Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

“Computer
Network
Technician”

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Computer Network & Technician
 Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

Index
1 Computer Page# 4 29 Shareware, Freeware, Types of 18
Software,
2 Characteristics of Computer 5 30 19
System Software, Operating System
3 History of Computer 4 31 19
Utility Program, Computer Network
4 Generations of Computer 5 32 Examples of Computer Network 19
5 Classification of Computer, Data, 7 33
Information Network Criteria 20
Benefits Advantages of Computer 20
6 Information Processing Cycle 8 34
Networks, Disadvantage
Components of Computer Input 21
7 Devices 9 35 Types of Computers Networks
Output Devices
8 System Unit, Data Types, CPU 10 36 Computer Architectures 25

9 Memory, Uses of Computer at Home 10 37 Network Topologies 26

10 Types of Processors, Pipelining 11 38 Modems 28
11 Memory, Accessing, Direct Access 11 39 29
Memory Network interface card
12 RAM, DRAM, SRAM 12 40 Wireless Access Point 29
13 Differences between SRAM and 12 41 29
DRAM Hub, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Bridge
Different Types of ROM are as Repeaters, Range Extenders, and
14 Follows 13 42 30
Antennas
15 Difference between RAM & ROM 13 43 Communications Channels 31
16 Difference between PROM& 14 44
EPROM Data Communication 34
17 Differences between SRAM and 14 45 35
DRAM, Cache Memory Data Transmission Medium
18 Flash Memory, USB Flash Drives 14 46 FAT32, NTFS 36
19 Memory Cards, Storage 13 47 OSI Models 38
20 Basic Units of Data Storage 15 48 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 42
21 Hard Disk, Fixed disk, Platters 15 49 Protocols 43
Formatting, Tracks, Hard Disk
22 16 50 Token Ring 43
Performance
Floppy Disk or Diskette, Optical
23 16 51 TCP /IP 43
Disc,
24 Software, Hardware 17 52 Bluetooth , Wi-Fi 44
Relationship of Software and
25 17 53 IP Addressing 44
Hardware
Difference between Software &
26 17 54 Active Directory /Domain Services 50
Hardware
27 Application Software 17 55 Groups, Users/Computer Accounts 51

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28 Forms of Application Software 18 56 Domain Name System (DNS) 51

57 Packaged Software, Custom Software 18 68 DHCP 52
58 Group Policy 53 69 File Server Resource Manager 53

59 File Screening, Manage Quotas 54 70 Definition Backup 54

60 Printer Server 54 71 Windows Deployment Services 54

61 Hyper-V 54 72 Additional Domain Controller 54

62 Burst Data, Baud Rate 48 73 Peak Data Rate, Active/Passive HUB 48
49
63 BNC Connector, Kevlar 49 74 DB Connectors

64 NTFS Compression 49 75 Encryption/Decryption 50

4 Backup & Restore 54 76 Remote Desktop Connection
65 54
66 Disk Defragmentation 55 77 Subnet Mask, Memory Quota 55

Windows Server 2012 R2

78 Installation Of Windows Server 56 88 Firewall OFF/ON 66
79 Windows Server Settings 59 89 Assigning IP 70
80 Install Active Directory 72 90 Domain Controller Option 81

81 Make Organization Unit (OU), 87 91 Install & Configure DNS 95

Groups & Users

82 Install & Configure DHCP 102 92 Make & Configure Policies 123

83 Make Additional Controller Server 140 93 Make & Configure File Server Resource 155
Manager

84 Quota Management 155 94 File Screening Management 162

85 Backup & Restore 169 95 Make Hotspot 185

86 Windows 10 Shortcut Key 185 96 Use Of MS-DOS 186

87 Some Extra 139 97 Past Paper 188

Windows Server Urdu Book [Page # 196 ]

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﷽
Computer
Computer is an electronic machine used to solve different problems according to a set of instructions
given to it. A computer can accept data, process data into useful information and store is for later use.
The word computer is derived from compute that means “to calculate”.
Characteristics of Computer
The important characteristics of a computer are as follows:
Speed Consistency
Reliability Communication
Accuracy Recalling
Storage Control Sequence
Versatility Cost Reductions
History of Computer
Computer was invented because “Necessity is the mother of invention “. Man always searched for
a fast calculating device. It took a long time to invent the digital computer.
A brief history behind the invention of the computer is as follows:
Abacus
Abacus was the first computing device. It was developed 5000 years ago. It was used to perform
simple addition and subtraction. Abacus was a wooden rack. It contained horizontal wires with
beads strung on them. The beads could move easily. All simple arithmetic calculations were
performed by moving these beads according to programming rules.
John Napier’s Bone
John Napier was a Scottish mathematician. He created logarithm tables to facilitated
calculations. He also created a device known as Napier’s Bones. The device used rods to
perform arithmetic calculation. It was designed in the early 17th century. The
device was widely used by accountants and bookkeepers.
Blaise Pascal
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician. He invented a mechanical adding machine in 1642
known as Pascaline Calculator.
 Von Leibnitz  Charles Xavier  Punch cards

Charles Babbage
In 1822, a mathematician Charles Babbage invented a difference engine for mathematical
calculations. In 1842, he developed the Analytical Engine that was automatic. This engine could
perform 60 additions per minute.

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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

Generations of Computer
The development of electronic computer can be divided into generations depending upon the
technologies used. Different generations of computers are as follows:
 First generation (Vacuum tube) 1942-1955
 Second generation (Transistor) 1955-1964
 Third generation (Integrated Circuits) 1964-1975
 Fourth generation (Microprocessor) 1975-Present
 Fifth generation (Artificial intelligence) Present and Beyond
First Generation Computers (1942-1955)
The beginning of commercial computer age is from UNIVAC (Universal Automatic
Computer).
It was developed by two scientists MAUCHLY and ECHERT at the Census Department of
United States in 1947.The first generation computers were used during 1942-1955. They were
based on vacuum tubes. Examples of first generation computer are ENIVAC and UNIVAC-I
etc.
Advantages
o Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.
o Vacuum tubes technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
o These computers could calculate data in milliseconds.
Disadvantages
 These computers were very large in  Limited commercial use.
size.
 Very slow speed.
 They consumed a large amount of
energy.  Limited programming capabilities.
 They heated very soon due to  Used machine language only.
thousands of vacuum tubes.
 Used magnetic drums which provide.
 They were not very reliable. very less data storage.
 Air conditioning was required.  Used punch cards for input.
 Non- portable  Not versatile and very faulty.
 Costly commercial production.
Second Generation Computers (1955-1964)

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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

The second generation computers used transistors. The scientists of Bell Laboratories
developed transistor in 1947. These scientists include John Bardeen, William Brattain and
William Shockley. The size of the computer was decreased by replacing vacuum tubes with
transistors. The examples of second-generation computers are IBM 7094 series IBM 1400 and
CDC 164 etc.
Advantages
© Smaller in size as compared to first © Better speed and could calculated
generation computers. data in microseconds.
© More reliable © Used faster peripherals like tape
drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
© Used less energy and were not
heated. © Used Assembly language instead of
Machine language
© Wider for commercial use.
© Accuracy improved.
© Better portability.

Disadvantages
Air conditioning was Costly and not versatile
required.
Costly and not versatile.
Constant maintenance was
required. Punch cards were used for
input.
Only used for specific
purposes.

Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)

The third generation computers used the integrated circuits (IC).Jack Kilby developed the
concept of integrated circuit in 1958. It was an important invention in the computer field. The
first IC was invented and used in 1961. The size of an IC is about ¼ square inch. A single IC
chip may contain thousands of transistors. The computer become smaller in size, faster more
reliable and less expensive. The examples of third-generation computers are IBM 370, IBM
System/360, UNIVAC 1108 and UNIVAC 9000 etc.
Advantages
Ω Smaller in size as compared to Ω Batter speed and could calculate data
previous generation. in nanoseconds.
Ω More reliable. Ω Used fan for heat discharged to
prevent damage.
Ω Used less energy.
Ω Maintenance cost was low because
Ω Produced less heat as compared to hardware failure is rare.
previous generation computers.
Ω Totally general purpose.

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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

Ω Could be used for high-level Ω Less expensive.

languages.
Ω Better accuracy.
Ω Good storage.
Ω Commercial production increased.
Ω Versatile to an extent.
Ω Used mouse and keyboard

Disadvantages
҈ Air conditioning was required
҈ Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC Chips.
Fourth Generation Computer (1975-Present)
The fourth generation computers started with the invention of microprocessor. The
microprocessor contains thousands of ICs. Ted Hoff produced the first microprocessor in 1971
for Intel. It was known as Intel 4004. The technology of integrated circuits improved rapidly.
The LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuit and VLSI (Very large Scale Integration) circuit
were designed. It greatly reduced the size of computer. The size of modern microprocessors is
usually one square inch. It can contain millions of electronic circuits. The examples of fourth
generation computers are Apple Macintosh and IBM PC workstations. The workstations can
work up to 10 times faster than most PCs due to RISC. It is used in many Macintosh computers.
RISC chips are also cheaper to produces because they require fewer transistors.
Advantages
҉ More powerful and reliable than ҉ Best speed to read instructions i.e.
previous generation. one billionth per second.
҉ Very small in size. ҉ Totally general purpose
҉ Less power consumption and less ҉ Commercial production.
heat generation and less heat
generated. ҉ Less need of repairing.
҉ Fan for heat discharging and thus to ҉ Cheapest among all generations.
keep cold.
҉ All types of high-level languages can
҉ No air conditioning is required. be used in this type of computers.
Disadvantages
҉ The latest technology is required for manufacturing microprocessors.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)
Scientists are now working on the 5th generation computers using recent engineering advances. It
is based on the technique of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Computers can understand spoken words and
imitated human reasoning. The ability to translate a foreign language is also moderately possible with
fifth generation computers.
Scientists are working to increase the speed of the computer. They are trying to create a
computer with real IQ with the help of advanced programming and technologies. The
advancement in modern technologies will revolutionize the computer in future.
Classification of Computer

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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

Computers are classified on the based of size, speed, processing power and price. However, the
classification of computers is not very straight-forward. The distinction between these categories
is sometimes not very clear. Some characteristics overlap different categories. Computers can be
classified into the following categories:
℮ Personal Computer ℮ Mainframe Computer
℮ Mobile Devices ℮ Supercomputer
℮ Minicomputer ℮ Embedded Computer
Data
A collection of raw facts and figures is called data.
Examples of Data
Some examples of data are as follows:
Students fill an admission form when they get admission in college. The form consists of
raw facts about the students. These raw facts are student’s name, father name, address
etc.
Governments collect the data of all citizens of the country during the census. This data is
stored permanently and is used for different purposed at different times.
Different organizations conduct surveys to know the opinion of the people about their
product. In these surveys, people express their ideas and opinions about different issues.
These ideas and opinions of the people are stored as data. The organizations use this data
for the improvement of their products etc.
Information
The processed data is called information. Information is an organized and processed form of
data. It is more meaningful than data and is used for making decisions.
For example the marks of a student in different subjects are data. This data is used to calculate
the total marks which are the information. The total marks can be processed again to calculate
average marks of the student. In this processing total marks is used as data and averaged marks is
the information.

