Lie Detection Techniques/Polygraph

Polygraphy

• the scientific method of detecting deception with the aid or use of a polygraph instrument.

Polygraph

1. a delicately engineered instrument that simultaneously records the changes in respiration, electrodermal
activity and cardiovascular activity.

01

Chapter I. Historical Development of Lie Detection

A. Early Methods of Detecting Deception

1. Observation of Behavior

In an ancient texts written in India around 900 BC, it was mentioned that poisoners can be determined
because they are evasive and cannot give direct answer to a question. He exhibits gestures of uneasiness,
and noticeable physiological changes are indicated (Trovillo 1939).

2. Feeling the Pulse

• Lying was presumed to affect the physiological activity of deceitful person. Physiological changes are
observed as symptoms of lying when the person experiences fear of being detected.

• Erasistratus (200-250) a famous physician and anatomist known for his research on the functions
of the brain and nervous system, was consulted by the king of Syria to diagnose the unknown illness
of his son

Another attempt of detecting deception by feeling the pulse was described during the Middle Ages. A
noble man who suspected his wife of having an illicit affair with another man consulted one of his adviser
to verify his doubt. The test conducted by the designated adviser was administered by occasionally
placing his hand on the wrist of the nobleman's wife during their conversation. The adviser found out that
the pulse of the noble man's wife quickened when he mentioned the name of the suspected lover.
 In 1730, Daniel Defoe, an English novelist, discussed in his writings the same concept. He
suggested that by feeling the pulse, he can discover the guilt of a suspected person. Defoe described that a
thief has the tendency to run and evade when confronted, he will indicate obvious cues of tension that can
be observe. An innocent person however, whose conscience is clear will not attempt to escape (Matte,
1996).

3. Trial by Combat

The innocent person is expected to prevail in the fight because the belief that the truth is on his side.
Nevertheless, the result of the combat usually favors the wise, skilled and able-bodied participant.

4. Ordeal Method

• the methods of ordeal was the most popular approach applied. The procedure subjected the accused to a
painful and dangerous test. Superstitious belief and divine intervention serves as basis to prove the
innocence or guilt. It supposed that innocent individual will be spared by God from harm

• Rice Chewing Ordeal

In China, suspect was asked to take a large amount of rice powder on his mouth. If he is innocent he could
make the rice powder into ball. The guilty person would not be able to roll rice powder into ball because
of lack of saliva.

•Red Water Ordeal

In Western Africa, suspect fast for twelve hours before given a small amount of rice to swallow and red
colored liquid made of root extract to drink. If the suspect vomits and ejects all of the rice, he is
considered innocent. The natives preferred this kind of test when being accused because of their faith in
the process. They believed that only the guilty person will suffer from the ordeal

•Red-Hot Iron Ordeal

The ordeal of the red-hot iron in north Bengal was also based on the concept of dry mouth. The innocence
of the accused is determined by applying a red-hot iron on his tongue for nine times, if the tongue will not
burned, the accused is innocent. The guilty person will not be able to salivate and the lack of saliva will
cause his tongue to get burned.
 • Smelling the Liars

In Africa, there is other techniques involve in determining fear thru smell. In this approach, suspects were
assembled in circle, then an exorcist, who will perform hypnotic ceremonies will threw himself to each
suspect and smell their neck. This procedure continues around the circle for several hours until the guilty
person was smelled out

•Ordeal of the Balance

The ordeal of the balance (600 BC) in India is also carried out to test the truthfulness of an individual by
placing him on a balance and weighed. The ordeal is conducted in the morning on good weather
condition. The accused is instructed to fast for the whole day, and took a bath before being weighed.
Religious ceremonies and prayers to the goddess was conducted before the accused is weighed with his
wet garments and a piece of paper placed on his head containing the accusations. Then he moved out from
the scale and listened to an encouragement delivered by a judge to the balance. The accused is then
weighed again. If the accused is lighter, then he is found innocent. The accused is guilty if he weighed
heavier or when the balance was destroyed

• Boiling Hot Water Ordeal

In Modern Africa, the ordeal of the boiling water is used to verify the deception of suspect. The suspect's
arm was alternately dipped from cold water to boiling water and back to cold water for several times. The
innocent person's arm would not blister.

•Guillotine Ordeal

In Turkey, the ordeal of guillotine is the most severe means of detecting deception. The head of the
accused was cut off during the trial. If he was innocent, his head would roll through the maze directly to
the sea. If the accused was guilty, his head would get stuck in the maze. The implication of this ordeal
reflects on the honor of the family, if the accused was proclaimed innocent, his family would be spared
from the embarrassment of the crime.

