iJournals: International Journal of Software & Hardware Research in Engineering (IJSHRE)

ISSN-2347-4890
Volume 9 Issue 3 March 2021

THE IMPACT OF EMERGING

WIRELESS NETWORK SYSTEM AND
CYBERSECURITY IN A GLOBAL
COMMUNITY
Odey John Adinya1, Ele, B. I.1& Obono,I. O.1
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
1
Department of Computer Science, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State -
Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Wireless network systems and cyber security threats are growing faster than their mitigation measures. World
Economic Forum has identified wireless network security and cyber security threats as its top global risks for
the past eight years. This paper aims to critically examine the impact of emerging wireless network systems and
cyber security in a global community and suggest some best countermeasures against wireless and cyber
security threats that have been of global concern. To achieve this, the study conducted an in-depth review of
wireless network security and cyber security. This study has presented a robust wireless security mechanism and
suggests appropriate countermeasure against wireless network and cyber security threats that is more cost-
effective in mounting attacks in the service area, and simultaneously providing higher security than basic
security mechanisms.

KEYWORDS: Wireless Network System, Cybersecurity, Global Community, Cyber-attacks,

Fusion centers, Collaborative.

1. INTRODUCTION
According to research, Internet-based sharing of computational facilities and data resources has created
opportunities for collaborative virtual working environments, and virtual control of sensing and control systems
of monitoring, operation, prediction, and control within the country’s Crime Investigation (CI) sector networks.
Unfortunately, these initiatives and systems created to facilitate and speed up communications, work, and
collaboration between nations and continents are largely insecure and susceptible to terrorist attacks. These
systems have been called ―the new and emerging threats and vulnerabilities‖ [1] with the potential for mass and
widespread destruction and disruption of communications.
Consequently, the National Cyberspace Security Response (NCSSR) was created to provide the
national framework for ensuring information security and protecting cyberspace. Specifically, this agency had
three strategic objectives:
(i) Prevent cyber-attacks against America’s critical infrastructures
(ii) Reduce national vulnerability to cyber-attacks
(iii) Minimize damage and recovery time for cyber-attacks that do occur.
The agency came up with a series of measures to reduce the threat and vulnerability programs, to
institute national cyberspace security awareness and training, and to go global by creating the International
Cyberspace Security Cooperation [1]. The creation of the National Cyber Security Division within the Office of
Cyber Security and Communication reflected the importance of the need to keep this domain intact and safe
from terrorism. The agency was created to build and maintain an effective national cyberspace response system
and to implement a cyber-risk management program for the protection of critical infrastructure. A terrorist
attack on any of our communication systems can infect and destroy the workings of most of our computer chips
in communication, flights, electricity, and every other element of our daily life that depends on computer
systems. So far, we have had threats and limited attacks that have been dealt with quickly and swiftly through

Odey John Adinya; Ele, B. I.;Obono,I. O., Volume 9 Issue 3, pp 53-65, March 2021
 iJournals: International Journal of Software & Hardware Research in Engineering (IJSHRE)
ISSN-2347-4890
Volume 9 Issue 3 March 2021
computer viruses and infiltrations. But al Qaeda has continued to use tools like the World Wide Web, mobile
telephones, satellite telecommunications, electronic banking, and jetliners to coordinate its actions, to enable
movement through state borders without detection, and to disseminate its ideology‖ [2]. And al-Qaeda and the
ISIS have engaged in transnational terrorism which is ―borderless, present everywhere at once‖[3].
The paucity of communication network called on the US to consider this cyberwar an international
affair, one to be fought by all nations where cyber activities take place. Indeed, the 9/11 Commission found out
that about two dozen terrorist groups including al-Qaeda have attempted to acquire or develop chemical,
biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons to attack the USA and its allies. So the recommendation of the
Commission to the House was for the United States to work with the international community to prevent the
proliferation of such weapons or materials that are necessary for the development of these weapons. As a result,
the House enacted acts to prevent terrorist travel, terrorist access to critical infrastructures and key assets, and to
prevent the financial strength and flexibility of terrorist organizations. These measures led to the creation of the
National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace with the view of engaging in the following six initiatives to strengthen
U.S. national security and international cooperation:
(i) Strengthen cyber-related counterintelligence efforts
(ii) Improve capabilities for attack attribution and response
(iii) Improve coordination of responding to cyber-attacks within the US. national security and
community
(iv) Work with industry and through international organizations to facilitate dialogue and partnerships
among international public and private sectors focused on protecting information infrastructures
and promoting a global ―culture of security‖
(v) Foster the establishment of national and international watch-and-warning networks to detect and
prevent cyber-attacks as they emerge
(vi) Encourage other nations to accede to the Council of Europe Convention on Cyber Crime or to
ensure that their laws and procedures are at least as comprehensive
[1] and [4].
So this system which was initiated to facilitate communication, safety, and the global attack on
terrorism can equally be used by the terrorist against the Free states and nations. The above agenda and
objectives set a scenario for collaborative endeavors on the part of all global parties or would-be participants in
cybersecurity. Any attempts therefore to expand cyber networking or nuclear plants must take into consideration
the enormous cost both in human, material, financial aspects that go, not only into creating the network but
safeguarding it from misuse and terrorist attacks. Just as they are effective in building a network of collaborative
survival, they are equally susceptible to divulging information for massive destruction and confusion. It all
depends on who uses it and for what purpose.
Another area that has been impacted by these re-organizations has been the shipping ports where
security has been beefed up. The SAFE Port Act of October 2006 was passed to enhance port authorities and as
an extension of the USA Patriot Act that empowered the Department of Homeland Security to use any of its law
enforcement agencies to detect and intercept terrorists and terrorist acts. More money and manpower were
deplored to the various ports of entry and exit which are susceptible to terrorists who may use them to export
Weapons of Mass Destruction or guns. Terrorist attacks of any ports will not only lead to the loss of life but also
to the loss of national and international business in a society where the economy is a life wire of each country.
These anti-terrorist moves were made in conjunction with the international communities because commerce
involves local citizens and governments and foreign citizens and their governments as well. So, the DHS has
successfully planted intervention steps at key ports and areas in the shipment process using the Container
Security Initiative Plans to prevent the shipment of terrorist materials. Operation Safe Commerce has been
implemented in collaboration with international agencies and foreign governments that have allowed US
workers to inspect and handle the materials exported to America and from those foreign ports and countries.
These collaborations have yielded success since the US Coast Guards, the Immigration and Customs
Enforcement Agency (ICE), and other agencies have not reported incidents resulting from the penetration of US
ports [1]. The immigration service was immediately co-opted into the Department of Homeland Security to
ensure that those who entered and left the US were legal and had no criminal intent. The Office of Detention
and Removal Operations was empowered to detain and deport those who were illegal in the US, and the US

