PERSONALITY AND VALUES

Content I from page 175 onwards

5-1 Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that shape it.

Personality
● It is the sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. We
most often describe personality in terms of the measurable traits a person exhibits.
● It describes how an individual thinks and acts.
● The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.

When we describe measurable traits, we are referring to the idea that a personality can be
understood as a set of characteristics that influence how a person thinks, feels, and
behaves.

Measuring Personality
The most common means of measuring personality is through self-report surveys in which
individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors, such as “I worry a lot about the
future.”
● When people know their personality scores are going to be used for hiring decisions,
they rate themselves as about half a standard deviation more conscientious and
emotionally stable than if they are taking the test to learn more about themselves.
● When a candidate who is not in a good mood takes the survey, the result may end up
with inaccurate scores.

Ways to measure one's personality

1. Self-report surveys/questionnaires
● The most common method for measuring personality.
● Involves asking a person to answer questions about their own experiences
and behaviors.
2. Interviews
● Used in many settings, including clinical and workplace settings. Job
interviews are a type of personality test that assesses a person's behavioral
patterns and experiences.
3. Behavioral Observation
● Involves observing and documenting a person's behavior.

4. Projective tests
● Involves presenting a person with a vague object, task, or activity and asking
them to describe what they see.

Personality tests/assessments can measure a variety of characteristics, including: feelings

and emotional states, preoccupations, motivations, attitudes, and approaches to
interpersonal relations.

How do I ace Personality Tests?

Personality Determinants
● An early debate centered on whether an individual’s personality is the result of
heredity or environment.
● Personality appears to be both based on a person’s heredity and environment.

Heredity is the passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one

generation to another. In simpler terms, it is inherited.

● Factors determined at conception; one’s biological, physiological, and inherent

psychological makeup.
● Personality is influenced by heredity, which is the passing of physiological and
psychological traits from parents to their children through genes.

Environment influences an individual's personality based on where they are raised. This
factors education, nutrition, and upbringing.

Upbringing is the treatment and instruction received by a child from its parents throughout its
childhood.

Personality Traits
● Personality traits are patterns of thoughts, feelings, and actions that are relatively
stable over time and across situations, but can still change. They are characteristics
that help define a person as a unique individual.
● Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.
● Personality is more changeable in adolescence and more stable among adults

Examples of personality traits:

Appreciative, Helpful, Gentle, Adventurous, Intelligent, Compassionate, Creative, and
Generous.

5-2 Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
personality framework and the Big Five model.

Personality Frameworks
Many of our behaviors stem from our personalities, so understanding the components of
personality helps us predict behavior.

The most widely used and best known personality frameworks are the MyersBriggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five Personality Model. Both describe a person’s total
personality through exploration of the facets of personality.

MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test that taps four characteristics and
classifies people into one of 16 personality types.
● The most widely used personality assessment instrument in the world.
● It is a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in
situations.
 ● Respondents are classified as extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive
(S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or perceiving (J or P)

1. Extroverted Vs Introverted
● Extroverted - Are outgoing individuals, sociable, and assertive.
● Introverted - Are individuals that are shy and quiet.
2. Sensing Vs Intuitive
● Sensing - Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and orders, and they
focus on details.
● Intuitive - They rely on unconscious processes and focuses on the “bigger
picture”
3. Thinking Vs Feeling
● Thinking - These types of people use reason and logic to handle problems.
● Feeling - These types rely on their personal values emotions
4. Judging Vs Perceiving
● Judging - These types want control and prefer order and structure.
● Perceiving - Are flexible and spontaneous.

The MBTI describes personality types by identifying one trait from each of the four pairs.

1. INTJs
● Are visionaries with original minds and great drive. They are skeptical, critical,
independent, determined, and often stubborn.
2. ENFJs
● Are natural teachers and leaders. They are relational, motivational, intuitive,
idealistic, ethical, and kind.
3. ESTJs
● Are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, and decisive, perfect for
business or mechanics.
4. ENTP
● This type is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to
entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving
challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments.