•Trial by the Sacred Ass

The trial by the Sacred Ass is a kind of test that employed psychology. This ordeal was practiced in India
around 500 BC (Keeler, 1938). In this method, a donkey is placed in an enclosed dark tent. Suspects are
instructed to enter a dark tent one at a time. Each of them are ordered to pull the donkey's tail. They are
told that the donkey will bray if a guilty person pulls its tail. Suspects are not told that there is lamp soot
on the tail of the donkey. The suspect's hand were inspected upon leaving the tent. Only the guilty
person's hand are found clean. He will not pull the tail of the donkey because of fear of being detected

•Smearing the Bell

Another similar tale of the Sacred Ass is a story written in the history of China thousand years ago. A
judge in Fujian China assembled the possible suspects for theft. The judge told them that there was a
magic bell placed behind the curtain, suspects were told to reach and touch it one by one. The bell has the
power to identify the theft, it will ring when torched by the guilty. Not known to the suspects, the bell was
painted with dark ink to stain the hand of anyone who will hold it. The judge examined the hands of the
suspects after they reached the magic bell behind the curtain. The guilty suspects will not touched the bell
because of his fear to be recognized as theft

•The Theft Catcher

The same concept with the sacred ass ordeal that originates from India was practiced in 19th century.
Whenever there is a theft incident, a holy man sets up a heavy grinding stone rubbed with unpleasant
smelled substance. The stone hand mill is placed on a room containing religious relics. Suspects were
instructed to enter the room one at a time and to touch the center of the stone. They were told that if they
are innocent, there is no reason to hesitate and obey with the instruction. Further they were told that the
hand of the guilty will be crushed by the stone and it is very difficult to free himself from the
predicament. After each suspect had come out form the room, the theft-catcher examines their hands to
determine the presence of odorous substance. Each of them were placed on a separate room to avoid
communicating with one another. Only the guilty one will not touch the stone and his hand would not
smell of odorous substance

•Torture Method

The use of force and coercion to obtain admission as method of verifying the statement of a person is also
described in history. Various forms of this techniques were used and have found to be effective in
extracting information about crimes. However, the procedure creates serious concerns since the developed
information can be generated both from innocent and guilty person. Torture methods violates the rights of
a person under investigation and has gradually neglected by many in the advent of technology. The
application of forensics has been regarded to be more sound and scientific means of investigating crimes.
The use of polygraph significantly decreases the use of torture in verifying the statement of suspected
criminals.

B. CONTEMPORARY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

 1. Physiological Lie Detection

The use of modern equipment to record the physiological changes that occur on a person was employed in
determining guilt or innocence. The polygraph is one that is used to accurately records and measures
physiological changes which include respiratory, electrodermal, cardiovascular, and vasomotor activity.
These parameters are monitored by the sensors connected on a particular parts the body of the person
being tested.

a. Deception Test

An approach in polygraph testing that is conducted to determine the involvement of an examinee to a

known incident or to multiple issues of concern:

• Comparison Question Technique

• Non-Comparison Question Technique

b. Recognition Test

This approach in polygraph testing is intended to determine if the examinee has knowledge about the
issue being tested. A examinee who are knowledgeable on the case information or facts, will exhibits
physiological reaction when confronted with the item relevant to the test. The type of recognition test are
as follows:

●​ Searching Peak of Tension Test

• Known Solution Peak of Tension Test

• Concealed Information Test

• Acquaintance Test

A. Non-Verbal Lie Detection

There are several concepts considered to determine the non- verbal indicators of deception. These
approach includes the following:

a. Multifactor Model
In multifactor model, there are elements that may influence cues to deception and each has distinct effect
on the non-verbal behavior of liar

•Emotional Reactions

According to Ekman, (1985) telling a lie is most commonly associated with different emotions such as
fear, guilt, or delight. A lying person may feel guilty, afraid to discover his lie, or elated about fooling
someone. The strength of these emotions depends on the personality of the liar and the circumstances
under which the lie takes place

It is important to note that behavior of a lying person may be affected because of guilt, fear and
excitement.

• Cognitive Load

There are various aspects that may explain why lying requires more cognitive demand when telling the
truth.

1. Formulating a lie demands more cognitive effort.

2. Liars are typically less likely than truth tellers to take their

credibility for granted.

3. Liars monitor the interviewer's reactions more carefully in order

assess whether they appear to be getting away with their life.

4. Liars may be preoccupied by the task of reminding themselves to

act and role-play, which requires extra cognitive effort

Liars who engaged in cognitively complex tasks

experiences speech hesitations and errors, speaks slower, and takes time to give answer (Goldman-Eisler,
1968). It also resulted in less hand and arm movements (Ekman & Feiezen, 1972). It further resulted to
more gaze aversion due to difficulty in maintaining eye contact (Doherty-Sneddon et al., 2002).

• Attempted Behavioral Control

Liars are aware that they must appear convincing in the eyes of an investigator, thus they will try to
control their behavior. They must subdue their nervousness while trying to hide their difficulty of
answering questions. Liars need to act and appear honest and keep away from dishonest behavior. These
effort of controlling behavior increases on high stakes situation (Ekman, 1985)

b. Self-Presentational Perspective

This approach predicts that as liars experience one or more factors in multifactor model, it is plausible
that signs of deception will occur (Zuckerman et al.'s, 1981). However, DePaulo et al argued that
emotions, cognitive load, and behavioral control may also influence the behavior of truth-tellers. Liars
and truth tellers will succeed in their social interaction goals only if they appear sincere and convincing
(DePaulo, 1992; DePaulo et al, 2003).

c. Interpersonal Deception Theory

This theory suggests that liars must performed several simultaneous communication task during a
face-to-face encounters (Buller and Burgoon's 1986). Their verbal message must be credible while
projecting plausible non-verbal behavior. Liars must control their behavior, while maintaining smooth
conversation with their partner. The response is in accordance of what they say, and must conceal any
intent to deceive their partner. IDT embraces the three multifactor model of Zuckerman as fundamental
reasons for cues of deceit (Burgoon, et al, 1999).