Examples of information
Some examples of information are as follows:
In colleges and universities, the raw facts about students are stored on admission forms. If we
want to find out a list of all students who live in Faisalabad, we will apply some processing
on this data. This processing will give us the desired list. This list is a form of processed data
and will be called information.
The data stored in census is used to generate different type of information. For example,
Government can use it to fine the total number of graduates or literacy rate in the country etc.
The information is obtained by processing the data Government can use the information in
important decisions to improve literacy rate.
An organization can use the opinion of the people as data and process it to generate
information of its interest. For example, it can know that how many people of the country are

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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

satisfied with the quality of its product and who many are unsatisfied. The organization can
use this information for the improvement of its product.
Information Processing Cycle
A series of steps used to convert data into useful information is known as information processing
cycle. The steps in this cycle are performed in specific sequences.
Different steps in the information processing cycle are as follows: Input the first step of the
information processing cycle is input. The computer accepts data in this step. Data consists of
raw facts and figures. Data is entered into the computer for processing. It is entered using
different input devices such as keyboard or mouse.
1. Processing: The second step of the information processing cycle is processing converts
data into information. Information is an organized and processed form of data. The central
processing unit processes data into information. Random access memory (RAM)
temporarily stores programs and data required by the CPC.
2. Output: The third step of the information processing cycle is output. The results are
provided to the user in this step. It is performed using different output devices such as
monitors and printers.
3. Storage: The fourth step of the information processing cycle is storages. It store data
information and programs used by the computer system. It is performed using different
storage devices like hard disk drives, CD, DVD and USB flash memory etc.

Input Processing Result

Components of Computer
Different components of a computer system are as follows:
Input Devices
The data or instruction given to the computer is called input. A hardware
component used to enter data and instruction into computer is called input device. Most
commonly used input devices are keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital camera and
PC camera.

1. Keyboard: Keyboard is used to enter text. It contains alphabetic, numeric and

other keys for entering different type of data.
2. Mouse: Mouse is a pointing device. It controls the pointer on the screen. The
user gives instructions to computer using mouse. It contains different buttons to
perform different tasks like selecting and buttons or opening a program.
3. Microphone: Microphone is used to enter voice into the computer.
4. Scanner: It reads printed text and graphics and translates results in digital
form.
5. Digital Camera: Digital camera is used to take and store picture in digital
form.

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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

6. Webcam: Webcam is PC video camera. It is used to capture videos and photos

on the computer. It is also used to make video phone calls on the internet.
Output Devices
The data processed into useful information is called output. A hardware
component used to display information to the user is called output device.
Most commonly used output device are monitor, printer and speaker.
1. Monitor Monitor is used to display text graphics and video output.
2. Printer Printer is used to display printed output on paper.
3. Speaker Speaker is used to hear sound, music and voice outputs.
System Unit
System unit is a case that contains different electronic components of the compute used to
process data. All computer systems have a systems have a system unit.
The electronic components in the system unit are connected to motherboard. Motherboard is
also known as system board or main board. System board is the communication medium for the
entire computer system.
Data Types
1. Images 3. Sounds 5. Alphabets
2. Videos 4. Numeric 6. alphanumeric
The important components of system unit are as follows:

CPU

CPU stands for central processing unit. It is also called processor. It is the brain of the
computer. It is the most important component of a computer. It interprets and executes the
instructions in the computer. A computer cannot work without CPU. All computers must have a
central processing unit.
Memory
The hardware component that store data and instructions temporarily is called memory. It is also
called primary memory or main memory.
It consists of electronic chips connected to the motherboard. It is used to store input data before
processing. It also stores processed data after processing until the data is sent to the output
device. The main memory is also called volatile because its contents are lost when the computer
is turned off.

CPU

CU
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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

Uses of Computer at Home

Computer can be used at home in following ways:
Home Budget Information
Computer Games Chatting
Working from Home Computer-Based Training (CBT)
Entertainment

Types of Processors
Two designs of CPU are as follows:
1. CISC stands for complex instruction set computing. It supports a large number of
instructions. It executes complex instruction more quickly. It is mostly used in PC and
conventional mainframe computers. Intel’s Pentium and Hanium are CISC chips.
AMD is another manufacture of CISC chips.
2. RISC stands for reduced instruction set computing. It reduces the Instructions to
only those which are used more frequently.
It executes simple instruction more quickly than CISC CPU. It is mostly used in workstations.
The workstations can work up to 10 times faster than most PCs due to RISC. It is used in many
Macintosh computers. RISC chips are also cheaper to produces because they require fewer
transistors.
Manufacture Processor Type Typical Use
Intel Pentium CISC Microcomputer
Itanium CISC Workstation
AMD Athlon CISC Microcomputer
Hammer CISC Workstation
DEC Alpha RISC Workstation
Motorola PowerPC RISC Apple Computers
Silicon Graphics MIPS RISC Workstation

Pipelining
Pipelining is a technique in which CPU fetches the next instruction before it completes the
machine cycle for the first instruction.

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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

Modern computers use pipelining technique to process multiple instructions at the same time. It
results in faster processing and increases the performance of the computer.
Without pipelining, the processor fetches, decodes, executes and stores only one instruction at a
time, The CPU waits until an instruction completes its all four stages and then executes the next
instruction.
Memory
Memory is an area of a computer that stores data and instructions to be accessed by processor as
well as the results of processing. It consists of one or more chip on motherboard or some other
circuit boards in the computer.
Accessing
The main memory can be viewed as a collection of bytes arranged in an order. CPU can access
any byte form main memory. The byte in the memory can be accessed by specifying its address.
Direct access memory.
Different bytes can be accessed directly in random order in equal amount of time. That is why it
is called direct access memory.
Types of Memory
There are two types of memory in computer that are as follow:

1. Volatile Memory Volatile memory loses its contents when the computer is turned
off. RAM is the most common type of volatile memory.
2. Non-Volatile Memory It does not lose its contents when the computer is turned off.
ROM, flash memory and CMOS are examples of non-volatile memory.

RAM

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also called direct access memory. Random
access means that each individual byte in entire memory can be accessed directly. RAM is used
to store data and instructions temporarily. A program must be loaded into RAM before
execution.
RAM plays very important role in the processing speed of a computer. A bigger RAM size
provides larger amount of space for processing. So the processing speed is increased. The
amount of data that can be stored in RAM is measured in bytes. Most desktop computers
typically have 4 GB or RAM or more.

DRAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used in most of the
computer. It is the least expensive kind of RAM. It requires an electric current to
maintain its electrical state. The electrical charge of DRAM decreases with time that may
result in loss of data. DRAM is recharged of refreshed again and again to maintain its
data. The processor cannot access the data of DRAM when it is being refreshed. That is
why it is slow.

SRAM
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SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It can store data without any need of
frequent recharging. CPU does not need to wait to access data form SRAM during processing.
That is why it is faster than DRAM. It utilizes less power than DRAM. SRAM is more
expensive. It is normally used to build a very fast memory known as cache memory.

Differences between SRAM and DRAM

The difference between SRAM and DRAM is as follow:
No SRAM No DRAM
1 It is faster than DRAM. 1 It is slower than SRAM
2 It is more expensive. 2 It is less expensive.
3 It does not need to be power-refreshed. 3 It has to be refreshed after each read
operation.
4 It utilizes less power. 4 It utilizes more power.
5 It holds data indefinitely as long as the 5 It holds data dynamically not indefinitely.
computer is turned on.
6 It is more complex and less compact. 6 It is less complex and more compact.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The instruction in ROM prepares the computer for use.
These instructions can only be read but cannot be changed or deleted. It is not possible to write
new information or instructions into the ROM.
ROM stores data and instructions permanently. When the power is switched off, the instructions
stored in ROM are not lost. Therefore, ROM is called non-volatile memory.
The information in ROM is stored by the manufacturer. When the computer is switched on the
instructions in the ROM are automatically loaded into the memory of the computer.
ROM BIOS
ROM contains a small set of instructions called ROM BIOS.
BIOS stand for Basic Input Output System. These instructions tell the computer how to access
hard disk, find operating system and load the operating system in RAM.
Different Types of ROM are as Follows:
1. PROM
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is initially blank.
The user or manufacturer can write data and programs on it using special devices. The user can
write and instructions on it only once. If there is any error in writing the instructions the error
cannot be removed from PROM. The chip becomes unusable.
2. EPROM
EPROM stands for Erasable programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is initially
blank. The user or manufacturer can write data and programs on it using special devices. The data and
programs written on it can be erased with special devices using ultraviolet rays. The user can write new
program on it.
3. EEPROM
EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. In this
memory, user can erased and write instructions with the help of electrical pulses. If there is any
error in writing the instructions, the user can erase the contents electronically. The contents of
EEPROM can be modified easily.
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Teacher : Miss Zohra Tabassum Prepared By : Amir & Zeeshan Ail

Difference between RAM & ROM

The difference between RAM and ROM is as follow:
No RAM No ROM
1 RAM is a temporary memory. 1 ROM is permanent memory.
RAM enables data to be both read and The instruction written in ROM can only
2 written to memory and data can be 2 be read but cannot be changed or deleted.
changed or deleted.
Instructions in RAM change It is not possible to writ new information
3 continuously as new program are 3 or new instructions into the ROM, so
executed and new data is processed. ROM is non-volatile memory.
When the power is turned off, all the When the power is turned off, the
4 programs and data are erased form 4 instructions stored in ROM are not lost,
RAM. So RAM is a volatile memory. therefore ROM is non-volatile memory
5 The instructions are written into the 5 The instructions are written into ROM at
RAM at the time of execution manufacturing.

Difference between PROM& EPROM

The difference between PROM and EPROM is as follow:
No PROM No EPROM
1 PROM is programmable memory. 1 EPROM is electronically programmable
memory.
2 The user can write instructions on 2 The user can write instructions on
PROM only once. EPROM many times.
3 The instructions written by the user 3 The instructions written by the user can
cannot be erased form PROM. be erased from EPROM.
4 If there is an error while written PROM 4 If there is an error while writing on
it becomes unusable. EPROM, it can still be used again.
5 It provides less usability as instructions 5 It provides more usability as instructions
are written only once. are written many times.