Problems with the MBTI

● One problem with the MBTI is that the model forces a person into one type or
another. You are either an introvert or an extrovert. There is no in between.
● The reliability of the measure: When people retake the assessment, they often
receive different results.
● The difficulty of interpretation. There are levels of importance for each of the MBTI
facets, and separate meanings for certain combinations of facets, all of which require
trained interpretation that can leave room for error.
● The results from the MBTI tend to be unrelated to job performance.

The MBTI can thus be a valuable tool for increasing self-awareness and providing career
guidance, but because results tend to be unrelated to job performance, managers should
consider using the Big Five Personality Model, discussed next, as the personality selection
test for job candidates instead.

The Big Five Personality Model

● A personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions.
● It proposes that five basic dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the
significant variation in human personality.
● Test scores of these traits do a very good job of predicting how people behave in a
variety of real-life situations and remain relatively stable for an individual over time,
with some daily variations.

1. Conscientiousness
● A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible,
dependable, persistent, and organized.
● Measure of reliability.
● A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and
persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted,
disorganized, and unreliable.
2. Emotional stability
● A personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident,
and secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).
● A person’s ability to withstand stress.
● People with emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure.
● High scorers are more likely to be positive and optimistic and experience
fewer negative emotions; they are generally happier than low scorers.
● Low scorers (those with high neuroticism) are hypervigilant and vulnerable to
the physical and psychological effects of stress. Those with high neuroticism
tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.

3. Extroversion
● A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and
assertive.
● Extroverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. They are generally
happier and are often ambitious.
● They experience more positive emotions than introverts, and they more freely
express these feelings.
4. Openness to experience
● A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imagination,
sensitivity, and curiosity.
● The openness to experience dimension addresses the range of interests and
fascination with novelty.
● Open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the low
end of the category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.
5. Agreeableness
● A personality dimension that describes someone who is good natured,
cooperative, and trusting.
 ● Refers to an individual’s tendency to defer to others.
● Agreeable people are cooperative, warm, and trusting.
● When people choose organizational team members, agreeable individuals
are usually their first choice.

How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior at Work?

● Conscientiousness at Work
➔ Employees who score higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of
job knowledge, probably because highly conscientious people learn more.
➔ Conscientiousness is important to overall organizational success.
➔ Highly conscientious individuals can prioritize work over family, resulting in
more conflict between their work and family roles (termed work-family
conflict).
➔ Conscientiousness is the best predictor of job performance

● Emotional Stability at Work

➔ Emotional stability is most strongly related to life satisfaction, job satisfaction,
and low stress levels. People with high emotional stability can adapt to
unexpected or changing demands in the workplace.

● Extraversion at Work
➔ Extraverts perform better in jobs with significant interpersonal interaction.
They are socially dominant, “take charge” people who are usually more
assertive than introverts.

● Openness at Work
 ➔ Open people are more likely to be effective leaders—and more comfortable
with ambiguity. They cope better with organizational change and are more
adaptable.

● Agreeableness at Work
➔ Agreeable individuals are better liked than disagreeable people; they tend to
do better in interpersonally-oriented jobs such as customer service. They’re
more compliant and rule abiding, less likely to get into accidents, and more
satisfied in their jobs.
The Dark Triad
● A constellation of negative personality traits consisting of Machiavellianism,
narcissism, and psychopathy.
● They might be expressed particularly strongly when an individual is under stress and
unable to moderate any inappropriate responses.
● The dark triad is a psychological theory that describes a set of three personality traits
that are considered socially aversive.
● Socially undesirable traits.

Socially Aversive are personality characteristics that describe a tendency to put oneself
over others. These traits are also known as "dark" personality traits.

1. Machiavellianism
● The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance,
and believes that ends can justify means.
● A tendency to use manipulation, deception, and self-interest in interpersonal
strategies.
2. Narcissism
● The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance,
require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
● A tendency to be excessively self-important and grandiose.