Non-Verbal Cues of Deception

According to DePaulo et al (2003), the most consistent indicators of deception are the following:

1. Verbal and vocal immediacy

2. Pupil dilation

3. Discrepant/ ambivalent

4. Verbal and vocal uncertainty

5. Nervous tense

6. Vocal tension

7. Chin raise

8. Pitch frequency

9. Lip pressing
10. Illustrations

11. Facial pleasantness

12. Changes in foot movements

13. Pupillary changes

14. Genuine smile

15. Indifferent, unconcerned

16. Specific hand and arm movement

17. Intensity of facial expression

18. Direct orientation

Tools for Non-Verbal Lie Detection

a. Facial Emotional Expression

The aspect of facial communication are beyond control and can be betray a deceiver's true emotion via
micro expressions of that emotion (Ekman, 1985). However, researchers have found out that micro
expressions of emotions are common to both liars and truth – tellers

b. Behavioral Analysis Interview (BAI)

The procedure involved in BAI includes asking of non-threatening, investigative, and behavior-provoking
questions. The guilty suspect is supposed to probably display nervous behaviors such as crossing their
legs, shifting seating position, and preforming grooming behavior when giving answer to the questions.
Innocent suspects are expected to lean forward, maintain eye contact and use illustrators to supplement
confidence in their statements (Vrij, Ganis, 2014). The guilty suspects swiftly answer the question with
lack of sincerity. They are more likely to exhibits anxiety reducing behavior like shifting seating (Inbau et
al, 2001, 2013). Investigators are inclined to observe nervous behaviors to classify the innocent and guilty
suspect. Succeeding experiments on the use of BAI produced contradicting results on the findings of
Inbau. It was found out that liars were less likely to cross their legs and shift posture than the innocent.
Another subsequent experiment showed that BAI procedure failed to distinguished innocent from
truth-tellers (Vrij et al., 2006b; Vrij et al., 2007).
 3. Verbal Lie Detection

The basic premise of verbal lie detection are that liars have to think harder to fabricate a lie and will try to
make more convincing impression than truthful persons. Verbal lie detection is a memory-based approach,
regarded as a unique signs of deception. It is presumed that people remember differently the events that
he experienced from the events that are fabricated. Hence, they talk about them in different ways (Vrij &
Ganis, 2014).

Tools for Verbal Lie Detection

a. Statement Validity Assessment (SVA)

The SVA is a tool designed to verify the accuracy of the testimony of child witnesses during the trial of a
sexual cases. There are times that an investigator encountered difficulty in determining the facts of sexual
offense involving children due to unavailability of evidence. Also, because of the absence of possible
witness that could provide independent version of the events to validate contradicting statement of victims
and accused. The SVA assessment are accepted as evidence in some North American courts and in
criminal courts in several West-European countries, including Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden
(Vrij, 2008).

Stages of Statement Validity Assessment:

1. Case-file analysis

2. Semi instructed interview

3. Criteria-based content analysis (CBCA)

4. Validity checklist

b. Reality Monitoring (RM)

This method is used only for scientific research and said to have strong theoretical support. It is based on
memory theory and is centered on the concept that memories of experienced events differs in quality from
memories of imagined events (Johson and Raye, 1981, 1998).

c. Scientific Content Analysis (SCAN)

This tool was developed by Avioam Sapir, a polygraph examiner and a former Israeli police lieutenant. It
supposed in this approach that truth-tellers and liars differ from each other.

The procedure requires an examinee to write down in detail his/her activities on a crucial period of time.
Handwritten statement is then analyzed based on the criteria set for this tool. SCAN criteria like denial of
allegation and use of self-references mostly occur in truthful than deceptive statements, while other
criteria like change in language and missing information are likely to appear in deceptive than truthful
statements (Sapír, 1987, 2000).

d. Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID)

The process of Assessment Criteria examination of the length of response, admitting potential errors, and
use of Reality Monitoring (RM) criteria to distinguish the differences due to memory and impression
management or control of information. This extended approach to RM corresponds to the unique external,
contextual, and internal details as observe during the process of investigative interview for detection of
deception. The first experiment with this approach indicates 95% of the statements of honest and
deceptive participants were determined accurately.

The statements of honest participants are more clear and spontaneous:

1. It has more external and contextual detail overall.

2. Response are more detailed due to the recall enhancement effect of the mnemonics.

4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Based Lie Detection (fMRI)

The method of monitoring brain activity has been employed by several researchers in an attempt to detect
deception. The fMRI approach involves measurement of changes in regional cerebral blood flow cause by
the activity of the nervous system. The activity of the brain in response to a specific type of events is
measured through fMRI procedures (Vrij &Ganis, 2014).

Classes of postulated neural processes engaged during deception (Vrij &Ganis, 2014):

• Cognitive Control Processes

It includes working memory, memory retrieval conflict monitoring, and response inhibition. These refers
to the processes with higher complexity of producing lies relative to telling the truth.
 • Memory-relate processes

These refers to the fact that lies and truths may differ in how well they are encoded, and in the richness
and quality of these memories.