Cache Memory
A cache (pronounced “cash”) is a small and very fast memory. It is designed to speed up the
transfer of data and instructions. It is located inside or close to the CPU chip. It is faster than
RAM. The data and instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by CPU are
stored in cache.
The data and instructions are retrieved form RAM when CPU uses them for the first time. A
copy of that data or instructions is stored in cache. The next time the CPU needs that data or
instruction, it firs looks in cache. If the required data is found there, it is retrieved form cache
memory instead of main memory. It speeds up the working of CPU.
Levels of cache memory
1. Level 1(L1) Cache
2. Level 2(L2) Cache
3. Level 3(L3) Cache
Flash Memory

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Flash memory consists of non-volatile memory chips. Most computer use it is store startup
instructions as it allows computer to update its contents easily. Flash memory chip are also built
into many devices such as tablets, mobile phones, digital cameras, printers and digital cameras
etc. The data in smart phones are stored on flash memory. Some portable media players store
music on flash memory chip.
USB Flash Drives
USB flash drive is a flash memory storage device that is connected to a USB port in computer or
mobile device. It is also called thumb drive, Key drives, or jump drives.
Memory Cards
A memory card is a removable flash memory to store data. Most of these are very small and can
retain data without power. The existing data can be erased and new data can be written easily.
Memory cards are available in many shapes and sizes. They are commonly used with smart
phones, portable media players. Digital camer and other portable devices.
A memory card can be inserted into a slot on computer or mobile devices. However, a card
reader can be attached to the computer if it does not have a slot. The card reader is usually
connected to the USB port of the computer. The card readers are designed to read multiple types
of memory cards.
Storage
Storage is used to store data, information and programs permanently. It is also known as
secondary storage, auxiliary storage or mass storage.
Ω The main memory is a temporary memory. The storage is required to store data and
programs permanently.
Ω The capacity of main memory is limited. The storage is required to store a large amount
of data and programs.
Different storage media are used to store data information and programs. It is called nonvolatile
because its content remains safe even if the computer is turned off. Storage media are available
in different sizes and capacities. The storage media can be a removable, flash drives memory
cards and optical discs etc.
Basic Units of Data Storage
The basic unit of data storage is as follow:
Bit Computer works with binary digits. These digits are in the form of 0,s and 1’s A binary
digit is called bit. One bit takes one storage location in memory. It is the smallest unit of
data storage.
Byte A collection of eight bits is called byte. It is used to store single character.
Kilobyte A kilobyte consists of 1024 bytes (210 bytes). It is denoted by KB.
Megabyte A megabyte consists of 1024 kilobytes (220 bytes). It is denoted by MB.
Gigabyte A gigabyte consists of 1024 megabytes (230 bytes). It is denoted by GB.
Terabyte A terabyte consists of 1024 gigabytes (240 bytes). It is denoted by TB.
Petabyte A petabyte consists of 1024 terabyte (250 bytes).It is denoted by PB.
Exabyte An Exabyte consists of 1024 petabytes (260 bytes). It is denoted by EB.

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Zettabyte A zettabyte consists of 1024 Exabyte(270 bytes). It is denoted by ZB.

Yottabyte A yottabyte consists of 1024 zettabytes(280 bytes). It is denoted by YB.

Hard Disk
Hard disk is the primary storage device in a computer to store the programs and data
permanently. It is also known as hard disk drive (HDD) or hard drive (HD). Most personal
computers have at least one hard disk drive. Some large scale computers contain hundreds of
hard disks. The capacity of hard disk can be up to 8 TB or more.
Fixed disk
The traditional hard disk is a type of magnetic disk. It is also called fixed became it is fixed in
the system unit.
Platters
It consists of several circular disks called platter that are coated with magnetic material.
The platter is stacked on the top of one another enclosed in a sealed case. Each platter has two
read/ write heads, one for each side. The hard disk also has arms that move the read/write heads
to the proper location on the platters to read and write data. The platters in the hard disk typically
spin at a high rate between 5400 and 15000 revolution per minute (RPM).
The user can write and read data from the hard disk many disk many time. The disk must be
formatted before any data can be written on a hard disk.
Formatting
Formatting is a process that creates tracks and sectors on the disk.
Tracks
Tracks are in the form of circles on the surface of a hard disk. Each track on a disk is divided into
sectors. Each sector typically stores up to 512 bytes of data. Two or more sectors can be
combined to form a cluster. A cluster is the smallest unit of disk space that stores data. All tracks
in the same position on all surfaces of all disks in a hard drive form a cylinder.
Hard Disk Performance
The following factors affect the performance of hard disk:
Seek time It is also called positioning performance. It is the time required by read/write head
to reach the correct location on the disk. It is often used with rotational speed to
compare performance of hard drives. It is measured in millisecond (ms)
Spindle speed It is also called transfer performance. It is the speed at which the drive transfers
data. It is measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).
Latency It is the time required by the spinning platter to bring the desired data to
read/write head. It is measured in milliseconds (ms).
Floppy Disk or Diskette
Floppy disk is also called diskette. It consists of a then plastic disk coated with magnetic
material. This disk is enclosed in a plastic jacket. It was introduced by IBM in early

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1970s. It is a portable storage medium and can be removed from one computer and
inserted into another computer easily. It is not commonly used now days. Floppy disk can
only store a small amount of data. Data access speed of floppy disk is slower than hard
disk. It is inexpensive storage media.
The standard size of floppy disk in 3 ½ inch. The capacity of floppy disks is 1.44MB.
Optical Disc
Optical disc is a form of removable storage. It includes CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs. Optical
drives use a laser to read and write data on optical disc. The LASER stands for Light
Amplification through Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser beam writs on the surface by
creating small pit (hole) in the disc.
 CD  DVD-ROM
 DVD  DVD-R
 CD-ROM  DVD-RW
 CD-R  Blu-Ray Disc

Software
A set of instructions given to the computer to solve a problem is called software. Software is also
called program.
Hardware
The physical parts of the computer are called hardware. The user can see and touch the hardware.
Keyboard and mouse are two examples of hardware.
Relationship of Software and Hardware
Software is a set of instruction that tells the computer Hardwar what to do. The hardware cannot
perform any task without software. The software cannot be executed without hard ware. A
computer becomes useful when hardware and software and combined.
Difference between Software & Hardware
The difference between software and Hardware is as follows:
No Software No Hardware
1 Software is asset of instructions that tell a 1 Hardware is the physical parts of the
computer exactly what to do. computer that cause processing of data.
2 Software cannot be executed without 2 Hardware cannot perform any task
hardware. without software.
3 Software cannot be touched. 3 Hardware can be seen and touched.
4 Software is debugged in cased of 4 Hardware is repaired in case of problem.
problem.
5 Software is reinstalled if the problem is 5 Hardware is replaced if the problem is
not solved. not solved.

Application Software

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Application software is used to perform various applications or tasks on the computer. Today, a
wide variety of application software is available to meet any user need. Individuals and
businesses use application software to perform hundreds of tasks such as:
 Writing letters  Designing and editing images
 Making presentations  Accessing the Web-base3d resources
 Managing finances  Participating in videoconference
 Managing business inventory  Playing games
 Preparing tax returns

Forms of Application Software

Application software is available in the following forms:
Packaged Software
Packaged software or retail software is a copyrighted available for different types of users. It is
not developed for a particular user or organization. Examples of packaged software are word
processing and spreadsheet software. Many packaged software are also available on the Web.
Custom Software
Custom software is designed for a particular customer or organization. It is developed to meet
the exact requirements of a particular customer or organization. The cost of customized softwar
is more than packaged software.
Software that is developed for a particular university is an example of customized software. The
software can be developed by single programmer or a team of programmers.
Shareware
Shareware is a copyrighted software that is available free of cost for a limited time period. The
user can use shareware for a certain time period. The user has to purchase it if he wants to use it
further.
Freeware
Freeware is a copyrighted software that is available free of cost for unlimited time period.
Types of Software
The main types of software are as follow:
Δ System Software
Δ Application Software
System Software
System software is set of programs to control and manage the actual operations of computer
hardware. It controls the usage and allocation of different hardware components. It enables
application programs to execute properly. It controls the basic operations as follow:

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℮ Saving data on disk

℮ Making computer to work for us
Types of System software
Two types of system software are operating system and utility programs.
1. Operating System
An operating system is a set of programs that Printing a document etc.
Manages all computer components and operations. A computer cannot do
anything without an operating system. Operating system must be installed on
every computer. Users interact with the computer through operating system.
Microsoft Window and Linux are examples of operating system software.
2. Utility Programs
A utility program is a type of system software that is used for effective
management of computer system. The user can use utility program to perform
maintenance tasks related to different devices or programs. The utility programs
keep the computer system running smoothly. Antivirus and file compression
software are example of utility programs.
3. Computer Network
A computer network consists of two or more computers that are connected
together to share information and resources. The resources may
include printers, hard disks, scanners or programs etc. The computers in the
network are connected together through communication media. The
communication media can be a physical cable or a wireless connection. The
computers in the network can be in the same room building or at different places.
Examples of Computer Network
Some examples of computer network are as follows:
1. Computer networks can be used in an office. Different people in the office can access
common information. If all user computers are connected through a network they can share
their files and exchange mail. They can also send faxes and Print documents from any
computer in the network.
2. Internet is also an example of a computer network in which millions of computers are
connected through phone lines. People using this network can share information, files and
talk with one another.
Network Criteria
A network must meet a certain number of criteria. The most important criteria include
performance, reliability and security.

1. Performance

Performance can be measured in different ways such as transit time and response time.
Transit time is the time required for a message to travel form one device to other.
Response time is the3 time elapsed between and inquiry and the response. The network

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performance depends on different factors such as number of users. Types of transmission

medium the hardware and software being used.
The performance is evaluated by two metrics called throughput and delay. A higher throughput
and less delay mean better performance. However these can be contradictory. For example, the
through put may be increased by sending more data to the network. But is may result in
increased delay due to congestion in the network.

2. Reliability
The reliability of the network is measured by different factors such as accuracy of data delivery.
It also includes the frequency of failure and the time taken to recover from the failure etc.
Security is the protection of data from unauthorized access, damage. It also includes the
implementation of policies and procedures for data recovery if it is lost or damaged.
Benefits/ Advantages of Computer Networks
Following are some important benefits of computer networks:
1. Information & Resource Sharing
Data and information can be shared among different users. Resources like printers, CD-
ROM drives. Hard and software can also be shared.

2. Money Saving
People can save a lot of money by using the same software over a network instead of purchasing
separate copy of the software for each user.