3. Psychopathy
● The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse
when actions cause harm.
● Psychopathy is part of the Dark Triad, but in organizational behavior, it does
not connote clinical mental illness.
● In the OB context, psychopathy is defined as a lack of concern for others, and
a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm.
● The lack of empathy and concern for others.

Other Traits in the Dark Triad

1. Antisocial
2. Borderline
3. Schizotypal
4. Obsessive compulsive
5. Avoidant
5-3
Other Personality Attributes Relevant to OB

Core Self-Evaluations (CSEs)

● Core self-evaluations (CSEs) are bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their
capabilities, competence, and worth as a person.
● People who have positive CSEs like themselves and see themselves as effective and
in control of their environment.
● Those with negative CSEs tend to dislike themselves, question their capabilities, and
view themselves as powerless over their environment.

Self-Monitoring
● Self-monitoring describes an individual’s ability to adjust behavior to external,
situational factors.
● Evidence indicates high self-monitors pay closer attention to the behavior of others
and are more capable of conforming than are low self-monitors.
● Low self-monitors tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every
situation.

Proactive Personality
People who have a proactive personality identify opportunities, show initiative, take action,
and persevere until meaningful change occurs, compared to others who generally react to
situations.

5-4
Personality and Situations

Situation Strength Theory

Situation strength theory proposes that the way personality translates into behavior depends
on the strength of the situation. By situation strength, we mean the degree to which norms,
cues, or standards dictate appropriate behavior.

Situation Strength in Organizations in terms of four elements:

1. Clarity, or the degree to which cues about work duties and responsibilities are
available and clear.
2. Consistency, or the extent to which cues regarding work duties and responsibilities
are compatible with one another.
3. Constraints, or the extent to which individuals’ freedom to decide or act is limited by
forces outside their control.
4. Consequences, or the degree to which decisions or actions have important
implications for the organization or its members, clients, supplies, and so on.

Trait Activation Theory

TAT predicts that some situations, events, or interventions “activate” a trait more than others.

Using TAT, we can foresee which jobs suit certain personalities.

5-5
Values
Values represent basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end state of
existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence.” Values contain a judgmental element because they carry an
individual’s ideas about what is right, good, or desirable.

When values are ranked in terms of intensity, a person obtains their value system. We all
have a hierarchy of values according to the relative importance we assign to values such as:
➔ Freedom
➔ Pleasure
➔ Self-respect
➔ Honesty
➔ Obedience
➔ Equality

The Importance and Organization of Values

Values lay the foundation for understanding attitudes and motivation, and they
influence our perceptions. We enter an organization with preconceived notions of what
“ought” and “ought not” to be. These notions contain our interpretations of right and wrong
and our preferences for certain behaviors or outcomes. Regardless of whether they clarify or
bias our judgment, our values influence our attitudes and behaviors at work.

Terminal versus Instrumental Values

Terminal values refer to desirable end-states. These are the goals a person would like to
achieve during a lifetime.

Instrumental values refers to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the

terminal values.
Generational Values
Generational classifications may help us understand our own and other generations better,
but we must also appreciate their limits.

5-6

Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace

Personality-Job Fit Theory

● A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between
personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.
● The Vocational Preference Theory Questionnaire — contains 160 occupational titles.
Respondents indicate what they like or dislike which results in forming personality
profiles.

● Cultural Implications for Person-Fit

- In individualistic countries, tailoring the job to the person increases an
individual’s job satisfaction.
- In collectivistic countries, people do not expect to have a job tailored to them
which decreases their job satisfaction.
Person Organization Fit
● It is a theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match
their values, and leave when there is no compatibility.
● For instance, using the Big Five Terminology as guidelines for the organization when
hiring their employees (Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, Extraversion,
Openness to Experience, and Agreeableness) will result in higher employee
satisfaction and reduced turnover.
● It is also important for organizations to manage their image online since job seekers
view company websites as part of the pre-application process.