• Social cognitive processes

It refers to the idea that a successful liar needs to take into account the perspective of the target of the lie
in order to be able to deceive the target. Current studies suggests that fMRI methods so far could not
outshine the traditional methods of detecting deception. But since fMRI is a new approach, there is
always a possibility that this method will be improved in the future. Time will come that the techniques in
brain-imaging and analysis will be refined and enhance through numerous research that may be
conducted.

5. Optical Motor Detection of Deception

The idea of measuring the size of pupil can be traced from the theory suggested by Charles Darwin that
pupil dilation was associated with fear and other emotion (Andreassi, 2000). It was speculated based on
research that sympathetic nervous system influenced the pupillary changes which could be used to
measure the value of interest and pleasure on visual stimuli. Succeeding researches suggests that cognitive
effort can be related to pupil dilation (Hess & Polt, 1960). The Autonomic Nervous System controls the
dilation and constriction of the pupil. The iris dilates when the sympathetic nervous system is activated,
the parasympathetic subdivision of the ANS causes the constriction of the iris (Andreassi, 2000)

Causes of Pupillary Changes

1. Light Reflex - Also known as the pupillary light reflex, this is the automatic response of the pupil to
changes in light intensity.

2. Startle Response - A sudden, automatic reaction to an unexpected stimulus, such as a loud noise or a
sudden movement.

3. Fatigue - A state of physical or mental exhaustion resulting from prolonged activity, stress, or lack of
rest.

4. Pain - A sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage.

5. Emotional arousal - A heightened state of emotion, which can be triggered by various stimuli such as
fear, excitement, or anger.
6. Cognitive Load - Refers to the amount of mental effort and working memory resources required to
perform a task or process information.

C. EVOLUTION OF THE POLYGRAPH

1. DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH

a. Galileo

In 1581, he was the first to conduct experiments using pulsiologium, an apparatus designed for measuring
human pulse (Trovillo, 1939).

b. Giovani Lancisi

His study about emotion and mental functions was conceived in 1728.Lancisi believed that emotions are
produced, by thought, by more or less forceful heart action. He concluded that the characteristics of the
mind derived from the structure and physical changes going on in the body (Trovillo, 1939).

c. Stephen Hales, English clergyman

A priest who pioneered clinical physiology. In 1733, he was the first to study the measurement of blood
pressure in animals (Trovillo, 1939)

d. Angelo Mosso, Italian physiologist

In 1875, he used plethysmograph in his studies of emotion and fear and it effect on the heart and
respiration. Mosso also performed his study to measure the influence of fear using a scientific cradle, an
instrument designed to measure the flow of blood in different parts of the body.

e. Cesare Lombroso

He was the first to attempt using scientific instrument for detecting deception in criminal. cases.
Lombroso made use of sphygmograph, plethysmograph, and hydrospygmograph in the interrogation and
investigation of criminal suspects. In 1885, he published the reports of his successful findings about the
changes in blood volume and pulse rate, attributed to truth and deception.

f. Hugo Munsterberg

In 1908, he suggested the use of blood pressure test, pulse tracings for measuring deception in court
proceedings.

g. William Moulton Marston

He developed a discontinuous systolic blood pressure test in 1915. Marston used an ordinary
sphygmomanometer to obtain periodic, discontinuous blood pressure to test a suspected person involved
in crime. In 1923, he attempted to present as evidence the result of his technique in US vs. Frye case.

h. John Augustus Larson

In 1921, John Larson constructed an instrument capable of continuously recording blood pressure, pulse
and respiration during examination.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF PNEUMOGRAPH

a. Vittorio Benussi (1914)

He conducted experiments using the pneumograph for the detection of deception. Benussi observed
changes in the inspiration/ expiration ratio during deception. His theory suggest that, if the length of
inspiration was divided by the length of expiration, the ratio would be greater after lying than before
lying.

b. Harold Burt (1918)

He partially confirmed the theory of Benussi for detecting deception. In 1921, he conducted study with
Marston and Troland on the three methods of determining deception: word association reaction,
inspiration/expiration reaction and systolic blood pressure method.

c. Leonarde Keeler
Keeler made significant changes in the polygraph instrument by adding channels for recording
blood-pressure pulse, respiration changes, a galvanometer and kymograph. He developed that metal
bellows and kymograph that pulled a chart paper at a constant speed under recording pens from a roll of
chart located inside the instrument .

d. John E. Reid

In 1945, John E. Reid devised an instrument capable of recording muscular activity along with changes in
blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR.

e. William M. Marston

The work of William M. Marston also included experiments to record the respiration and the time of the
subject's verbal responses.

3. DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE CHANNEL

The Galvanic Skin Response was named before Luigi Galvani an Italian physician and physicist,
who conducted study of electricity on animals. In his research, Galvani found out that the feet of a dead
frog twisted by placing two dissimilar metals on it. His discovery leads to the invention of battery. GSR is
an outdated term that is no longer used in the science of psychophysiology. The recommended appropriate
term is electrodermal activity as applied in modern polygraphy (Handler et al., 2010).

a. Emil Du Bois-Reymond - German physician and physiologist

In 1849, he discovered the flow of current from the two limbs by applying chemical compound on the
hands and feet. Du Bois-Reymond inferred that the human skin is a conductor of electricity. He regarded
that the observed phenomena was influenced potentially by muscle activity (Boucsein, 1992).