3. Easy Communication
A person can communicate with others very easily using a large network like Internet.

4. Internet Access Sharing

Small computer networks allow multiple user to share a single Internet connection.
Special hardware devices allocate the bandwidth of the connection to various individuals.

5. Data Security and Management

A network can manage the company’s critical data in a better way. Data can be centralized on
shared severs instead of storing it on different computers. Every can find the data easily. It
became easier for the administrators to take backup of data regularly. Security can be
implemented easily.

6. Entertainment
Networks facilitate many types of games and entertainment. Internet offers many sources of
entertainment. Many multi-player games can be used over a local area network.

Disadvantages of Networks

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Some disadvantages of networks are as follows:

1. Hardware Software & Setup Costs:

Setting up a network requires an investment in hardware, software, planning designing and
implementing the network.

2. Hardware & Software Management Costs:

Managing a network is complicated. It requires training. A network manager usually needs to be
employed. In a big organization, a network administrator is hired.

3. Undesirable Sharing:
Networking allows the sharing of undesirable data. Viruses are easily spread over networks and
the Internet.
4. Illegal or Undesirable Behavior:
Networks can be used for abuse of company resources, downloading of illegal or illicit materials
and software piracy. Larger organizations manage these issues through policies and monitoring.

5. Data Security Concerns:

A poorly-secured network puts critical data at risk. It many expose data to hackers, unauthorized
access and even sabotage.
Types of Computer Networks
Computers networks are categorized according to the way they are used and the distances they
cover. Different types of computer networks are:
1) LAN – Local Area Network
2) WAN – Wide Area Network
3) MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
4) PAN – Personal Area Network

LAN (Local Area Network)

LAN stands for Local Area Networks. It is the most common types of
networks. It covers a small area. It usually connects the computers and other devices within one
office or a building or group of buildings. LAN is often used to share resources such as printer’s
hard disks and programs. Each computer or device in the network is called a node. The nodes are
usually connected through wires. A LAN that uses no physical wires is called wireless LAN.
LAN are capable of transmitting data at very fast rate. LAN transmission speed is typically 10
Mbps to 1000 Mbps. It is much faster than data transmission over a telephone line. LAN can

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transmit data in a limited distance. There is also a limit on the number of computers that can be
attached to the network.
Examples
 In a computer lab, there are 40 computers connected through LAN. The students can
share software files and data in the lab.
 In Internet club, many computers can be connected through LAN. These computers can
share single connection of the Internet.
Benefits / Advantages of LAN
Some important advantages of LAN are as follows:
1) Resource Sharing
The resources like printers, CD-ROM drives hard disks and software can be
shared using LAN. This is cheaper than buying devices for each workstation in
the network.
2) Communication
The users in LAN can easily communicate with each other. They can also transfer
data easily and rapidly between different computers in the network.
3) Application Sharing
The individual licensed copy of software can be costly. A lot of money can be
saved by using the same software over networks instead of purchasing separate
copy of the software for each workstation. The network versions of software
application such as MS Office are available. These applications are loaded on the
server and shared by different users in the LAN.
4) Centralized IT Admin
LAN allows an easier and more efficient way to manage different computers from
server. IT administrator can remotely troubleshoot the problems on computers
across the network instead of doing in individually.
5) Centralized Data
The users can save their data centrally on the server in LAN. They can access the
saved data from any workstation on the networks. They do not need to use the
same workstation all the time.
6) Internet Access Sharing
LAN allows multiple users to share a single Internet connection. An organization
can purchase one high- speed connection and share it on different workstations in
LAN.
7) Data Security & Management
LAN can manage important data in a better way. Data can be centralized on
shared servers instead of storing it on different computers. Everyone can find the
data easily. Security can be implemented easily.

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Limitations / Disadvantages of LAN

Some important disadvantages of LAN are as follow:
1. Privacy Threat
LAN can be threat to user’s privacy. The network administrator can access personal files of
users. He can also monitor network and Internet activities of the user.
2. Expensive to Install
LAN generally saves money over time. However, it may require high initial costs of installation.
The cables, network cards and software are expensive. The installation may also require the
services of a technician.
3. Admin Time Required
The proper maintenance of LAN requires time and expertise. A network administrator may be
required to manage properly.
4. Data Security Concerns
LAN can put critical data at risk if it is not secured properly. The unauthorized users may access
important data and can damage it.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN stands for Wide Area Network. This type of network covers a large area. It connects
computers and others devices in different cities and countries. WAN usually consists of several
LANs connected together.
Computer in a WAN are often connected through telephone lines. They can also be connected
through leased lines or satellites. WAN can reach the parts of the world that is not possible with
LANs. WAN is expensive than LAN. WAN is not as fast as LAN. The transmission rate of
WAN is typically 56 Kbps to 50 Mbps.
Examples
The network connecting the ATMs of a bank located in different cities.
The network connecting NADRA offices in different cities of Pakistan.
Internet connects millions of users all over the world to share information.
Advantages of WAN
Some important advantages of WAN are as follows:
1. Communication Facility
A big company may exist at multiple locations in a country. The employees can communicate
using WAN. It saves long distance. Phone calls. Video conferencing is another use of WAN
where users can communicate through their computer System.
2. Remote Data Entry

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Remote data entry is possible in WAN. The user can sit at any location and enter, update and
process data on any computer attached to WAN. For example the user can access the data on a
computer located at Karachi while sitting in Faisalabad.
3. Centralized Data
The centralized data storage is an important advantage of WAN. It means that data can be stored
in single location even if the organization is spread over many cities. WAN can manage critical
data in a better way by storing it at a centralized server. The centralized data can be shared
among different users anywhere in the world.
4. Entertainment
WAN such as the Internet can provide many types of games and entertainment to the user. Many
multi-player games are available that can be played over WAN.

Disadvantages of WAN
Some important disadvantages of WAN are as follows:
҉ Hardware, Software & Setup Costs: Setting up a WAN requires an investment in
hardware software planning designing and implementing. The cost of devices used in
WAN is very expensive.
҉ Hardware & Software Management Costs: Managing a WAN is complicated. It requires
intensive training. A network manager usually needs to be employed.
҉ Data Security Concerns: A poorly –secured WAN puts critical data at risk. It may expose
data to hackers, unauthorized access and even sabotage. Virus can spread quickly across
the WAN if it enters the central backing store.
҉ Failure of Server: If a server fails, all computers connected with the server are affected.

MAN (Metropolitan-Area Networks)

MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. This types of network covers an area of a city.
MAN is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. It is usually used to connect two or more LANs
in city or town.
Examples
The network connecting different branches of a company in same city.
The networks connecting different campuses of a college in a city.
Cable TV network in a City.
Advantages of MAN
MAN covers a larger area than LAN.
It provides higher data speed than LAN.
Disadvantages of MAN
 It is more expensive than LAN.

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 It is difficult to maintain as compared to LAN.

PAN
PAN stands for Personal Area Network. It is a network that connects personal devices using
wired and wireless technology. The devices are typically located within range of about 30 feet.
The devices may include portable computer smart-phones digital cameras portable digital media
player and printers etc. PAN enables devices to communicate and share data. For example, a
PAM can be used to sync data from a handled devices to a desktop computer, move data
wirelessly to a printer, or transmit data form a smartphone to a wireless headset. Wireless Pan are
more common than wired PANs and use Bluetooth or Wi-Fi technology to connect devices.
Difference between LAN and WAN
The difference between LAN and WAN is as follows:
No LAN WAN
1 LAN is used to connect computers at one WAN is used to connect computers
place. anywhere in the world.
2 LAN cover limited area. WAN can cover more distance.
3 Data transfer speed is very fast in LAN Data transfer speed is slow in WAN i.e.
i.e. from 10to 1000 Mbps. from 56 kbps to 50Mbps.
4 LAN is usually connected through wires. WAN is expensive.
5 The connection in using wires. WAN is usually connected through
telephone lines.
6 The connection in a WAN is permanent The connection in WAN is not
wires. permanent.
7 LAN is used for sharing files and WAN is used to share only data and
hardware like printers modem etc. information like Email and file transfer
8 LAN has less possibility of data WAN has higher possibility of data
transmission error. transmission error.
In LAN problems normally occur due to In WAN, problem normally occurs due to
9 cable disturbance by the end user. communication problems in medium like
telephone lines etc.

Network Architectures
Network architecture is the design of computers and other devices in a network and how they
communicate. The two most common network architectures are client-server and peer-to-peer
(P2P).
Peer-to-Peer Network
Peer-to-Peer is a simple and inexpensive network. It normally connects less than ten computers.
Each computer in this network can share hardware data or information of any computer in the
network. Each computer stores files on its own storage devices.
The network operating system and application software installed on all computers. Any
computer in the network can use the resources of any other computer in the network. Peer-to-
Peer networks are suitable for small businesses and home uses. Windows provides peer-to-peer
network utility.
Advantages
Some important advantages of peer- to peer network are as follows:
 It is easy to setup.

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 It is easy to maintain.
 It does not require expensive server computer.
 It is suitable form small office of ten or less computers.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of peer-to-peer network are as follows:
 Heavy use can slow down the networks speed.
 It also provides less security of data because files are stored at different
locations in the network.
Client-Server Network
Client-server is a network in which one or more computers work as server and other computers
work as clients. The sever computer provides services for the clients. Server is also called host
computer. It controls access to the hardware and software on the network and provides
centralized storage area for programs data and information.
Client computers request resources form the server. Server computer is more powerful than
client computer and contains more memory.
Some severs are known as dedicated servers. A dedicated server is used to perform a specific
task. For example, file server is used to store and manage files. Print server is used to manage
printers and print jobs. Network server is used to manage network traffic.
Advantages
Some important advantages of client-server network are as follows:
 It reduces the volume of data traffic on the network.
 It also provides faster responses to the clients.
 It can use less powerful computer as clients because most of the processing is
done by the server computer.

Disadvantages
© It is expensive model because server computers are costly.
© The operations stop all over the network when server goes down.