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 iJournals: International Journal of Software & Hardware Research in Engineering (IJSHRE)
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Volume 9 Issue 3 March 2021
borders were given more sweeping powers to mount checkpoints and increase surveillance activities at the
borders to protect the US borders from invasion or being used as a way into the heart of the USA for further
attacks. Indeed, physical barriers, unmanned vehicles, and sophisticated imaging devices were created to
monitor borders to keep terrorists away [5]. They have virtually succeeded in doing so as terrorist suspects have
been apprehended on the Canadian-USA borders struggling to smuggle bomb-making devices to attack Los
Angeles airport.
However, the USA has succeeded immensely in stopping and interrupting terrorists from effecting any
blow again in the USA since 9-11. A minor lapse in airport screening and imaging indeed let the Nigerian-born
Christmas Day Bomber slip through from the checks at the airport; however, he was apprehended when the
bomb failed to be detonated. This oversight again shows how the system cannot be completely watertight and is
still in need of improvement. Good is not good enough, but we have to go for better and closer surveillance.
Hence, the creation of Fusion Centers.

2. FUSION CENTERS
The creation of Fusion Centers was an excellent move by the Bush Administration to bring together
professionals within the law enforcement community with diverse backgrounds in intelligence gathering to work
together to detect, deter, and prevent terrorist elements from engaging in homeland attacks. Indeed, a ―fusion
center is an effective and efficient mechanism to exchange information and intelligence, maximize resources,
streamline operations, and improve the ability to fight crime and terrorism by analyzing data from a variety of
sources‖ [6]. Fusion Centers emerged out of necessity: the need to fight crime and terror with all the information
available across the globe. According to the Authors in [6], "the ultimate goal of Fusion Centers is to provide a
mechanism through which government, law enforcement, public safety, and the public sector get together with a
common purpose and improve the ability to safeguard our homeland and prevent criminal activity" (p. 4). They
were created out of a crisis and given the freedom to penetrate the core of the society to dig out the roots of
terrorist and criminal activities by engaging every level of society. They have sprung up across the nation since
the last decade.
Fusion Centers have become a much more manageable way of solving terrorism and crime in a
collaborative and all-inclusive way. They involve law enforcement Offices, the office of public safety such as
the Fire Department and Medical Emergencies, and the public sectors, all united in a single effort to fight crime
and to prevent a 9-11-like attack from taking place in the USA again. The Center also has the advantage of
sampling the best from all walks of life and technical fields that bring to the table a diverse assortment of skills
needed to fight crime. In this way, the Fusion Center becomes a microcosm of the community because it is
composed of representatives from all the sectors of that community. The Center engages in training on
intelligence gathering, analysis, calibration, and dissemination with the goal of keep-enabling the members to
make informed decisions about activities and actions deemed un-American to keep the society safe.
Indeed, the Fusion Center concept is a new or innovative way of eliminating crimes in society. The
idea is that if these homegrown terrorists do exist and engage in activities within the society, somebody
somewhere should be able to discern these changes in attitudes and report back to the authorities. The
innovation here is that everybody is deemed capable of acting in the role of an informant and therefore a
contributor to the safety of society. Formerly, security and public safety were considered the prevue of the
police and law enforcement agents. The police, CIA, and FBI had almost total control of these situations but
Fusion Centers have debunked this idea and demystified intelligence activities making it a privilege also for
those who have the character traits of honesty and who are determined to assist in protecting the nation.
Fusion Centers have also shifted the center of allegiance from the Unit of Origin to the Center of
Activities. This calls for a shift in organizational behavior and protocol as the shift is now towards the Center
and away from the local precincts or former areas of employment. This shift brings in a true test of loyalty as
conflicts will always arise in the dissemination of information across jurisdictions where each officer or person
will feel called to pay particular attention to the home precinct or jurisdiction. The underlying concept behind
these centers is that a united effort yields better results. It will be more useful to empower the member to be
independent of their various feeder groups through the provision of salaries concomitant with the training and
level of each member being initiated to give them each a reason to be fully committed to the Centers. This
change in management paradigm does not undercut the loyalties to the intelligence offices, but rather ensures