Other Dimensions of Fit

● Other fit dimensions worth examining include person-group fit and person-supervisor
fit.
● Person-group fit is important in team settings, where the dynamics of team
interactions significantly affect work outcomes.
● Person-supervisor fit has become an important area of research since poot fit in this
dimension can lead to lower job satisfaction and reduced performance.

5-7
Cultural Values
● Unlike personality, which is largely genetically determined, values are learned.

Hofstede’s Framework
● Done in the late 1970s by Geert Hofstede
Five Value Dimensions of National Culture
1. Power Distance — describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in
institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
2. Individualism vs. Collectivism — Individualism describes the degree to which people
prefer to act as individuals rather than as a group; Collectivism describes a tight
social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are part to
look after them and protect them.
3. Masculinity vs. Femininity — Masculinity describes the extent to which the culture
favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control;
Femininity describes that the culture sees little differentiation between male and
female and treats women as the equals of men in all aspects.
4. Uncertainty Avoidance — describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by
uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
5. Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation — Long-term orientation emphasizes the future,
thrift, and persistence; Short-term orientation emphasizes the present and accepts
change.
The GLOBE Framework
● Begun in 1993
● The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE)
research program is an ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadership and
national culture.
● The GLOBE team identified nine dimensions on which national cultures differ. Some
dimensions resembles Hofstede’s dimensions.
● The main difference between two frameworks is that the GLOBE framework added
dimensions—humane orientation and performance orientation.
Added Dimensions
1. Humane Orientation — the degree to which a society rewards individuals for being
altruistic, generous, and kind to others.
2. Performance Orientation — the degree to which a society encourages and rewards
group members for performance improvement and excellence.

Comparison of Hofstede’s Framework and the GLOBE Framework

● There is no better framework between Hofstede’s Framework and the GLOBE
framework but Hofstede’s dimensions are given more emphasis since it stood the
test of time and the GLOBE study confirmed them. Basically, they go hand in hand to
help and analyze variations among cultures.
PERSONALITY AND VALUES (PPT CONTENT)

(SLIDE 5-0) — Title and Group Members’ Names

(SLIDE 5-1)
PERSONALITY
● It is the sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. We
most often describe personality in terms of the measurable traits a person exhibits.
● It describes how an individual thinks and acts.
● The total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.
MEASURING PERSONALITY
● The most common means of measuring personality is through self-report surveys in
which individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors, such as “I worry a lot
about the future.”

(SLIDE 5-1)
WAYS TO MEASURE ONE’S PERSONALITY
1. Self-report surveys/questionnaires
● The most common method for measuring personality.
● Involves asking a person to answer questions about their own experiences
and behaviors.
2. Interviews
● Used in many settings, including clinical and workplace settings. Job
interviews are a type of personality test that assesses a person's behavioral
patterns and experiences.
3. Behavioral Observation
● Involves observing and documenting a person's behavior.
4. Projective tests
● Involves presenting a person with a vague object, task, or activity and asking
them to describe what they see.

(SLIDE 5-1)
HOW DO I ACE PERSONALITY TESTS?

(SLIDE 5-1)
PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS
1. Heredity is the passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one
generation to another. In simpler terms, it is inherited.
● Factors determined at conception; one’s biological, physiological, and inherent
psychological makeup.
● Personality is influenced by heredity, which is the passing of physiological and
psychological traits from parents to their children through genes.

2. Environment influences an individual's personality based on where they are raised.

This factors education, nutrition, and upbringing.
 3. Upbringing is the treatment and instruction received by a child from its parents
throughout its childhood.

(SLIDE 5-1)
PERSONALITY TRAITS
● Personality traits are patterns of thoughts, feelings, and actions that are relatively
stable over time and across situations, but can still change. They are characteristics
that help define a person as a unique individual.
● Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.
● Personality is more changeable in adolescence and more stable among adults.