Network Topologies
A network can be configured or arranged in different ways. The physical layout or arrangement
of connected devices in a network is called topology. It is the shape of a network. Different
network topologies are as follows:
Δ Bus Topology Δ Ring Topology
Δ Tree topology Δ Mesh Topology

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Δ Star Topology
Bus Topology
Bus topology is the simplest topology and supports a small number of computers. In
but topology, all computers or network nodes are connected to common communication medium.
This medium is often a central wire known as bus. The terminators are used at the end of bus to
absorb signals
Working of Bus Topology
The sending computer sends the data and destination address through the bus. The data and
address move from one computer to the other in the network. Each computer checks the address.
If it matches with the address of a computer, the computer keeps the data. Otherwise the data
moves to the next computer.
Advantages
It is simple and easy to use.
It requires small length of cable to connect computers.
It is less expensive.
It is easy to extend a bus. It allows more computers to join the network.
If one node fails it does not affect the rest of the network.
Disadvantages
It is difficult to troubleshoot.
It only supports small number of computers.
If numbers of computer increases the of the network slow.
Star Topology
All computers in star topology are connected with the central device called hub. Star
topology is mostly used in client-server networks.
Working of Star Network
The sending computer sends the data to the hub. The hub sends data to the receiving computer.
Each computer in star network communicates with a central hub.
Advantages
o It is easy to maintain and modify the network.
o Adding or removing computer can be done without disturbing the network.
o Finding the faults becomes very simple.
o Single computer failure does not bring down the whole network.
o It is more flexible among the remaining topology.
Disadvantages

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Δ The entire network breaks down if the central hub fails.

Δ It requires a large length of cable to connect computers.
Δ It is more expensive.
The Best LAN Topology
Star topology is the best LAN topology. Scalability and reliability of star topology make it the
best topology than others. It is easy to remove or add a device in this topology. It is easier to
troubleshoot than other topologies.
Ring Topology
In this topology each computer is connected to the next computer with the last one
connected to the first. Thus a ring of computers is formed.
Working of Ring Network
Every computer is connected to the next computer in a ring. Each computer receives the message
from the previous computer and transmits it to the next computer. The message flows in one
direction. The message is passed around the ring until it reaches the correct destination computer.
Advantages
© It is less expensive than star topology.
© Every computer has equal access to the network.
Disadvantages
 The failure of one computer in the ring can affect the whole network.
 It is difficult to troubleshoot.
 Adding or removing computers affects the whole network.
Tree Topology
A tree topology combines the characteristics of bus and star topologies. It consists of
different group of computers attached in star topology. The groups are than connected to a bus
backbone cable. Tree topology is used for the expansion of an existing network.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 It provides point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 It is supported by several hardware and software vendors.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Mesh Topology
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In a mesh topology every device in the network is physically connected to every other device in
the network. A message can be sent on different possible paths form source to destination. Mesh
topology provides improved performance and reliability. Mesh network are not used much in
local area networks. It is mostly used in wide area networks.
Advantages
Ω The use of dedicated link guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load. It
eliminates the traffic problem.
Ω It one link becomes unusable, it does not harm the entire system.
Ω It is easy to troubleshoot.
Disadvantages
Ω A full mesh network can be very expensive.
Ω It is difficult to install and reconfigure.
Dialup Modem
Modem is a communication device that sends and receives data from one computer to another on
the internet through telephone lines. The sending and receiving computers both must have dialup
modems.
Computer stores information in the form of digital signals. However, the information
transmitted over the telephone lines is in the form of analog signals. The dialup modem receives
data from computer in digital form and converts it into analog form .This process is called
modulation. It sends analog signals to other computer using telephone lines. The dialup modem
on receiving computer receives data in analog form. It converts the analog data back into digital
form. This process is called demodulation.
Digital Modem
Digital modem is also called broadband modem. Different types of digital modems. Are as
follows:
1. ISDN Modem 2. DSL Modem 3. Cable Modem
Wireless Modem
Wireless modem transmits the data signals through the air instead of cable. It is also known as
radio-frequency modem. It is designed to work with cellular technology and wireless local area
networks. Most handheld computers, smart phones and other mobile devices use the wireless
modem to connect to the Internet wirelessly. It can also be used with notebook and desktop
computer.

Network Interface Card

Network card is a communication device used to connect a computer to a network. It is also
called network interface card (NIC). It a circuit installed on the motherboard. Nowadays, most
computers on the network must have a network card.
There are different network cards available. A network card for desktop computer is an adapter
card. It has a port to connect the cable. A network card for mobile computer is in the form of
USB adapter, Express Card module etc.

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A wireless network card is used to transmit data wirelessly. It usually has an antenna that can be
positioned properly form the best signals. An amplifier can be used for increasing the signal
strength. Some network cards support wired as well as wireless networks.
Wireless Access Point
A wireless access point is a communication device that allows the computer and other devices to
transfer data wirelessly among themselves or to a wired network. It acts as central transmitter
and receiver of wireless radio signals. It has antennas to provide better signals.
The wireless access points support Wi-Fi and are most commonly used to support public Internet
hotspots at airports, hotels or coffee shops etc. They are also used in business network where
larger buildings and spaces need wireless coverage.
Hub
A hub also called concentrator or multistation access unit (MAU). It provides a central
point for cables in a network. Hubs also transmit and have multiple ports to which devices are
connected.
Hub connects the computers to a network. It broadcasts all messages to every computer on the
network but only the intended recipient computer takes the message. The computers that are not
the recipients of the message ignore the message. A hug can handle only one-way information
traffic at a time.
Types of Hub:
1. Active Hub
2. Passive Hub
Switch
Network switch is more intelligent device than hub. The switch improves the efficiency of the
data transfer in the network. It receives a message from any device connected to the network and
then transmits the message only to that device for which the message was meant. It can also
handle multiple communications channels at the same time.
Routers
A router is a communication device connects multiple networks using similar or different
protocols. It manages the best route between any two communication networks Routers are used
when several networks are connected together. A router can be used on a network of any size. It
can connect networks of different countries. They transfer data in less time. The router is an
intelligent device. It uses algorithms to find out the best path transfer data to a network.
Gateway
Gateway is a device connects two or more networks with different types of protocols. It is an
intelligent device. It can convert data according ot the protocol. A gateway can be used to
connect a personal computer network to mainframe computer network.
Bridge
A network bridge can be used in computer networks to interconnect two LANs and to separate
network segments. A segment is a section of a network.
When a bridge receives a signal, it determines the segment where the signal should be sent. It
reads the addresses of sending and receiving computers. The bridge does not pass the signal to
the other segment it sending and receiving computers are both in the same segment. It reduces
network traffic and increases network performance.
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Repeaters, Range Extenders, and Antennas

Repeater is a network device that amplifies signals along a network. It can be sued where the
signals are required beyond the maximum distance that can be covered by the network medium.
Repeaters are available for both wired and wireless networks. The repeaters for a wireless
network are often called range extenders. Range extenders usually connect wirelessly to the
network and repeat the signals to extend the coverage of that network.
Some Wireless Distribution System (WDS) Wireless access points can be used as range
extenders by extending the network coverage from one access point to another.
An antenna can also be used to increase the range of a Wi-Fi network. Antennas are available in
different formats and are classified as directional antennas or omnidirectional antennas. The
directional antennas concentrate the signal in a particular direction whereas omnidirectional
antennas are equally effective in all directions the strength of an antenna is measured in decibels
(dB)
Communications Channel
The path through which data is transmitted from one place to another is called communications
channel. It is also known as communication media or transmission media.
The amount of data that can be transferred through a communication medium in a unit of time is
called bandwidth. The bandwidth of digital signal is measured in bits per second or bytes per
second. The bandwidth of analog signals is measured in cycles/Seconds or Hertz. There are
different types of transmission media.
Physical Transmission Media
In bounded media, communication derives are directly connected with each
other by using some physical media like wires. Some examples of bounded media are wire pair,
coaxial cable and fiber optics.
Twisted Pair
Twisted pair is the most commonly used physical transmission medium. It is used
in local area network to connect computers and other devices.
Twisted pair consists of a pair of copper wires. The pair of wires is covered by a plastic
insulation and it is twisted together. Twisting of wires protects them from interference by
external electromagnetic waves.
Types of Twisted Pair Cable
Two types of twisted pair are as follows:
1. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Shielded Twisted Pair contains a layer of foil shielding. The shielding
reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI). EMI originates from devices such as motors, power
lines and some lighting devices such as fluorescent lights. STP is expensive than UTP.
2. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair does not contain a layer of foil shielding.
The most common twisted-pair standards used form computer networking are
category 6 (CAT6), category provides the transmission of data rates up to
1000Mbps for a maximum length of 100 meters. CAT6a is an improved version
of CAT6. It will support 100GB Ethernet
Characteristics of Twisted Pair
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Different characteristics of twisted pair are as follows:

It is an inexpensive transmission medium.
It is easy to install.
It can transfer data to a short distance.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of copper wire covered by an insulating material. The insulated
copper wire is covered by copper mesh. The mesh protects the data signals from interference by
external electromagnetic waves Coaxial cables are used by the cables TV network and telephone
companies.
Characteristics of Coaxial Cable
Different characteristics of coaxial cable are as follows;
It is more expensive transmission medium than twisted pair.
It provides higher data transfer rate than twisted pair cable.
It can be installed very easily.
Fiber Optics
Fiber Optics cable consists of thin strands of glass or plastic called core. The strands are
thin like human hair. The core is the center of the fiber optic cable that uses light to transmit data
each strand is surrounded by a layer of glass inside the fiber optic cable called cladding. The
cladding is further protected by a plastic coating called jacket. Most telephone companies, ISPs
cable TV operators are using fiber optics I their networks.
Advantages of Fiber Optics
Fiber optic networks work at a very high speed.
The information carrying capacity of fiber optics is very high.
Fiber optic is lighter and smaller in size.
It is more secure and reliable form of data transmission.
It is not affected by electromagnetic waves.
Disadvantages of Fiber Optics
It is difficult to install.
It is expensive.

Wireless Transmission Media

In unbounded media communication devices communicate with each other through air or space
using broadcast radio signals, microwave signals and infrared signals. Unbounded media are used
where it is impossible to install cables. Data can be transferred all over the world. Some examples of
unbounded media for communication are as follows:

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Microwave System
Microwave is radio waves that are used to provide high-speed transmission. Both
voice and data can be transmitted through microwave. Data is transmitted through the air from one
microwave station to another similar to radio signals.
Microwave uses line-of- sight transmission. It means that signals travel in straight path and cannot
bend. The microwave stations or antennas are usually installed on high towers or buildings. The
stations are placed within 20 to 30 miles to each other. Each station receives signal from previous
station and transfer to the next station. In this way data transferred from one place to another. There
should be no buildings or mountains between these stations.

Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is a space station that receives microwave signals from earth-
based station. It amplifies the signals and retransmits them back to different earth-based stations. The
satellite communication is placed about 22,300 miles above the earth. The transmission from earth-
based station to satellite is called uplink. The transmission from satellite to earth-based station is
called downlink
The data transmission of satellite communication is very high. However, bad weather can affect the
quality of satellite transmission. Satellite communication is used in different applications such as
television and radio broadcasts weather forecasting global positioning system and internet
connections etc.