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continuity of operations through shared experience and information. Each intelligence agency (NIA, FBI, CIA,
DoJ, DOD, DNS, etc.,) fully collaborate and even trains those lay individuals who have dedicated time and
effort to the solving of crime in society. Many of those from the neighborhood can have greater leverage among
their local friends and colleagues who can trust them with information than they would a strange FBI and CIA
agent whom they do not know. These traditional agencies should not consider these Centers as upstarts or
presumptive individuals who pretend to be intelligent agents. Rather, they are genuine individuals who want to
help the intelligence community in their little ways to solve a crime.
The world is evolving quickly and terrorists are coming up with innovative methods and cyber
intelligence to circumvent what is put in place against crime. These Centers seem to be the most effective and
least expensive way of counteracting these homegrown terrorists, many of whom are very much
indistinguishable, except through daily interactions. According to the [8], and reiterated throughout the [7],
collaboration seems to be the defining glue or principle that holds these Centers together: ―Fostering a
collaborative environment is not only important to sharing, collecting, developing, and disseminating
intelligence but also sharing decisions and ownership‖ (p.29). Indeed, the purpose of the collaboration is to
increase capacity, communication, and continuity of service while decreasing duplication [9]. So, there will
have to be a concerted effort to avoid service duplication and waste through intensive education of the public to
buy into it. These Fusion Centers continue to remind the nation of the dire need to have full control of security
and safety. The events of 9-11 took the nation by surprise and Presidents Bush and Obama did not want to take
any chances with security by encouraging these Fusion Cells. There may be overlaps and duplications, but this
may be a way of making sure that the information does not escape the attention of one of the layers of security.
Indeed, Fusion Centers tend to discard all forms of theoretical restrictions in favour of Best Practices,
experimenting with what works best. Like with system theories and empowerment, the underlying principle here
is what will motivate the citizens and agents to work faithfully and collaboratively to solve a crime and prevent
criminal activities. It would be advisable to reconsider the internal organization of each Fusion Center and to
create a very unique link and relationship with the professional intelligence agencies such as the National
Intelligence Agency, the FBI, CIA, the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of Defense, and the
Department of Justice who will act as resource agencies to the Centers. It will also be important to initiate a
rigorous program of education to train the lay citizens in the issues of intelligence and protocol, the effective and
judicial use of new and innovative technology to track and analyze information, and the need for collaborative
co-existence with other groups. There will also need to inform the interested parties that intelligence gathering,
analysis, dissemination, and action thereupon is a serious issue of life and death and should not be taken lightly.
Finally, there will be a need for the President to come up with a reasonable budget for each Center to
take care of the training, materials, equipment, logistics, and all that will facilitate the job and encourage
members to be excited about working for each Center. Each Center should be raised to a fully independent unit
with its organizational chart, division of labor, and specialization so that members will realize that they are
being recognized and compensated for work done. Furthermore, there should be a system of remuneration where
good and outstanding work is being recognized and rewarded. Moreover, the appointments of members of the
Fusion Centers should be selective and should constitute the top cream of any of the feeder units and
stakeholders who will bring in the best from their areas to share with the rest. This will make the Center training
much easier and manageable since those undergoing training already has a base of knowledge on which the
training is built.
It will not be an easy task, but the enhancement of the Fusion Centers is a welcome innovation. Many
cities have engaged in the creation of these Centers and the Department of Homeland Security should be
encouraged and given full support to see this initiative spread and succeed. The President should personally
share a vision with these Centers and own them. The success of these Centers in the USA should inspire foreign
nations to implore the same techniques and create similar bodies to overlook security. This concept is built on
the biblical paradigm of being your brother’s keeper. Security is a collective venture and any talk about
expanding nuclear power and use and cyber facilities must take into consideration new ways of guaranteeing
security without making such a venture too expensive.

