Concrete and SCC

4.7 Shotcrete

Shotcrete is a versatile construction material employed extensively in civil engineering

applications. It is a pneumatically applied concrete or mortar that adheres to
surfaces in a high-velocity stream. Also known as Gunite, shotcrete finds applications
in various construction scenarios, offering a rapid and efficient method for creating
structures and reinforcing surfaces. Its unique application process involves projecting the
material through a hose and nozzle onto the target surface, enabling precise placement
and shaping.

Shotcrete is a construction technique where concrete is applied by spraying. It

involves a mixture of aggregate and Portland cement that is transported through
compressed air to the nozzle of a spray gun, where water is introduced. The resulting wet
mixture is then sprayed onto the desired surface and can be carved or troweled almost
immediately after application.

19
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

Shotcrete, also referred to as Spraycrete or Gunite, is a dynamic construction material

composed of mortar or concrete. It is applied through a nozzle with high-velocity
pneumatic projection. This innovative engineering method ensures precise and efficient
placement, making it an ideal choice for a variety of construction applications. The
application of shotcrete is versatile, allowing for spraying on both vertical and overhead
surfaces. This method reduces the need for extensive formwork, providing an economical
and cost-effective solution. Additionally, shotcrete facilitates robust chemical bonding
across a diverse range of materials. Shotcrete method is mainly used to repair and
reinforce existing structures, providing effective solutions for structural rehabilitation and
restoration projects.

4.7.1 Properties of Shotcrete

The properties of Shotcrete include the following:

 Adheres effectively to various surfaces.

 Exhibits high compressive strength.
 Allows for versatile applications on vertical and overhead surfaces.
 Requires minimal formwork, enhancing cost-effectiveness.
 Facilitates strong chemical bonding with different materials.

20
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

 Quick and efficient application process.

 Demonstrates durability and resistance to weathering.
 Ideal for creating sculptural and architectural features.
 Suitable for stabilizing slopes, tunnel linings, and structural reinforcements.

4.7.2 Types of the Shotcrete Process

There are two types of Shotcrete processes:

 Dry Mix Process

 Wet Mix Process

Dry Mix Process

 In the dry mix process, dry ingredients are loaded into a hopper and then
pneumatically conveyed through a hose to the nozzle.
 Water addition at the nozzle is controlled by the Nozzleman, and the mixture is
fully combined upon hitting the receiving surface. A skilled Nozzleman is crucial,
particularly for thick or heavily reinforced sections.
 This process offers an advantage in water content adjustment, allowing efficient
placement in overhead and vertical applications without the need for accelerators.
 The dry mix process is particularly useful in repair works that require frequent
stops, as the dry material can be easily discharged from the hose.

Wet Mix Process

 In the wet-mix shotcrete method, pre-prepared concrete, usually ready-mixed, is

pumped to the nozzle, where compressed air is introduced to propel the mixture
onto the receiving surface.
 This procedure typically generates less dust, rebound, and waste compared to the
dry-mix process.
 The primary advantage of the wet-mix process lies in the comprehensive mixing
of all ingredients with water and additives, allowing for the placement of larger
volumes in less time than the dry process concrete.

21
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM
Concrete Technology and Masonry Structures

4.7.3 What are Shotcrete Machines?

Shotcrete machines play a crucial role in overseeing the entire process efficiently. Both
manual and mechanical methods are employed for the wet spraying process, traditionally
executed by a machine. Mechanization demands high spray outputs and large cross-
sections. Concrete spraying systems, primarily featuring duplex pumps, are utilized for
working with wet mixes. Unlike traditional concrete pumps, these systems must ensure a
continuous and uniform concrete flow for consistent spray application.

4.7.4 Application of Shotcrete

Shotcrete serves diversified applications in the following:

 Stabilizing rock slopes.

 Repairing and restoration work.
 Application on thin overhead, vertical, and horizontal surfaces.
 Waterproofing walls.
 Construction in curved and folded sections (e.g., canals, tanks, tunnels).
 Utilized in hard rock mining.

4.7.5 Advantages of Shotcrete

The advantages of Shotcrete are:

 Efficient application on vertical and overhead surfaces.

 Quick and cost-effective method.
 Strong chemical bonding with various materials.
 Versatile for sculptural and structural applications.

4.7.6 Disadvantages of Shotcrete

The disadvantages include

 Requires skilled application, especially in thick or reinforced sections.

 Potential for rebound and dust generation.
 Limited to specific nozzle and hose lengths.
 Dependence on weather conditions for curing of concrete.

22
Prepared by: Gyanendra Bhandari, OCEM