Broadcast Radio
Broadcast radio is a wireless transmission medium. It distributes radio signals
through the air over long and short distances. Radio transmission requires a transmitter to send
broadcast radio signals and a receiver to receive. The receiver used and antenna to receive the
signals. Some networks use transceiver that can both send and receive signals.
An example of short-range broadcast radio communications is BluethoothTM . It uses short-range
radio waves to transmit data at a rate of 1 Mbps among Bluetooth- enabled devices. BluethoothTM is
used in personal computers, Internet appliances, cellular phones, fax machines and printers.

Cellular Communication
Cellular communication is a wireless communication system. It is widely used all
over the world for mobile communication. A cellular communication system is used to transmit text,
images, voice and video.
Cellular communication divides physical region into different sections known as cells. For example,
a city can be divided into small cells. Each cell has a low-powered radio transmitter/receiver. The
cells are close enough to one another so that the signal strength is maintained throughout the area.
These cells are linked together to enable a large number of cellular phones to communication with
one another.

Different generations of cellular transmission are as follows:

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Technology Year Features

1G 1981 Make calls without operator assistance.
Decreased interference in digital signal.
2G 1991 Improved reception.
Improved security against cell phone fraud.
Faster data transmission.
3G 2001 Better network capacity.
Advanced network services.
Transmission of voice text images and video.
4G 2010-15 High data rates.
Real-time formatting of voice, data, multimedia.

Components of Cellular Communication System

Different components of cellular communication system are as follows:
1. MU MU stands for Mobile Unit. The mobile used consists of a control unit and
a transceiver. The transceiver transmits and receives radio transmissions to
and from a cell site.
2. RBS RBS stands for Radio Base Station. Radio base station is the physical location
that provides coverage within a cell.
3. PSTN PSTN stands for Public switched Telephone Network. It is the worldwide
telephone network used for data and voice communication. It interconnects
telephones and other communication devices on a worldwide basis.
4. MTSO MTSO stands for Mobile Telephone Switching Office. It controls the entire
operation of a cellular system. It monitors the relative signal strength of
cellular phone as reported by each of the cell tower. It switches the
conversation to the cell tower that will give the best possible reception. It also
has the mobile switching center that controls calls provides billing information
and locates cellular subscribers etc.
Infrared
Infrared (IR) is a wireless transmission medium. It sends signals using infrared light waves. It
requires a line-of- sight transmission. Mouse, printer and digital camera have and IrDA port that
enables the transfer of data from one device to another using infrared light waves. It is an alternative
to short-range radio communications like BluethoothTM.
Data Communication
Data communication is a process of transferring data electronically from one place to another. Data
can be transferred by using different media. Data is collection of raw facts and figures. It may
consist of text graphics and sound etc. An electromagnetic or light wave used to transmit data form
one place to another is called a signal. Propagation of signals across a communication medium is
called signaling. Communication of data from one place to another place in the form of signals is
called transmission.
Basic Elements of Data Communication
The following components are required for successful communication to take place:
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1. Sending Device
A device that sends the message is called sending device. It is also called source or transmitter. The
sending device can be a computer, fax machine or mobile phone etc. Computer is usually used as
sending device in communication system.
2. Receiving Device
A device that receives the message is called receiving device. It is also called sink. The receiving
device can be a computer, printer, fax machine or mobile phone etc. A computer is usually used as
receiving device in communication system.
3. Communication Devices
Communication devices are used to transmit messages between sending and receiving device
through communication medium. The sending and receiving devices must contain communication
devices for communication. Two most commonly used communication devices are modem and
network card.
4. Transmission Medium
Transmission medium is used to carry messages from one place to another. It is also called
communication channel. The transmission medium can be a physical cable or wireless
connection.
Data Transmission Modes
The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data transmission modes.
There are three types of data transmission modes known as simple mode, half duplex mode and full
duplex modes.
1. Simplex Mode
In simplex mode data can flow only in one direction. It cannot be moved in both
directions. It operates in a manner similar to a one-way street; the direction of flow never changes. A
device with simplex mode can either send or receive data. It cannot perform both actions.

Example
A B
An example is a traditional television broadcast. The signal is sent form the transmitter to TV
antenna. There is no return signal.
2. Half-Duplex Traffic
In half- duplex mode, data can flow in both directions but not at the same time. It is
transmitted one-way at one time. A device with half-duplex mode can send or receive data but not at
the same time. That is why the speed of half-duplex mode is slow.

A B
Example

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Internet surfing is an example of half-duplex communication. The user issues a request for a
webpage. The webpage is downloaded and displayed before issuing another request.
3. Full –Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode data can travel in both of data transmission as compared to half
duplex. Time is not wasted in changing the direction of data flow.

A B
Example
A telephone is a full-duplex device. Both persons can talk at the same time. Another example of full-
duplex communication is automobile traffic on a two-lane road. The traffic can move in both directions at the
same time.

FAT
FAT stands for File Allocation Table (FAT). The file table is used by the operating system to locate file on a
disk. A file may be divided into many sections and scattered around the disk due to fragmentation. FAT keeps
track of all pieces of a file. In DOS systems, FAT is stored after boot sector. The file system has been used
since the advent of PC.

Features of FAT
Some important features of FAT are as follows:

1. Naming Conventions
 FAT file system used by MS-DOS provides file name of only 8 characters long.

 FAT file system used by Windows 2000 supports long file name. The full path of file
including filename can be up to 255 characters long.

 File name can contain any character except “/ \ {} = , = ^ “ ”

 File names should begin with alphanumeric characters.

 File names can contain spaces and multiple periods. The characters after the last period are
treated as file extension.

2. Security
FAT does not support local and folder security. A user logged on a computer locally has full access to the
files and folders in FAT partition(s) of the computer.

3. Quick Access to Files

FAT provides quick access to files. The speed of file access depends on files type, file size, partition size,
fragmentation and number of files in a folder.

Ω File Type The text files takes less accessed time compared to graphics file.

Ω File Size The access speed is better if the file is of smaller size.

Ω Partition Size The smaller partition size gives greater access speed. The size smaller

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than 500MB have better file access in FAT. NTFS is required for bigger
partition sizes

Ω Fragmentation The small portions of free spaces on a disk are called fragments. The access

time is better if there is less fragmentation.

Ω Number of files in a folder Access speed increases if there is less number of files in the folder.

FAT32
FAT32 is the newer version of FAT. It allows a maximum partition size of 32GB and a maximum file size of
4 GB. FAT32 was used in some earlier versions of Windows. It does not provide the security-related features
as NTFS. FAT32 also has size limitations and does not allow to creating a partition greater than 32 GB. The
maximum file size that can be stored on FAT32 file system is 4 GB

NTFS
NTFS stands for New Technology File System. It is the primary file system used in Windows 7, Windows
Vista, Windows 2000 and Windows NT. It supports much larger hard drives and file than FAT or FAT32. It
also offers better security and error-recovery capabilities.

Features of NTFS
Some important features of NTFS are as follows:

1. Naming Conventions

The naming conventions followed by NTFS are as follows:

Ω File names can be up to 255 characters.

Ω File names can contain most characters except “ / \ <> * | :

Ω File name are not case sensitive.

Security
NTFS provides file and folder security. File and folders are safer than FAT. Security is maintained by
assigning NTFS permission to files and folders. Security is maintained at the local level and the network
level. The permissions can be assigned to individual file and folders. Each file or folder in an NTFS partition
has an Access Control List. It contains the users and group security identifier (SID) and the privileges
granted to them.

2. Partition Size

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The NTFS partition and file sizes are much bigger than FAT partitions and file. The maximum size of an
NTFS partition or file can be 16 Exabyte’s. However, the practical limitation is two terabytes. The file size
can be in the range of 4GB to 64GB

3. File Compression

NTFS provides file compression of as much as 50%.

4. High Reliability

NTFS is highly reliable. It is a recoverable file system. It uses transaction logs to update the file and folders
logs automatically. The system also the system also has a great amount of fault tolerance. It means that if a
transaction fails due to power or system failure the logged transactions are used to recover the data.

5. Bad Cluster Mapping

NTFS supports bad-cluster mapping. It means that file system detects bad clusters or areas of disk with errors.
If there is any data in those clusters, it is retrieved and stored on another area. The bad clusters are marked to
prevent data storage in those areas in future.

CDFS

CDFS is the system for compact disk storage media. Windows 2000 also supports it. It is a 32-bit program
helping in interpreting data.

Difference between FAT and NTFS

The difference between and FAT and NTFS is as follows:

FAT NTFS
1. It provides no security if the user logs in It provides security for both local and remote
locally. The file and folder level security users. The security is provided to level of files
permission does not exist. and folders.
2. It supports only 8 characters long It supports 255 characters long file name.
filename.

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3. It is suitable for a partition of that is less It is suitable for partition that is greater than
than 500MB. 500MB.
4. Partitions and file size can be up to 4 Partitions size can be up to 16 Exabyte’s.
GB.
5. It supports no file compression. It supports file compression.

6. Disk can get fragmented thus slowing It provides lesser possibility or fragmentation.
down the access.
7. It is not very reliable since it does not It is highly reliable since it supports bad cluster
support bad cluster mapping mapping and transaction logging.

OSI Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. An open system is a set of protocols that allows any
two systems to communicate even if their architectures are different. It covers all aspects of network
communications. It was developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1983
Advantages of OSI Model
Some advantages of OSI model are as follows:
It divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components.
It allows multiple-vendor development via standardizations of network components.
It encourages industry standardization to define what functions occurs at each layer.
It allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.
It prevents changes in one layer from affecting the other layers.
Layers of OSI Model
The function of each layer (from bottom to top) is as follows:
1 Physical layer
Physical layer is the bottom layer of OSI model. It transmits steam of bits and defines how the data
is transmitted over the network and what control signals are used. Its main function is to control how
a steam of bits is sent and received over the physical medium. The common protocols used at this
level are IEEE 802, Ieee802.2, and FDDI.
Physical layer must decide the following:
Characteristics of Media The physical layer defines the characteristics and type of
transmission medium.
Representation of Bits The bits are encoded into electrical signals for
transmission. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.

Data Rate Physical layer defines the attachment of communication

devices with medium.
Synchronization The clocks of sender and receiver are also synchronized.

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Line Configuration The physical layer defines the attachment of communication

devices with medium.
Transmission Mode The physical layer defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.
2 Data Link Layer
The Data link Layer is responsible for the reliability of the physical link established at layer 1.
Data link layer must decide the following:
Framing The data link layer divides the stream of bits into manageable data
units called frames.
Flow Control If the rate of sending data is more than the rate of receiving data, data
link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent this situation.
Error Control The data link layer detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames. It
also prevents the duplication of frames.