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3. An Overview of Wireless Technology

The evolution of wireless services has led to an unrestricted accelerated pace of adoption and
widespread acceptance of wireless technology. This evolution in communication is recognized as a promising
breakthrough for the next decade and beyond. The wireless technology invention is strengthening and
integrating wireless communication, network protocols, and next-generation internet protocols into a more
unified wireless technology architecture. Unlike analog, wireless technology has added considerable value to
wireless communications by extending wide range coverage and connections to a multiplicity of devices and
application programs[10]. Wireless technology has created productivity enhancement and an effective medium
of communication on a just-in-time service to the global community. The advancement of wireless technology
and its unhindered utilization for communications has stretched the conversion and contributed to the
changeover from dial-up, cable-wired analog connections to digital connections. The wireless service code-
named ―direct connections‖ transmission is easier, faster, and less expensive than its predecessor[11].
However, the vulnerability of wireless networks still presents enormous challenges and risks that
continue to threaten wireless security. The author in [12] argued that wireless communication takes place
through the air using radio frequency signals that minimize the threats of interception. Conventional wisdom
maintains that encrypted information and data with a weak algorithm will continue to be vulnerable to hackers
and cyber terrorists. The authors in [13] and [14] asserted that the majority of converted data and information is
powerless and at the risk of being intercepted, read, and compromised by unauthorized officials. Consequently,
there is an urgent call to decrease the vulnerability of wireless network systems to uphold confidentiality, ensure
integrity, and to provide constant protection of wireless network operations. The evolution of wireless
technology is entrenched with the potential for dramatic improvement of individual, organization, and social
communication services. We are amid a historic proliferation of wireless transmission and communication
services across the globe. The growth and universal approach to wireless technology has increased demands for
data and information transmission and communications. It has collectively improved the efficiency of wireless
technology.
Wireless technology is deployed in almost every corner of the world community for on-going operative
transmission and communication. The authors in [15] noted that organizations and individuals residing in
remote regions of the world now have access to wireless services for data and information transmission,
communication including instant and emergency contacts. Certainly, the wireless services industry is currently
entrenched with widespread support from private and general public agencies. Wireless communication is
beginning to receive important regulatory supervision from the government by restricting the use of wireless
devices in school zones and texting while driving for safety reasons. Amid existing challenges, wireless services
remain sustainable, inevitable, and convenient solutions to innovative daily life. Statistics revealed that large
segments of the world community and approximately one million people in the United State have wireless
service accounts with various carriers [16]. The evolution of wireless services and associated technology is
working intelligently by empowering the lives of individuals, organizations, local, states, and federal
government agencies, nations by transforming analog (wired-cable) to digital (wireless) services.
The advantages of wireless services involve allowing important information to be accessible to a large
segment of the global community. Today’s universal society consists of the first time beneficiary of wireless
service and efficient communication around the world in ways that were never thought possible. The authors in
[12]noted that the global community collaboration and active participation in both progressions of wireless
services and associated technology is a credible avenue to reinforce a universal alliance around the world.
Wireless services have been instrumental in organizing, transmitting, and preserving important documentation
and learning endeavours around the world.
Universal wireless has benefits, shortcomings, and challenges. Wireless service users in various
countries, precisely in Africa and Asia are subjected to unlawful tracking, monitoring, and data interception that
tend to undermine and overturn the fundamental rights of privacy and freedom of expression. Despite these
potential vulnerabilities, the reward of wireless services in the education institutions, government agencies, and
corporate enterprises cannot afford to shy away from wireless service challenges. Stakeholders must continue to
establish a well-conceived alliance with regulatory agencies such as the Global Network Initiative (GNI) and the
Electronic Industry Code of Conduct (EICC) to minimize emerging wireless services challenges [12].