b. Hermann and Luchsinger

In 1878, they reported their findings about the connection of sweat gland activity and flow of current in
the skin of a cat. In 1881, Hermann discovered that the finger and palms areas of the hands produces
greater sweat compared to other body parts (Boucsein, 1992).
 c. Jean Martin Charcot, French neurologist

He was famous for his work on hysteria and hypnosis. Charcot laboratory was used by Vigouroux and
Fere in their research.

d. Romain Vigourox, electrotherapist

In 1879, he conducted research on emotionally disturbed patients by measuring the changes in skin
resistance through adjusted dosages of medications applied to them. Vigouroux suggested the vascular
theory in electrodermal activity, which associated the changes in skin resistance with changes in blood
flow (Neuman & Blanton, 1970).

e. Charles Fere- French neurologist

In 1888, he observed changes in resistance as response to various form of stimuli using a direct current on
hysterical patients. His work leads to the discovery of exosomatic EDR recording. Fere believed that the
changes in resistance were result of vasomotor changes (Handler et al, 2010).

f. Ivan Tarchanoff - Russian physiologist

In 1889 he was the first to report changes in skin potential measurements a several sensory and physical
stimulations. Tarchanoff assumed that the electrodermal phenomena was attributed to sweat gland activity
(Handler, et al, 2010). Hel proposed the secretory theory, associating the electrodermal activity with sweat
glands activity.

g. Sticker

In 1897, he was the first to suggest for the application of psychogalvanometer to forensic problem. Sticker
believed that the origin of the galvanic skin phenomenon is under the influence of exciting mental
impressions, and that the will has no effect upon it. His conclusion was derived from the experimental
work of several predecessors (Trovillo, 1939).

h. Otto Veraguth

In 1907, Veraguth was one of the first to used galvanometer in his experiment with word association. He
was also considered the first to use the term psychogalvanic reflex. Veraguth believed that the electrical
phenomena are connected with sweat gland activity. His findings contradicted with the observation made
by Fere, Tarchanoff, and Muller (Trovillo, 1939).

i. Hugo Munsterberg

Munsterberg suggested the use of the galvanometer in measuring the resistance of electrodermal activity
in 1908. He showed the importance of word association test in determining the guilt of criminal suspect.

j. John Larson

He introduced the psychogalvanometer on the existing two-channel polygraph and has become a
significant and standard component of all polygraph devices (Abrams, 1989).

k. William M. Marson

In 1917, he reported conducting experiments with Troland and Burt using galvanometer while designing
deception techniques for the US Army intelligence service to address war-time problems. However, the
results of the experiments were not successful (Trovillo, 1939b).

l. Richter

In 1929, Richter was the first to propose that endosomatic EDA (skin potentials) is caused by sweat gland
activity and epidermal mechanism (Boucsein, 1992).

m. Wilson

In 1930, Wilson created a non-recording galvanometer which he used with Keeler in the investigations of
numerous criminal suspects. In 1935, Wilson designed and built a much improved recording
galvanograph (Trovillo, 1939b).

n. Chester Darrow

In 1932, he added a skin resistance measurement to early polygraphs and experimented with a
galvanometer himself, but reportedly decided to forego its use in favor of cardiographic-type response
measurement (Trovillo, 1939b).
 o. Reverend Walter Summers

In 1936, he reported high accuracy of result on deception test both in laboratory and limited actual case
application using a pathometer, an apparatus designed to measure skin conductivity to external current
(Trovillo, 1939b; Handler et al., 2010)

p. Leonarde Keeler

Keeler was credited for adding the EDR component in the existing polygraph that records respiration, and
relative blood pressure as early as 1949 (Reid&Inbau, 1977).

D. OTHER SIGNIFICANT EVENTS AND PERSONALITIES IN THE HISTORY OF LIE

DETECTION

CRIMINAL JUSTICE

DEGREE FOR COLLEGE

a. The Word Association Test

The application of psychology in the detection of deception in a form of word association test was
conceptualized in 1879. Sir Francis Galton, was the first to conduct experiments about the idea of word
association.

• These procedure involves presenting numerous words that are irrelevant and inserted with words that
are pertinent to the issue under investigation.

• The examinee is directed to call out the word that first comes to his mind. It supposed that a guilty
examinee will indicate obvious mental conflict that becomes observable when answering the words
related to the crime and words that have no connection to crime under investigation.

• In 1908, Hugo Munsterberg prescribe the use of word association test in a forensic application to
determine guilt (Trovillo, 1939).

How It Works
• A series of words is presented to the subject, typically one at a time.

• The subject responds as quickly as possible with the first word that

comes to mind.

• The responses are recorded, along with the time taken to respond

(reaction time).

• Longer reaction times, unusual responses, or hesitations may indicate

emotional significance or conflict associated with the stimulus word.

• Interpretation:

• Responses are analyzed for patterns, themes, or emotional triggers.

• Words that provoke strong emotional reactions or unusual associations

may indicate areas of psychological significance.

Example:

1. If the word "fire" is presented:

• A neutral response might be "heat."

• An emotional response might be "danger" (indicating

fear).

• A unique response like "guilt" might suggest a

significant emotional association.

b. The Ink Polygraph

Sir James Mackenzie a famous English heart surgeon, was credited for the invention of Ink polygraph.
The machine based sphygmograph was designed not for lie detection but for medical use.