Access Control If two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
determines which device has control over the link at a given time.
Data Link Layer Is Divided In Two Sub-Layers:
LLC
LLC stands for Logical Link Control. It is the upper sub-layer. It ensures reliability
or physical connection. The standard protocol IEEE 802.2 is the most commonly used
standard. Point-to-Protocol (PPP) is an important standard at this OSI level. It is used
to communicate across point-to-point links. It is an important protocol for wide area
networking.

MAC
MAC stands for Media Access Control. It specifies how workstations cooperatively
share the transmission medium. The IEEE 802.3 Standard specifies a medium-access
method known as “carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD).”

3 Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for establishing maintaining and terminating
network connections. It manages the delivery of data from source to destination.
Network layer determines logical path between the sender and the receiver. There
may be many networks between two computers. This layer manages to send data
from the source computer to the destination computer. The common protocols that
operate at this level are IP, IPX, and X.25.
Some responsibilities of network layer are as follows:
Logical Addressing
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The logical addressing implemented by data link layer handles the addressing problems locally. If a
packet passes the network boundary another addressing system is required to distinguish the source
and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet that comes from the upper
layer. The header includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
Routing Routing or gateways are used to route packets to their final destination
when independent networks are connected gateways to form an inter-network. This
mechanism is provided by the network layer.
4 Transport Layer
The transport layer controls the flow of data. It ensures that messages are delivered
error free. It divides large messages into small packets for efficient transmission.
These packets are reassembled, checked for errors and acknowledged at receiving
side. Data is retransmitted if there are errors in transmission. The common protocols
that operate at transport layer are TCP, UDP, SPX and NetBEUI.
Some responsibilities of transport layer are:
Service-Point Addressing
Computer can run multiple processes at the same time. The source-to-
destination delivery means the delivery from one computer to another
computer. Transport layer header includes service-point address or
port address. The network layer gets each packet to correct computer.
Transport layer gets entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
Segmentation & Reassembly A message is divided into segments. Each segment has a sequence
number. Transport layer uses these numbers to reassemble the
message correctly on destination computer.
Connection Control Transport layer can be connection-oriented or connectionless. A
connection-oriented transport layer establishes connection with
transport layer of destination computer before delivering packets. The
connection is terminated after delivering all data. A connectionless
transport layer of destination computer as independent packet.
Flow Control Transport layer performs flow control end to end rather than across a
single link.
Error Control Transport layer performs error control end to end rather than across a
single link. The sending transport layer ensures that the message is
delivered to the receiving transport layer. Error correction is normally
performed via retransmission.
5 Session Layer
The session layer establishes, manages and terminates user connections. A session is an exchange of
messages between computers. It synchronizes user tasks. Synchronization involves the use of
checkpoints in the data stream. If a failure occurs only the data from the last checkpoint is
retransmitted.
Suppose we want to send 1000 pages of data. Checkpoint can be used after each 100 pages. If there
is an error at page 320, the pages from 301 will be retransmitted. Page from 1 to 300 will not be
retransmitted. Winsock and NetBIOS are usually shown as functioning at the session layer.
6 Presentation Layer
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The presentation layer performs data reformatting, layer include SMB,

NCP & NFS.
Data Reformatting When two computers exchange data, the data is changed to bit streams
before it is transmitted. Two computers may use different encoding
techniques. The presentation layer at sending computer changes data
according to the sender’s format. The presentation layer at receiving
computer changes the data according to the receiver’s format.
Encryption The presentation layer encrypts data before transmission. It means that
the sender transforms original information to another form and sends
the resulting message over the network. The receiver again transforms
the message back to its original form. It is called decryption.
Compression Data compression reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. The
presentation layer compresses a large amount of data into small size.
7 Application Layer
The application layer is the top most layer of OSI model. It provides services directly to user
applications. It enables the user to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support
for services such as email, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and
other types of distributed information services
File Transfer It allows user to access retrieve and manage files in remote computer.
Mail Services It provides the basis for email forwarding and storage facilities.
Directory Services It provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about to various objects and services.
TCP / IP Protocol Suite
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the protocol suite used for
communication between hosts in most local networks and on the Internet. It can be used to enable
network communication in local area networks and wide area networks as long as the hosts support
the protocol. TCP/IP is widely supported and is included in operating systems such as Windows 7,
XP, Vista, Mac OS, Linux, and UNIX.
The TCP/IP protocol was developed before the OSI model. Its layers are not same as OSI model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined with four layers known as host-to-network, internet,
transport and application. The host-to-network layer is equivalent to the combination of physical and
data link layers of OSI model. The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer. The application
layer performs the tasks similar to the tasks of session, presentation and application layer of OSI
model. The transport layer in TCP/IP takes care of part of the duties of the session layer. So it is
assumed that TCP/IP protocol suite consists of five layers called physical, data link, network
transport and application. The first four layers provide the physical standards, network interfaces,
internetworking and transport functions which are equivalent to the first four layers of OSI model.
However, the other three layers of OSI model are represented in TCP/IP by only the application
layer.
TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol. It consists of interactive modules each module provides a specific
functionality but are not necessarily interdependent. OSI model specifies which functions belong to
each layer. The layers of TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols. The
protocols can be mixed and matched according to system needs.
TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol at the physical and data link layers. It supports all the
standard and proprietary protocols. A network in TCP/IP internetwork can be a local area network or
wide area network.
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1. Network Layer
TCP/IP network layer defines the protocols used for addressing and routing the data packets. The
protocols that are part of TCP/IP network layer are IP, ARP, ICMP and IGMP.
2. Transport Layer
The transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols called TCP and UDP. IP is a host-
to-host protocol and can deliver a packet from one physical device to another. UDP and TCP are
transport level protocols and are responsible for delivery of a message form one process to another
process. A new transport layer protocol SCTP has been devised to meet the needs of some newer
applications.

3. Application Layer
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation and application
layers of OSI model. Many protocols are defined at this layer.
Protocol
A standard used by networks for communication between different devices connected to a network is
called protocol. It represents an agreement between the communication devices. A protocol defines
what communication is, how it is communicated and when it is communicated. The device cannot
communicate without a protocol.
Functions of Protocols
The main functions of protocols are as follows:
1. Data Sequencing A process of breaking a long message into smaller blocks is called
data sequencing. A long message is divided into smaller packets of
same size. This technique reduces the amount of data that is
retransmitted if an error is detected.
2. Data Routing Data routing is the process of finding the most efficient part
between source and destination before sending data. This technique
increases the efficiency of data communication.
3. Data Flow All computers are not equally efficient in speed. Data flow is a process
that controls data transmission properly if the sender computer is faster
than the receiver computer.

4. Error control Error detecting and recovering is an important function of

Communication protocol. It ensures that data is transmitted without
error. It also solves problem if an error is detected.
Token Ring
Token ring is a network standard that is typically used in LAN. It allows network devices to access
the network by passing a special signal called token. Token is like a ticket. A device can transmit
data over the network only if it has a token. Only one token is available in one network. That is why
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no collision can occur. But the data transmission rate is slow. When computer wants to send a
message it:
1. Gets the token.
2. Puts the data in the token.
3. Adds the address of receiving computer.
Token ring is based on ring topology but can also be used in star topology. The token passes from
computer to computer. The computer whose address matches with the address stored in the token
gets the data. It then returns the message to the sending computer to indicate that the data has been
received. Token ring network have data transfer rate from 4 Mbps to 1Gbps.
TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for transmission control protocol/Internet protocol. It is the most widely used
communications protocol today. It is used to transfer data over the Internet and consists of two
protocols. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is responsible for the delivery of data and
Internet Protocol (IP) provides addresses and routing information.
TCP/IP uses packet switching to transmit data over the Internet. In this process, data is divided into
small pieces called packets to be transferred over the Internet. The packets are reassembled in the
proper order when they reach the destination. These packets travel via devices called routers.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a network protocol that defines the method for transmission of data between two
bluetooth devices using short-range radio waves. The devices can transfer data at a rate of up to 3
Mbps using Bluetooth. The devices must be within a distance of 33 feet. However, the distance can
be extended using additional equipment.
A Bluetooth device uses a mall chip to communicate with other Bluetooth.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is developed by IEEE and specifies how two wireless devise communicate over the air with
each other. It is a family of wireless networking standards that uses IEEE 802.11 standard. There are
various versions of the standard that support different speeds and distances. The common standards
include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, and 802.11ad. It provides a data transfer
rates form 11 Mbps to 7Gbps. Most mobiles, computers and smart phones are Wi-Fi-enabled.
An example of Wi-Fi network is the hot spot. A hotspot can be used by a mobile user to connect to
the Internet using Wi-Fi enabled computers and devices. Wi-Fi can also be used to connect
computers wirelessly at home and small business. The distance between different computers or
devices can be up to 300 feet in open areas and about 100 feet in closed areas.
802.11 standard Maximum speed
802.11b 11 Mbps
802.11g 54 Mbps
802.11n 300-600 Mbps
802.11ac 1.8-3.6Gbps
802.11ad 6.7Gbps

IP Addressing
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The MAC address provides the physical address for the network interface card. However, it does not
provide any information about the location of its network. Internet Protocol (IP) addressing provides
a solution to worldwide addressing by using a unique address that identifies the computer’s local
network. IP network numbers are assigned by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
This agency assigns IP addresses to computer networks. It ensures that no two different networks are
assigned the same IP network address.
IP addressing are classified as IPv4 or IPv6 version 4 (IPv4) is the current TCP/IP addressing
technique being used on the Internet. The address space for IPv4 is quickly running out due to the
rapid growth of the internet and the development of new Internet-compatible technologies. However,
both IPv4 and IPv6 are supported by manufacturers of networking equipment and the latest
computer operating systems.
IP version 4 (IPv4) is the current TCP/IP addressing technique being used on the Internet. It is also
the preferred technique for providing addresses in the LAN. A typical IP address is written as
216.27.61.137. The IP address is written in decimal format. But IP address in computer is written in
binary form as follows:
11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001
The four numbers in an IP address are called octets because each part contains eight positions in
binary form. If all positions are added together, it gives 32. That is why IP addresses are considered
32-bit numbers.
Each position in an octect can have two different states (1 or 0). It means that the total possible
combinations per octet is 28 or 256. Each can contain any value between 0 and 255. A combination
of four octets gives 232 or a possible 4,294,967,296, unique values.
Some certain values are restricted form use as typical IP addresses. For example the IP address
0.0.0.0 is reserved for the default network and the address 255.255.255.255 is used for broadcasts.
The octets are used to create classes of IP address that can be assigned to particular business,
government or other entity based on size and need. The octets are divided into two sections of Net
and Host the Net section always contains the first octet. It is used to identify the network in which a
computer exists. Host (or Node) identifies the actual computer on the network. The Host section
always contains the last octet.