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The projection or aspiration of wireless service is a continued expansion of wireless transmission of
data, information, and communication services to individuals, villages, government agencies, and other nations
in all regions of the world. Today, the purchase of wireless technology has increased tremendously and is
escorted by a drastic decrease in the prices of wired cable technology, connections, and communication.
Individuals, organizations, institutions of higher education, government agencies, and entire segments of the
world communities have acquired millions of wireless technology for immediate daily use. Without any doubt,
well-defined high volume purchase of wireless devices has inspired individuals, schools, and university
students, and society to use wireless technology for effective connection and communication. The continued
purchase and use of wireless services and associated technology will certainly lead to the acquisition of
approximately three billion wireless devices every-where and every-year for the next decades. The future for the
wireless transaction is limitless.
Boeing and other commercial airliners such as Lufthansa, British Airways, Japan, France, and
Scandinavian Airlines have equipped their long-range jetliners with wireless technology to allow passengers
direct access to a control center of approximately 12 kilometers or 7.5miles above ground [17] and [18]. The
prominence of the wireless service system is validated primarily based on usage convenience, cost efficiency,
and almost effortlessness of integration, connection, and universal compatibly with major wireless network
providers. The author in [19] noted that most wireless technologies sold to consumers are pre-equipped with
factory built-in compatible capabilities and user-friendly-wireless connections and communication tools. The
major line of challenges, according to the authors in [20], consists of unauthorized access points; dissemination
of information, service set identifier (SSIDs), and spoofed medium access control (SMAC) addresses and
wireless local area network (WLAN), scheduled maintenance, systematic troubleshooting policy, and
procedures. Indeed, the advent of wireless technology has unbolted enormous latitude of any-where, any-place,
and any-time connection across the globe.
However, the dawning of wireless service involves interrelated consequences. Current researchers on
wireless technology, such as [21], [22] and [23], highlighted a credible solution to a vulnerability which includes
ongoing professional training of wireless equipment manufacturers, providers, and consumers on factory
settings, well-synthesized equipment manuals, web sites link and online product technical support. In contrast
with cabled-wired connection service, wireless service is very susceptible to the accidental Association (AA)
involving unauthorized access to individuals and the organization’s wireless services. The authors in [24] point
out that accidental association start from several different techniques, and usually occurs as soon as users turn
on and start operating a computer system that latches into wireless access points overlapping a neighboring
organization wireless service without the organization’s or user’s permission.
This is not an attempt to downplay the importance of emerging wireless services; rather, it is an
indication that failure to prevent perpetrators from an organization’s sensitive information and data is
recognized as a wireless service security breach. To sidestep individuals, organization, and institutions of the
higher education access point (AP) at all times, each director of information technology (IT) must be adequately
trained and equipped with the expertise to protect against planned and the unplanned threat of malicious
association (MA) of perpetrators’ vicious activities on already a vulnerable wireless technology network. Cyber
terrorists, hackers, and crackers code-named as ―perpetrators,‖ are repeatedly inclined to adopt various
techniques to gain illegal and unauthorized access to organizations’ and institutions’ wireless service
networks[25].
Perpetrators often use laptops as a soft access point (SAP) to create well-suited software to produce
illegal wireless network cards (WNC) to gain unauthorized access to individuals, institutions’ and organizations’
wireless service systems. The authors in [17] and [26], noted that most network systems are defenseless,
vulnerable, and generally easy to pass through without an authorized username and password. Notably, the
wireless network operates at Layer 2 (Data-Link) and Layer 3 (Network) of the ―Open Systems Interconnection‖
(OSI) models. The OSI consists of seven layers, each playing a specific role when applications are
communicating over the network. In the process, each layer, from top to down adds a specific header to the
transmission of raw data. Sustained maximum security directly related to wireless services and signals consists
of network system authentication (NSA) and virtual private network (VPN). To save wireless service from
damage, the author in [26] suggested that NAS and VPN must be adequately integrated and configured to block
well-informed and out of control perpetrators from penetrating an organization’s and institution’s wireless

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service through Layer 2 network also known as the Data-link layer, which is a software program designed to
bridge the gap between two homogeneous network systems. The wireless network is a defenseless system and
is inclined to be lacerated by unauthorized users and perpetrators.
Without any doubt, wireless technology has created productivity enhancement and an effective medium
of communication on a just-in-time service to the global community. The emergence of wireless technology has
histrionically increased and strengthened the integration of wireless data, information transmission, and
communications. The projected gridlock of wireless technology (WT) was the rapid and universal adoption of
WT to replace the analog network system. In contrast with localized analog technology, wireless technology is a
historic technology for a global society. The WT has added considerable value by extending a broad range of
value, data, information transmission, communications, and connectivity to a multiplicity of devices and
application programs used by consumers all over the world. The advancement of wireless technology and its
unhindered utilization for communications has stretched the conversion and contributed to changeover from
dial-up, cable-wired analog connections to digital connections.
However, due to the vulnerability of wireless technology, perpetrators can use identifiers broadcasting
to attack wireless network systems. Today, most wireless devices are shipped out of the factory to consumers
with a built-in identifier broadcasting (BIIB) with the ability to send out signals to wireless networks within the
vicinity announcing the BIIB presence. Consequently, wireless technology equipment manufacturers must be
prevailed upon to develop and deliver wireless devices such as routers and switches with the encryption feature
entirely turned-off and concealed instruction turned-on by IT directors before installation and configuration on
organization wireless network system. This way, the privacy and security apparatus will be guaranteed and used
only by those authorized to do so.