The instrument record tracings of the radial, jugular and hepatic pulse. He first described the

instrument in an article entitled the ink polygraph in 1908

 c. The Cardio-Pneumo-Pscyhogram or Breadboard polygraph

John Larson was credited for developing the cardio-pneumo- psychogram that was used in Berkeley
police department. The instrument is capable of continuously recording blood pressure, pulse and
respiration during examination. It was assembled in portable form and was used successfully in the test of
criminal suspects. Larson polygraph takes about half an hour to set up. He also designed a relevant
irrelevant interviewing techniques which he used in the investigation of

criminal cases.

d. Keeler Polygraph

The Keeler polygraph was originally manufactured by the Western Electro Mechanical Company. It had
three tambours: a cardiosphygmograph, a pneumograph, and a second pneumograph or a muscular
movement device. The kymograph could be adjusted to run the chart paper to 3, 6, or 12 inches per
minute. Associated Research, Inc. later produced the Keeler polygraph, similar to the original design. It
include a galvanograph channel, and the chart speeds were adjusted to 6 and 12 inches per minute
(Krapohl and Sturm, 2002). Keeler polygraph was called Emotograph, it is more advance than the
breadboard polygraph of John Larson.

e. Relevant Irrelevant Technique

This first widely used anxiety-based polygraph testing technique was developed by Leonarde Keeler. The
Relevant Irrelevant Technique use crime -relevant questions which refers to the issue being tested and
crime irrelevant questions which are not related to the case. Crime-irrelevant questions are designed to
control for interpersonal differences. Physiological data is analyzed by clinical approach in which the
reaction to crime-relevant question is compared to the reaction of crime irrelevant question.

The theory of Relevant Irrelevant Test suggests that physiological response are produced by anxiety of
being detected when lying (Raskin and Honts, 2002). Examinee is pronounced lying if the reaction to the
crime-relevant questions is greater than the crime- irrelevant questions. This

rationale is considered very simplistic and naïve (Podleny and Raskin, 1977). The Relevant and Irrelevant
technique has been criticized as an inappropriate polygraph technique that should not be used.

f. Peak of tension Test

There are two types of Peak of Tension test,

Known Solution POT (KSPOT) and Searching Peak of Tension.

Known Solution POT (KSPOT

A Known Solution POT is used to determine if the examinee has knowledge of details of a crime that
have not been disclosed to anyone. It is presumed that only the perpetrator, the victim or the investigator
have knowledge about the details of the crime being investigated.

Searching Peak of Tension

A Searching POT (SPOT) is used to determine details of a crime that are not known to officials, such as
the location of an unrecovered body, but would be known to a participant in the crime. The chart is
evaluated by simply identifying the point in the tracings where physiological arousal has peaked. These
tests are not generally used to determine truth or deception, but rather to assist in the investigation or
interrogation (Krapohl and Sturm, 2002).

g. Berkeley Psychograph

Captain Clarence D. Lee of Berkeley Police Department designed the Berkeley psychograph similar to
Keeler polygraph. The instrument consists of a chart drive recording unit, a pneumograph, a cardiograph,
and a stimulus signal unit (Matte, 1996).

h. Reid Polygraph

John E. Reid devised an instrument capable of recording muscular activity along with changes in blood
pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR.

i. The Reid Control Question Technique (General Question Test)

The Reid Control Question Technique was introduced in 1947. It uses control question as basic response
indicator. The techniques is consist of six types of testing procedure which include the Straight- Through
Test, Card Test, Mixed Questions Test, Silent Answer Test, Yes Test and the Guilt Complex Test. the
methods of chart analysis is called Global Analysis or Clinical Approach, in which the physiological
response are evaluated as a whole. Subject's behavior and facts of the case is also considered in
determining the test outcome (Vrij and Ganis, 2014).
 In 1953, the Guilt Complex Test was introduced by John Reid, this technique was designed to test the
overly responsive polygraph subject (Reid & Inbau, 1977, Matte, 1996).

j. Backster Zone Comparison Test

The Zone Comparison Test was developed by Cleve Backster in 1960. The technique has three zone,
green, red and black which represents the types of polygraph questions. The Backster Zone Comparison
Test is consist of three testing format, the Backster SKY, Backster Exploratory and Backster You-Phase.

Green Zone

Type of Questions: Non-threatening, neutral questions that are not related to the issue at hand.

Purpose: To establish a baseline physiological response and ensure the subject is comfortable. This helps
in gauging the individual's normal physiological reactions.

Red Zone

Type of Questions: Relevant questions that directly pertain to the matter being investigated (e.g.,
questions regarding the crime or specific actions).

Purpose: To assess the subject's physiological responses to questions that are crucial to the investigation.
Anomalies in responses compared to the green zone help in identifying potential deception.

Black Zone

Type of Questions: Control questions designed to elicit strong emotional reactions or feelings of guilt
(e.g., questions about past misdeeds or sensitive issues).

Purpose: To create a psychological context that can heighten the physiological responses to red zone
questions, enhancing the examiner’s ability to detect deception.

Backster SKY

A format that focuses on the subject's emotional and psychological state. It includes a combination of
baseline and relevant questions to assess how the subject's emotions affect their physiological responses.
 Backster Exploratory

This format is designed for investigative purposes, where a more in-depth exploration of the subject’s
responses is necessary.