EXAMPLES OF PERSONALITY TRAITS:

Appreciative, Helpful, Gentle, Adventurous, Intelligent, Compassionate, Creative, and
Generous.

(SLIDE 5-2)
PERSONALITY FRAMEWORKS
● Many of our behaviors stem from our personalities, so understanding the
components of personality helps us predict behavior.
● The most widely used and best known personality frameworks are the MyersBriggs
Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five Personality Model. Both describe a
person’s total personality through exploration of the facets of personality.

(SLIDE 5-2)
MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test that taps four characteristics and
classifies people into one of 16 personality types.
● The most widely used personality assessment instrument in the world.
● It is a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in
situations.
● Respondents are classified as extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive
(S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or perceiving (J or P)

(SLIDE 5-2)
MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
1. Extroverted Vs Introverted
● Extroverted - Are outgoing individuals, sociable, and assertive.
● Introverted - Are individuals that are shy and quiet.
2. Sensing Vs Intuitive
● Sensing - Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and orders, and they
focus on details.
● Intuitive - They rely on unconscious processes and focuses on the “bigger
picture”
3. Thinking Vs Feeling
● Thinking - These types of people use reason and logic to handle problems.
● Feeling - These types rely on their personal values emotions
4. Judging Vs Perceiving
 ● Judging - These types want control and prefer order and structure.
● Perceiving - Are flexible and spontaneous.

(SLIDE 5-2)
MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
The MBTI describes personality types by identifying one trait from each of the four pairs.
1. INTJs
● Are visionaries with original minds and great drive. They are skeptical, critical,
independent, determined, and often stubborn.
2. ENFJs
● Are natural teachers and leaders. They are relational, motivational, intuitive,
idealistic, ethical, and kind.
3. ESTJs
● Are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, and decisive, perfect for
business or mechanics.
4. ENTP
● This type is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to
entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving
challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments.

(SLIDE 5-2)
PROBLEMS WITH MBTI
● One problem with the MBTI is that the model forces a person into one type or
another. You are either an introvert or an extrovert. There is no in between.
● The reliability of the measure: When people retake the assessment, they often
receive different results.
● The difficulty of interpretation. There are levels of importance for each of the MBTI
facets, and separate meanings for certain combinations of facets, all of which require
trained interpretation that can leave room for error.
● The results from the MBTI tend to be unrelated to job performance.

(SLIDE 5-2)
The Big Five Personality Model
● A personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions.
● It proposes that five basic dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the
significant variation in human personality.
● Test scores of these traits do a very good job of predicting how people behave in a
variety of real-life situations and remain relatively stable for an individual over time,
with some daily variations.

(SLIDE 5-2)
The Big Five Personality Model
1. Conscientiousness
● A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible,
dependable, persistent, and organized.
● Measure of reliability.
 ● A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and
persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted,
disorganized, and unreliable.
2. Emotional stability
● A personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident,
and secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).
● A person’s ability to withstand stress.
● People with emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure.
● High scorers are more likely to be positive and optimistic and experience
fewer negative emotions; they are generally happier than low scorers.
● Low scorers (those with high neuroticism) are hypervigilant and vulnerable to
the physical and psychological effects of stress. Those with high neuroticism
tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.
3. Extroversion
● A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and
assertive.
● Extroverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. They are generally
happier and are often ambitious.
● They experience more positive emotions than introverts, and they more freely
express these feelings.
4. Openness to experience
● A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imagination,
sensitivity, and curiosity.
● The openness to experience dimension addresses the range of interests and
fascination with novelty.
● Open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the low
end of the category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.
5. Agreeableness
● A personality dimension that describes someone who is good natured,
cooperative, and trusting.
● Refers to an individual’s tendency to defer to others.
● Agreeable people are cooperative, warm, and trusting.
● When people choose organizational team members, agreeable individuals
are usually their first choice.
(SLIDE 5-2)

(SLIDE 5-2)
How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior at Work?
● Conscientiousness at Work
➔ Employees who score higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of
job knowledge, probably because highly conscientious people learn more.
➔ Conscientiousness is important to overall organizational success.
➔ Highly conscientious individuals can prioritize work over family, resulting in
more conflict between their work and family roles (termed work-family
conflict).
➔ Conscientiousness is the best predictor of job performance

● Emotional Stability at Work

➔ Emotional stability is most strongly related to life satisfaction, job satisfaction,
and low stress levels. People with high emotional stability can adapt to
unexpected or changing demands in the workplace.