3.1 Challenges in Wireless Security

Enterprises see many advantages in deploying wireless LANs (WLANs), a technology that in the past few years
has witnessed considerable market penetration. Compared to wired networks, WLANs incur lower installation
costs per user given the reduced cabling and manual labour required. Moreover, connectivity is provided to
mobile users at no extra cost, improving efficiency and productivity.
One major challenge regarding the deployment of wireless networks is dealing with the unpredictable nature of
signal propagation [27]. While signal strength decreases with distance, the rate of decay inside a building
depends on the construction materials used, floor layouts, the placement of furniture and other obstacles, as well
as the number of people and their moving patterns. The resulting reflection, diffraction, and scattering of waves
create environment-dependent oscillations in received signal strength, which challenge not only services such as
network planning but also all others that rely on signal strength statistics.
Regarding security, one major disadvantage of wireless networks is that they violate the physical security model
that is so effective in wired LANs, therefore requiring additional mechanisms to implement proper access
control. Unlike the wired scenario, there is no inherent access control: wireless links extend connectivity beyond
physical boundaries, making networks available in parking lots, across the street, and in nearby buildings,
adjacent locations where coverage was not intended. When left unprotected, these wireless links make networks
vulnerable to misuse and attacks. It is also more difficult to make clients accountable for their acts, as
misbehaving devices can move freely and be 50 meters from the access points they use. Moreover, malicious
users can use directional antennas and amplifiers to produce higher signal strength levels and create many
different signal strength patterns to further obfuscate their physical locations.
To make matters worse, current access control solutions are not suitable for all wireless installations: they either
provide little security improvements or incur high management overhead. On one hand, some mechanisms are
easy to deploy but that adds little or no protection. For instance, installations may leave their wireless links
open, hide network names (SSIDs in 802.11 jargon), or use MAC address lists. As these solutions can be easily
broken by hackers, networks are still at risk of being compromised. On the other hand, several mechanisms
provide higher security levels and fine-grained access control capabilities, but at much higher costs to secure
wireless LANs [28]. The higher management costs come from adding and removing users, granting and
revoking access rights, as well as protecting sensitive information (keys), which is vital for keeping systems
uncompromised. These mechanisms also place a lot of responsibility on users, who have to choose proper
passwords and keep them safeguarded. As a result of this trade-off between security and management costs, a

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large percentage of wireless networks still operate with insecure configurations and many of them are
commonly victims of network abuse.
A world-wide wardriving effort performed in June 2004 detected over 200,000 access points, with more than
60% of them running without cryptographic protection (then using WEP) and over 30% with the default SSID
set by the manufacturer [29]. In enterprise environments, insecure configurations are also common. A
studyperformed by RSA and NetSurity in March 2005 revealed that over 30% of enterprise wireless LANs in
London, Frankfurt, New York, and San Francisco lacked basic security measures [30]. While these
configurations can be complemented by VLANs and firewalls to restrict the services available to wireless
clients, networks are still left unprotected and vulnerable to misuse. Of 700 institutions that responded to the
2005 CSI/FBI Computer Crime and Security Survey, over 15% acknowledged that their wireless networks were
victims of abuse during the previous year [31]. This number is a lower bound, as these institutions need at least
to be aware that such attacks took place and willing to share that information. Unfortunately, this situation is
doomed to get worse because the number of deployed access points keeps rising at a considerable rate, allowing
malicious users to find vulnerable networks with minimal effort.
According to the study by RSA, the number of access points detected in London and Frankfurt increased
respectively by 62% and 66% between 2004 and 2005 [30]. Market research shows that WLAN unit shipments
increased by 39% between 2004 and 2005, with access points accounting for 81% of the wireless equipment
revenue [32].
In summary, if on one hand wireless LAN technology is compelling for many reasons on the other they
introduce a new security paradigm that creates challenges for access control. Security problems will continue to
exist unless cheaper yet effective solutions become available.

3.2 Risks and Vulnerabilities of Wireless Networks

Along with the many conveniences and cost-saving advantages to wireless networks, there are also some
inherent risks and vulnerabilities.

3.2.1 The Nature of the Wireless Medium

Traditional wired networks use cables to transfer information, which is protected by the buildings that
enclose them. To access a wired network, a hacker must bypass the physical security of the building or breach
the firewall. On the other hand, wireless networks use the air, which is an uncontrolled medium. Wireless
Network signals can travel through the walls, ceilings, and windows of buildings up to thousands of feet outside
of the building walls.
Additionally, since the WLAN medium is airwaves, it is a shared medium that allows anyone in
proximity to ―sniff‖ the traffic. The risks of using a shared medium are increasing with the advent of readily-
available ―hacker’s tools.‖ A variety of specialized tools and tool kits enable hackers to ―sniff‖ data and
applications and to break both the encryption and authentication of wireless data.
3.2.2 Insecure Wireless Network Devices
Insecure wireless LAN devices, such as access points and user stations, can seriously compromise both
the wireless network and the wired network, making them popular targets for hackers.
3.2.3 Insecure Access Points
Access points can be insecure, due to improper configurations and design flaws. Access points shipped
with insecure default configurations. They are pre-configured with a default password; they broadcast service
set identifiers (SSIDs), and they often require no encryption or authentication. If deployed with default settings,
they become gateways that hackers use to access both the wireless and the wired network.
Intruders (hackers) can convert laptops into ―soft‖ access points (APs) by either using a variety of
software programs, such as HostAP, Hotspotter, or Airsnark, or, by simply using a USB wireless adapter. Using
soft APs, a hacker can cause a legitimate user to connect to the hacker’s laptop, compromising that user’s
machine.
3.2.4 Insecure User Stations
Insecure wireless user stations such as laptops or bar code scanners pose an even greater risk to the
security of the enterprise network than insecure access points. The default configuration of these devices offer
little security and can be easily misconfigured. Intruders can use any insecure wireless station as a launchpad to

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breach the network. Below is a diagrammatical representation of some attacks usually done by a network
hacker?