Backster You-Phase

This approach emphasizes the subject's personal experiences and feelings. It encourages them to reflect
on their emotions and responses during questioning.

k. Numerical Scoring of Polygraph Data

Cleve Backster was credited for the introduction of numerical scoring approach in the evaluation of
polygraph charts. The procedure involves assigning numerical scores on the degree of physiological
response observed in relevant and comparison questions. Backster was also credited for developing a The
Uniform Chart makings. He founded the Backster School of Lie Detection in San Diego, California

l. Comparison Question Test

The Comparison Question Test was originated from the Reid Control Question Technique of John Reid. It
was developed by Dr. David Raskin in 1970s. This technique use relevant questions that specifically
referring to the crime and comparison questions that is same in nature of the crime but unrelated by time,
place or category.

Comparison questions is believed to produce stronger reaction than the relevant questions on innocent
examinee. Adversely, guilty subject will react strongly on the relevant questions (Vrij and Ganis, 2014).
The theory of Comparison Question Test suggest that, there are changes in measured physiology load on
one group of questions or the other, as a function of deception or truth-telling to the relevant questions .

m. Early Studies about Computerized Polygraph

Dr. Joseph F. Kubis of Fordham University was credited for his idea about the computerization of
polygraph. His research work entitled Studies in Lie Detection, Computer Feasibility Considerations was
completed in 1962. Dr. Kubis experiments includes monitoring the cardiovascular, respiratory, and
galvanic skin response. Peak of Tension technique was employed and the data collected from test subject
was numerically evaluated. Despite the favorable result of his experiments, Dr. Kubis made significant
recommendations for the improvement of the deception method for computerized application.
 n. Arther II Polygraph and Arther Specific Accusation Test

Richard O. Arther, Director of National Training Center for Lie Detection, was the first polygraph
examiner to record two pneumograph tracings. In 1965, he introduced the Arther polygraph manufactured
by Stoelting consisting stimulus marker designed to record the time when the question was asked and
answered.

Arther was also the first to record two galvanic skin response set in self centering and floating mode. He
suggested that automatic or self centering mode is better than manual mode (Arther, 1971; 1986).
Subsequent research provide opposite result (Raskin, et al, 1978; Matte, 1996). Arther designed a
polygraph technique which include behavior analysis in the interpretation of polygraph data (Matte,
1996).

o. Guilty Knowledge Test

Dr. David T. Lykken, professor at University of Minnesota, Medical School developed and introduced the
Guilty Knowledge test in 1960.

p. American Polygraph Association (APA)

The American Polygraph Association was established in 1966. Membership is composed of polygraph
professionals from law enforcement, government and private sector. The association was formed by
merger of several polygraph associations including the Academy of Scientific Interrogation, American
Academy of Polygraph Examiners, National Board of Polygraph Examiners and International Association
of Polygraph Examiners (Matte, 1996; Krapohl and Sturm, 2002).

q. Electronic Analog Polygraph

The analog polygraph had evolved from mechanical channel to electronic component. In 1974, Stoelting
introduced the polyscribe, an all-electronic polygraph instrument with multi function capability. In 1979,
the Ultra-Scribe was introduced replacing the polyscribe.

This new model has the capability to record simultaneously heartbeat, pulse rate and strength, and
changes in blood pressure using both the conventional arm cuff and CAM. The electronic enhancement
enable the examiner, to adjust the amplitude of tracings
 The Lafayette Instrument Company also introduced their electronic polygraph instrument. In 1984
Lafayette made modification by adding an auto base response circuit, designed to increase the amount of
baseline amplification sensitivity settings. Lafayette introduced the Factfinder model using 10 inches
chart available in 3, 4 or 5, channels

r. Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DODPI)

In 1986, the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute was established by virtue of Department of
Defense directive 5210. 78. The creation of DoDPI was rooted from the US Army Military Police School
(USAMPS). Dr. William J. Yankee was appointed as the first director (Decker, 1995). DoDPI was
renamed Defense Academy for Credibility Assessment. DACA was named National Center for
Credibility Assessment in 2010

s. Army Modified General Question Test

The Department of Defense Polygraph Institute designed a polygraph technique for multifacet polygraph
testing. This technique is a modification of the General Questions Test of John Reid. The analysis is
through numerical evaluation unlike with the Reid techniques that is clinical approach (Matte, 1996).

t. Employee Polygraph Protection Act

In 1988 the Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) was enacted in the United States (Matte, 1996).
Prior to the enactment of EPPA, polygraph is administered on job applicant screening, periodic employee
testing, and investigation of specific cases in private sectors. The growing complaints raised against the
abused on the use of polygraph leads to the creation of the EPPA. Membership of the American Polygraph
Association was greatly affected by this Act (Vaughan, 2009).

u. Computer Assisted Polygraph System (CAPS)

The Computer Assisted Polygraph System CAPS System was developed by David Raskin and John
Kircher of the University of Utah. It allowed a modified analog polygraphs to interface with a computer.
The signals extracted from the pen drive motors were processed using an analog to-digital converter. This
procedure leads to the development of Computerized Polygraph System (Krapohl, Handler & Sturm,
2012).
 v. Computerized Polygraph

• Drs. David Raskin and John Kircher developed the first US made computerized polygraph system
(CPS). The CPS was introduced into the market by Stoelting Company in 1991. Its algorithm was
developed at the University of Utah by Scientific Assessment Technology base from several years of
extensive research. CPS algorithm analyzed the physiological changes measured from respiration, skin
conductance/ skin response, cardio, and finger pulse and reports the probability of truthful or deceptive
results

• In 1988, Bruce White developed and introduced the Axciton Computerized Polygraph System with its
own A/D converter system and custom hardware/software which was very flexible, user friendly, but at
that time had an inadequate algorithm

• The development of Polygraph Automated Scoring System (Polyscore) at John Hopkins University
Applied Physics Laboratory started in 1989 .The Axciton was selected by APL for data collection because
of availability and compliance with the established requirements.