● Extraversion at Work
➔ Extraverts perform better in jobs with significant interpersonal interaction.
They are socially dominant, “take charge” people who are usually more
assertive than introverts.

● Openness at Work
 ➔ Open people are more likely to be effective leaders—and more comfortable
with ambiguity. They cope better with organizational change and are more
adaptable.

● Agreeableness at Work
➔ Agreeable individuals are better liked than disagreeable people; they tend to
do better in interpersonally-oriented jobs such as customer service. They’re
more compliant and rule abiding, less likely to get into accidents, and more
satisfied in their jobs.

(SLIDE 5-2)
THE DARK TRIAD
● A constellation of negative personality traits consisting of Machiavellianism,
narcissism, and psychopathy.
● They might be expressed particularly strongly when an individual is under stress and
unable to moderate any inappropriate responses.
● The dark triad is a psychological theory that describes a set of three personality traits
that are considered socially aversive.
● Socially undesirable traits.

Socially Aversive are personality characteristics that describe a tendency to put oneself
over others. These traits are also known as "dark" personality traits.

(SLIDE 5-2)
THE DARK TRIAD
1. Machiavellianism
● The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance,
and believes that ends can justify means.
● A tendency to use manipulation, deception, and self-interest in interpersonal
strategies.
2. Narcissism
● The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance,
require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
● A tendency to be excessively self-important and grandiose.

3. Psychopathy
● The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse
when actions cause harm.
● Psychopathy is part of the Dark Triad, but in organizational behavior, it does
not connote clinical mental illness.
● In the OB context, psychopathy is defined as a lack of concern for others, and
a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm.
● The lack of empathy and concern for others.
OTHER TRAITS IN THE DARK TRIAD
● Antisocial
● Borderline
 ● Schizotypal
● Obsessive compulsive
● Avoidant

(SLIDE 5-3)
Other Personality Attributes Relevant to OB
1. Core Self-Evaluations (CSEs)
● Core self-evaluations (CSEs) are bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their
capabilities, competence, and worth as a person.
● People who have positive CSEs like themselves and see themselves as effective and
in control of their environment.
● Those with negative CSEs tend to dislike themselves, question their capabilities, and
view themselves as powerless over their environment.

2. Self-Monitoring
● Self-monitoring describes an individual’s ability to adjust behavior to external,
situational factors.
● Evidence indicates high self-monitors pay closer attention to the behavior of others
and are more capable of conforming than are low self-monitors.
● Low self-monitors tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every
situation.

3. Proactive Personality
People who have a proactive personality identify opportunities, show initiative, take action,
and persevere until meaningful change occurs, compared to others who generally react to
situations.

(SLIDE 5-4)
Personality and Situations
Situation Strength Theory
Situation strength theory proposes that the way personality translates into behavior depends
on the strength of the situation. By situation strength, we mean the degree to which norms,
cues, or standards dictate appropriate behavior.

Situation Strength in Organizations in terms of four elements:

1. Clarity, or the degree to which cues about work duties and responsibilities are
available and clear.
2. Consistency, or the extent to which cues regarding work duties and responsibilities
are compatible with one another.
3. Constraints, or the extent to which individuals’ freedom to decide or act is limited by
forces outside their control.
4. Consequences, or the degree to which decisions or actions have important
implications for the organization or its members, clients, supplies, and so on.

(SLIDE 5-4)
Personality and Situations
Trait Activation Theory
TAT predicts that some situations, events, or interventions “activate” a trait more than others.