Fig. 1: A common wireless network security risks (Adopted from [19]).

4.0 An Overview of Cyber security and Cyberspace

Cyber security begins with the knowledge of computing assets and how one depends on them. Today’s World
leaders need meaningful cyber situation awareness to safeguard sensitive data, sustain fundamental operations,
and protect national infrastructure.
Cyber security is the body of technologies, processes, and practices designed to protect networks, computers,
programs, and data from attack, damage, or unauthorized access (Wu and Irwin, 2013).Cyber security refers to
preventative methods used to protect information from being stolen, compromised, or attacked. It requires an
understanding of potential information threats, such as viruses and other malicious code. Cyber security
strategies include identity management, risk management, and incident management. In a computing
context, security includes both cyber security and physical security (Singer and Friedman, 2014). According to
Wu and Irwin (2013), cyber security or IT security is the protection of computer systems from theft or damage
to the hardware, software, or the information on them, as well as from disruption or misdirection of the services
they provide.
Ensuring cyber security requires coordinated efforts throughout an information system. Elements of cyber
security include Application Security, Information security, Network Security, Disaster recovery/business
continuity planning, Operational security, and End-user education.
One of the most problematic elements of cyber security is the quickly and constantly evolving nature of security
risks. The traditional approach has been to focus most resources on the most crucial system components and
protect against the biggest known threats, which necessitated leaving some less important system components
undefended and some less dangerous risks not protected against. Such an approach is insufficient in the current
environment.
To deal with the current environment, advisory organizations are promoting a more proactive and adaptive
approach. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), for example, recently issued updated
guidelines in its risk assessment framework that recommended a shift toward continuous monitoring and real-
time assessments. According to Forbes, the global cyber security market reached $75 billion for 2015 and is
expected to hit $170 billion in 2020.
In this paper, we present the notional cyber security landscape of the Reference Diagram, which creates a
context for introducing concepts and terminology of cyber security, though, it is not an accurate representation
of real cyber security defense and as such it can apply to physical and virtualized environments.

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Fig.2: Reference Diagram of Notional view of the cybersecurity landscape

(Adopted from [34]).

Generally speaking, bad actors seek to achieve their goals through the placement and execution of malicious
software (malware) that exploits a vulnerability in an information system. Vulnerabilities are flaws in
software/code that provide a means for malware to be installed and executed, typically without any overt sign of
its presence to system users.
In many regards, the battle in cyber security is between bad actors seeking to exploit vulnerabilities that have yet
to be repaired (or patched in a security update) or to discover and exploit a new one. The first exploitation of a
newly-discovered vulnerability for which no patch is available (or even under consideration) is called a zero-
day attack, and it is a very dangerous condition in cyber security for its potential to conduct undetected
mayhem. The Open SSL vulnerability known as ―Heartbleed‖ (CVE-2014-0160) was undetected for
approximately two years, so only a bad actor is certain of the zero-day attack on it.

Cyberspace and its underlying infrastructure are vulnerable to a wide range of risks stemming from both
physical and cyber threats and hazards. Sophisticated cyber actors and nation-states exploit vulnerabilities to
steal information and money and are developing capabilities to disrupt, destroy, or threaten the delivery of
essential services. A range of traditional crimes is now being perpetrated through cyberspace. This includes the
production and distribution of child pornography and child exploitation conspiracies, banking and financial
fraud, intellectual property violations, and other crimes, all of which have substantial human and economic
consequences.
Cyberspace is particularly difficult to secure due to several factors: the ability of malicious actors to operate
from anywhere in the world, the linkages between cyberspace and physical systems, and the difficulty of
reducing vulnerabilities and consequences in complex cyber networks. Of growing concern is the cyber threat to
critical infrastructure, which is increasingly subject to sophisticated cyber intrusions that pose new risks (Singer
and Friedman, 2014). As information technology becomes increasingly integrated with physical infrastructure
operations, there is an increased risk for wide-scale or high-consequence events that could cause harm or disrupt
services upon which our economy and the daily lives of millions of Americans depend. In light of the risk and
potential consequences of cyber events, strengthening the security and resilience of cyberspace has become an
important homeland security mission.