In 1993, the new computerized data of Lafayette Instrument Company implemented the APL's
Polyscore after collection system making analysis on its signal and developing data transformation
software to account for differences between the two collections systems

02

Chapter II. The Modern Polygraph Instrument

DEGREE FOR COLLEGE

The term polygraph was derived from Greek words “poly” means many and “grapho” to engrave or write.
A polygraph is a device that monitors and records respiratory, electrodermal, cardiovascular, and
vasomotor activity of a person during the process of polygraph examination through the sensors attached
on a particular parts of the body.

I. Conventional Polygraph Instrument

• Stoelting and Lafayette, two common brand of conventional polygraph.

• Consists of two pneumography, galvanometer, and cardio channels that records the physiological
phenomena during the period of test.

1. The Pneumograph Channel

1. Designed to measure thoracic and abdominal breathing pattern.

2. The sensor is made of corrugated rubber tube called pneumatic sensor attached to the thorax or chest
and abdomen of the subject. It is devised to transmit breathing pattern to the pneumo

channel of the instrument.

3. The pneumo channel of an analog polygraph can be electronic or

mechanical

4. The length of the pneumography pens varies depending on the

brand. Stoelting pen measures 5 inches while the Lafayette measures 6 1⁄4

2. The Electrodermal Activity Channel

• Old term for EDA is Galvanic Skin Reflex, Galvanic Skin Response named after Luigi Galvani an
Italian Physician and physicist who discovered electricity in animals.

• Provides the most reliable and visible tracings used in the evaluation of physiological data collected
during polygraph testing.

• Responsible for the recording of the skin resistance and conductance on a chart.

• The proper placement of the sensor is on the palmar surface of the hand or on the volar part of the distal
phalange of the index and ring finger of the non-dominant hand.

• EDA pen is the longest among the pens of an analog polygraph. Stoelting 5 1⁄2 inches, Lafayette 7
inches.

3. The Cardio Channel

• Monitors blood pressure changes and pulse wave using a blood pressure cuff.

• Tracings are recorded by wrapping a pneumatic cuff around the arm of an examinee.
• The length of the cardio pen varies depending on the brand of the polygraph instrument. Stoelting
CARDIO pen measures 5 inches while the Lafayette CARDIO pen measures 6 1⁄4

4. The Kymograph

• A mechanism that drives the polygraph chart on a specific speed per minute.

• The original design of Keeler polygraph has a chart drive that runs the polygraph paper for 3,6, or 12
inches per minute. The chart speed was made 6 and 12 inches per minute.

• The current standard speed of kymograph is 6 inches per minute

Computerized Polygraph System

Development of computerized polygraph system began in 1978 at the University of Utah.

• The system was designed to measure physiological features including skin conductance response,
increase in relative blood pressure and reduction in respiration line length.

• Other sensors are designed to record finger pulse using photoelectric plethysmograph. Subject’s
movement is monitored through seat, arm, and feet sensors.

Types of Computerized Polygraph

1. Axciton Computerized Polygraph System

2. Lafayette Instrument

3. Limestone Technologies

4. Stoelting Computerized Polygraph System

Basic Parts of Computerized Polygraph System

1. Physiology Data Acquisition System

System that acquire and transforms the physiological data monitored by different sensors attached to the
particular parts of the body
 2. Pneumograph Sensors

Thoracic and abdominal respiration tracings are obtained using either the pneumatic rubber convulated
sensor or the piezo electronic sensor. The signal is produced by the pneumography sensors which
stretches and relaxes when the subject breathes.

3. Electrodermal Activity Sensors

• Computerized polygraph records the electrodermal activity through endosomatic or exosomatic process.
Skin conductance or resistance is measured with the use of a traditional finger electrode, reusable
electrode which is enhance by an electrode paste, or with the sensitive disposable gel electrode attached
on the palm of the subject.

• The choice of which sensors to apply depends on the condition of the subject hands. A sweaty hand will
not be ideal to use the disposable electrodes. Since it may be detached during the course of the test due to
wet palms.

4. Cardiovascular Activity Sensor

1. Cardio tracings is obtained using a traditional blood pressure cuff, arm cuff, or a finger cuff depending
which is most convenient and effective.

2. The pressure indicator turned red when the air pressure is low and the light blinks blue when the
pressure is higher. When the pressure indicator changes anytime during the chart collection phase, do not
attempt to adjust the pressure.

5. Plethysmograph Sensor

• Blood pulse volume is measured using a sensitive photoelectric plethysmograph. The sensor is placed on
the palmar surface of the distal phalange of the index finger or thumb on the arm with no arm cuff.

6. Seat/Movement Sensor

The movement sensors can record body movement. The sensors are designed to be sensitive to
somatic/behavioral nervous system activity