Using TAT, we can foresee which jobs suit certain personalities.

(SLIDE 5-5)
Values represent basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end state of
existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence.” Values contain a judgmental element because they carry an
individual’s ideas about what is right, good, or desirable.

When values are ranked in terms of intensity, a person obtains their value system. We all
have a hierarchy of values according to the relative importance we assign to values such as:
➔ Freedom
➔ Pleasure
➔ Self-respect
➔ Honesty
➔ Obedience
➔ Equality

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The Importance and Organization of Values
Values lay the foundation for understanding attitudes and motivation, and they
influence our perceptions. We enter an organization with preconceived notions of what
“ought” and “ought not” to be. These notions contain our interpretations of right and wrong
and our preferences for certain behaviors or outcomes. Regardless of whether they clarify or
bias our judgment, our values influence our attitudes and behaviors at work.

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Terminal versus Instrumental Values
Terminal values refer to desirable end-states. These are the goals a person would like to
achieve during a lifetime.
Instrumental values refers to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the
terminal values.

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Generational Values
Generational classifications may help us understand our own and other generations better,
but we must also appreciate their limits.

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Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace
Personality-Job Fit Theory
● A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between
personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.
● The Vocational Preference Theory Questionnaire — contains 160 occupational titles.
Respondents indicate what they like or dislike which results in forming personality
profiles.

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Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace
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Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace
Cultural Implications for Person-Fit
- In individualistic countries, tailoring the job to the person increases an
individual’s job satisfaction.
- In collectivistic countries, people do not expect to have a job tailored to them
which decreases their job satisfaction.
Person Organization Fit
● It is a theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match
their values, and leave when there is no compatibility.
● For instance, using the Big Five Terminology as guidelines for the organization when
hiring their employees (Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, Extraversion,
Openness to Experience, and Agreeableness) will result in higher employee
satisfaction and reduced turnover.
● It is also important for organizations to manage their image online since job seekers
view company websites as part of the pre-application process.

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Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace
Other Dimensions of Fit
● Other fit dimensions worth examining include person-group fit and person-supervisor
fit.
● Person-group fit is important in team settings, where the dynamics of team
interactions significantly affect work outcomes.
● Person-supervisor fit has become an important area of research since poot fit in this
dimension can lead to lower job satisfaction and reduced performance.

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Cultural Values
● Unlike personality, which is largely genetically determined, values are learned.

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Hofstede’s Framework
● Done in the late 1970s by Geert Hofstede
Five Value Dimensions of National Culture
6. Power Distance — describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in
institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
7. Individualism vs. Collectivism — Individualism describes the degree to which people
prefer to act as individuals rather than as a group; Collectivism describes a tight
social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are part to
look after them and protect them.
8. Masculinity vs. Femininity — Masculinity describes the extent to which the culture
favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control;
Femininity describes that the culture sees little differentiation between male and
female and treats women as the equals of men in all aspects.
9. Uncertainty Avoidance — describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by
uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
 10. Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation — Long-term orientation emphasizes the future,
thrift, and persistence; Short-term orientation emphasizes the present and accepts
change.

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The GLOBE Framework
● Begun in 1993
● The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE)
research program is an ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadership and
national culture.
● The GLOBE team identified nine dimensions on which national cultures differ. Some
dimensions resembles Hofstede’s dimensions.
● The main difference between two frameworks is that the GLOBE framework added
dimensions—humane orientation and performance orientation.

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Added Dimensions
3. Humane Orientation — the degree to which a society rewards individuals for being
altruistic, generous, and kind to others.
4. Performance Orientation — the degree to which a society encourages and rewards
group members for performance improvement and excellence.

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Comparison of Hofstede’s Framework and the GLOBE Framework
● There is no better framework between Hofstede’s Framework and the GLOBE
framework but Hofstede’s dimensions are given more emphasis since it stood the
test of time and the GLOBE study confirmed them. Basically, they go hand in hand to
help and analyze variations among cultures.