4.1 An Overview of Cybercrime

Cybercrime or computer crime is a crime that involves a computer and a network[35]. The computer can be
used in the commission of a crime, or it can be the target [36]. The authors in [37] define cybercrimes as
"Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally
harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm, or loss, to the victim directly or indirectly,
using modern telecommunication networks such as the Internet (Chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups)
and mobile phones (SMS/MMS)". Such crimes can threaten a nation's security and financial health. Issues

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surrounding these types of crimes have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding hacking, copyright
infringement, child pornography, and child grooming. There are also problems
of privacy when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. The authors in [37]
further define cybercrime from the perspective of gender and defined 'cybercrime against women' as "Crimes
targeted against women with a motive to intentionally harm the victim psychologically and physically, using
modern telecommunication networks such as internet and mobile phones". Internationally, both governmental
and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes.
Cybercrime is a broad category of offenses involving computers and computer networks. While many acts
of cybercrime are essentially high-tech forms of theft or fraud, some have goals other than financial gain. These
might include copyright infringement, exchange of child pornography, and even espionage. Some jurisdictions
have expanded legal protections against harassment and stalking to include the Internet. Some acts of
cybercrime, known as ―cyber attacks,‖ seem intended only to disrupt or destroy computer networks. Internet
security experts estimate that the global annual cost of cybercrime approaches $1 trillion.
A substantial amount of cybercrime consists of intrusions into business and personal computer networks,
including servers, desktop computers, laptops, and mobile devices. This can be achieved through direct hacking,
or through malicious code attached to an email or hidden on a website. Information obtained from these devices
could be used in identity theft, bank fraud, credit card fraud, and other fraudulent schemes.
One of the largest cyber security breaches in history occurred in late 2013 when hackers stole millions of
customers’ personal information from the retail company Target’s computer system. Investigators suspect that
the hackers obtained access to Target’s network by hacking the company that operated its heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning (HVAC) system, which shows just how determined and creative cybercriminals can be.
Cybercrime also includes the use of computers and computer networks to transmit or receive illegal materials,
such as child pornography, or to buy and sell illegal items like drugs. The use of the internet for copyright
infringement can result in criminal prosecution, such as the case against Megaupload, a file-sharing website
that once accounted for four percent of global internet traffic.
In some cases of cybercrime, a computer or computer network is a target rather than a tool used to commit an
offense. Malicious code, such as a computer virus, may be used in a targeted attack, or it may be released onto
the Internet to sow chaos. A common type of cyberattack is called a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack.
Its purpose is to interrupt or disable a server, making it unavailable to other users on the Internet. This is often
done by overloading a server with access requests, causing it to essentially shut down network access. After the
raid on Megaupload mentioned above, the U.S. Department of Justice’s website was disabled by a DDoS attack.

4.2 The Rise of the Cyber Threats

While the IoT is entering daily life more and more, security risks about IoT are growing and are changing
rapidly. In today’s world of ―always-on‖ technology and not enough security awareness on the part of users,
cyber-attacks are no longer a matter of ―if‖ but ―when.‖
Cybercriminals are working on new techniques for getting through the security of established organizations,
accessing everything from IP to individual customer information — they are doing this so that they can cause
damage, disrupt sensitive data and steal intellectual property.
Every day, their attacks become more sophisticated and harder to defeat. Because of this ongoing development,
we cannot tell exactly what kind of threats will emerge next year, in five years, or 10 years; we can only say that
these threats will be even more dangerous than those of today. We can also be certain that as old sources of this
threat fade, new sources will emerge to take their place. Despite this uncertainty — in fact, because of it — we
need to be clear about the type of security controls needed.
Effective cybersecurity is increasingly complex to deliver. The traditional organizational perimeter is eroding
and existing security defenses are coming under increasing pressure. Point solutions, in particular antivirus
software, IDS, IPS, patching, and encryption, remain a key control for combatting today’s known attacks;
however, they become less effective over time as hackers find new ways to circumvent controls.

5. CONCLUSION
The above narrative indicates the complexities, costs, and inconveniences entailed in an unrestricted
application of the Bill of Rights, globalization of the Internet and Cyber activities, and the proliferation of

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nuclear energy for peaceful and productive purposes. Globalization has reduced the world countries into nations
without real borders [38], thereby making movement and communications relatively faster and easier. However,
the relative peace and material advancement we enjoy come at a great price. Since it is the nature of humanity to
control and even destroy one another, in a society determined by daily conflicts and conflicting interests, we
must look for better and finer ways to safeguard the advances we have achieved or want to achieve. America’s
initiatives against the terrorists grow pale when the entire global community does not join her in the fight, even
if only to identify the would-be enemies.
Each method of combating terrorism initiated by America such as travel restrictions and control, the
development of the Department of Homeland Security, the creation and operation of Fusion Centers, and the
collaboration of all intelligence-gathering and intelligence-sharing organizations have yielded enormous
dividends. They should all be emulated, if not duplicated by world powers that have the potential to create, build
and enjoy unrestricted freedom to cyber communications, nuclear energy, and travels.

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