Class A 1------ 126

Class B 128----191
Class C 192----223
0.0.0.0 Default Network
127 Loop Back

There are five IP classes and certain special addresses:

Class 1st Octet 2nd Octet 3rd Octet 4th Octet
A 0 Net ID Host ID
B 10 Net ID Host ID
C 110 Net ID Host ID
D 1110 Multicast address
E 1111 Reserved for future use

Class A
The class A is used for very large networks such as an international organization. The IP
addresses of this class are from 1 to 126. The other three octets are used to identify each host. It
means that there are 126 networks in Class A.
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Each network has 16,777,214 (224 - 2) possible hosts for a total of 2,147,483,648 (231) unique IP
addresses. In Class A network, the value of high order bit in the fires octet is always 0.

Net Host or Node

115. 24.53.107

Loopback Address: The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as loopback address. It means that it is
used by the host computer to send a message back to itself. It is commonly used for troubleshooting
and network testing.
Example
0nnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
The first bit is 0.
The next 7 bits represent the network.
The next24 bits represent the host.
The initial byte can be from 0 -127.
Total address in Class A are 126 (0 and 127 are reserved).
16,777,214 hosts on each Class A.

Class B
The class B is used for medium-sized networks. The IP addresses of this class are from 128
to 191. Class B addresses also include the second octet as part of net identifier. The other two octets
are used to identify each host. It means the there are 16,384 (214) networks in Class B. Each network
has 65,534 (216 – 2) possible hosts for a total of 1,073,741,824 (230) unique IP addresses. Class B
networks have a fires bit value of 1 and a second bit value of 0 in the first.
Net Host or Node
145.24 53.107

Example
10nnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
The first two bits are 10.
The next 14 bits represent the network.
The next 16 bits represent the host.
The initial bytes can be from 128 – 191.
Total addresses in Class B are 16,384.
65,532 hosts are available on each Class B.

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Class C
The class C addresses are commonly used for small to medium-size organization. The first of
the IP addresses of this class is from 192 to 223. Class C addresses also include the second and their
octets as part of the net identifier. The last octet is used to identify each host. It means that there are
2,097,152 (221) network in class C. Each network has 254 (28 -2) possible hosts for total of
536,870,912 (299) unique IP addresses. Class C networks have a first bit value of 1, second bit value
of 1 and a third bit value of 0 in the first octet.
Example
110nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh
The first three bits are 110.
The next 21 bits represent the network.
The next 8 bits represent the host.
The initial bytes can be from 192 – 223.
Total addresses in Class C are 2,097,152.
254 hosts on each Class C.
Class D
The class D is used for multicasts. Multicasting is used to pass the copies of datagram to a
selected group of hosts instead of individual host. Class D is slightly different from the first three
classes. It has a fires bit value of 1, second bit value of 1, third bit value of 1 and fourth bit value of
0. The other 28 bits are used to identify the group of computers where the multicast message will be
passed.
Example
1110mmmm mmmmmmmm mmmmmmmm mmmmmmmm
The first four bits are 1110.
The next 28 bits are for multicast address.
The initial bytes can be from 224 – 247.
Class E
The class E is used for experimental purposes only. It is also different from fires three.
Classes. It has a first bit value of 1, second bit value of 1, third bit value of 1 and fourth bit value of
1. The other 28 bits are used to identify the group of computers where the multicast message will be
passed.

Net Host or Node

Broadcast:
240. 24.53.107

The messages that are intended for all computers on a network are sent as broadcasts. These
messages always use the IP address 255.255.255.255.
Example

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1111 rrrr rrrrrrrr rrrrrrrr rrrrrrrr

The first four bits are 1111.
The next 28 bits are reserved address.
The initial byte can be from 248 – 255.
It is reserved for experimental use.

IPv6 Addressing
IPv4 is the current TCP/IP addressing technique used on the Internet. The address space for
IPv4 is quickly running out due to the rapid growth of the Internet. IPv6 was introduced as a
solution for expanding the possible number of users on the Internet. It is also called Iping or the
next generation IP.
IPv6 uses 128-bit address technique as compared to IPv4’s 32-bit address structure. It
provides a large number of IP addresses (2128) IPv6 numbers are written in hexadecimal rather than
dotted decimal. An example of a 32-hexadecimal digit IPv6 address is as follows:
6789: ABCD: 1234: EF98: 7654: 321F: EDCB: AF21
The important changes from IPv4 to IPv6 are as follows:
Expanded Address Space The current internet addresses are 32 bits long. It limits the number of
unique addresses to approximately 4 billion. Some addresses are
reserved such as broadcast addresses and some addresses in a class
may not be used. IPv6 increases the size of address field to 128 bits. It
allows up to 3 x 1038 addresses.
Quality of Service (QOS) IPv6 will institute service categories to prioritize the flow of data to
accommodate time-sensitive transmissions such as audio and video.
The real-time transmissions will be provided with improved
performance. The priority designations include the classifications such
as follows:
Uncharacterized traffic.
Filler traffic such as net news.
Unattended data transfer such as e-mail.
Bulk transfer such as file transfers.
Interactive transfers.
Real time transfer.

IP Header Changes The format of IP header will change to provide larger address space and
quality of service. The header fields that are currently not used will be
dropped. The header extensions are allowed to provide variable-length
headers. The extension headers can provide functions such as security,
integrity, destination-specific information and routing control.
Security & Privacy change IPv6 will allow extensions to the header for secure transmissions.
The extensions will provide many authentication algorithms to
detect and eliminate security problems.

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Interoperability with IPv4 The new version will be backward compatible with the current
version. The implementation of IPv6 may be accomplished
incrementally to allow the nodes to be upgraded to the new
version.
Types of IPv6 addresses
Different types of IPv6 addresses are as follows:
Unicast The unicast IPv6 address is used to identify single network interface address. Data
packets are sent directly to the computer wit specified IPv6 address.
Multicast IPv6 addresses are defined for a group of networking devices. Data packets sent
to a multicast address are sent to the entire group of networking devices such as a
group of routers running the same routing protocol. Multicast addresses start with
the prefix FF00::/8. The next group of characters in the IPv6 multicast address are
called the scope. The scope bits are used to identify which ISP should carry the
data traffic.
Anycast The anycast IPv6 address is obtained from a list of addresses but is only delivered
to the nearest node.
Bursty Data
In telecommunication, a burst transmission or data burst is the broadcast of a relatively high-
bandwidth transmission over a short period. It can also occur in a computer network
where data transmission is interrupted at intervals.
Baud Rate
In telecommunication and electronics, baud is a common measure of symbol rate, one of the
components that determine the speed of communication over a data channel. It is the unit for
symbol rate or modulation rate in symbols per second or pulses per second.
Peak Data Rate
Peak data rate is the fastest data transfer rate for a device, typically available in short bursts
during transfer activity, and not sustainable for long periods of time.
Active Hubs
A central connecting device in a network that regenerates signals on the output side to keep the
signal strong and also called a "multiport repeater." Contrast with passive hub and
intelligent hub.

Passive Hub
A central connecting device in a network that joins wires from several stations in a star
configuration. It does not provide any processing or regeneration of signals. Contrast with
active hub and intelligent hub.
BNC Connector

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The BNC (Bayonet Neill–Councilman) connector is a miniature quick connect/disconnect radio

frequency connector used for coaxial cable. It features two bayonet lugs on the
female connector, mating is fully achieved with a quarter turn of the coupling nut.
Kevlar
Kevlar is a heat resistant and strong synthetic fiber.
DB Connectors
The D-subminiature or D-sub is a common type of electrical connector. They are named for their
characteristic D-shaped metal shield. When they were introduced, D-subs were among the
smallest connectors used on computer systems.
NTFS Compression
The NTFS file system used by Windows has a built-in compression feature known as NTFS
compression. With a few clicks, you can compress files, making them take up less space on your
hard drive. Using NTFS compression involves a trade-off between CPU time and disk activity.
Encryption
Encryption is the conversion of data into a form, called a cipher that cannot be understood by
unauthorized people.
Decryption
Decryption is the process of converting encrypted data back into its original form, so it can be
understood.

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Theory Server

Active Directory:
Active Directory is a centralized and standardized system that automates network management
of user data, security, and distributed resources, and enables interoperation with other directories.
Active Directory is designed especially for distributed networking environments.

Active Directory Domain Services:

Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is a server role in Active Directory that allows
admins to manage and store information about resources from a network, as well as application
data, in a distributed data.
Forest:
A collection of one or more Active Directory trees. A forest can consist of a single tree with a
single domain, or it can contain several trees, each with a hierarchy of parent and child domains
Main purpose is to provide a common Active Directory environment, in which all domains in all
trees can communicate and share information, while simultaneously allowing independent
operation and administration.
Domain:
The core structural unit of an Active Directory, contains OUs and represents administrative,
security, and policy boundaries small to medium companies usually have one domain, larger
companies may have several domains to separate geographical regions or administrative
responsibilities.
A tree is a grouping of domains that share a common naming structure can consist of a parent
domain and possibly one or more child domains. Child domains can also have child domains.
What is the purpose of Active Directory Domain Services?
A server running Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is called a domain controller. It
authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a windows domain type network
assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers and installing or updating software.
What is the function of the active directory?
Active Directory is a distributed directory service included with Microsoft Windows Server
operating systems. Active Directory enables centralized, secure management of an entire
network, which might span a building, a city, or multiple locations throughout the world.
What is an OU in Active Directory?
An organizational unit (OU) is a subdivision within an Active Directory into which you can
place users, groups, computers, and other organizational units. You can create organizational
units to mirror your organization's functional or business structure. Each domain can implement
its own organizational unit hierarchy.

Groups
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Groups are used to collect user accounts, computer accounts, and other groups into manageable
units. Working with groups instead of with individual users helps simplify network maintenance
and administration.
Groups Type
• Security Group
Use to assign or deny rights and permissions.
• Distributed Group
Distribution groups can be used only with email applications (such as Exchange Server) to send
email to collections of users. Distribution groups are not security enabled, which means that
they cannot be listed in discretionary access control lists (DACLs).
Users
Active Directory contains only objects. Users, groups, and computers, however, are often called
accounts instead of objects.
User Accounts
A user requires an Active Directory user account to log on to a computer or to a domain. The
account establishes an identity for the user; the operating system then uses this identity to
authenticate the user and to grant him or her authorization to access specific domain resources.
User accounts can also be used as service accounts for some applications.
Computer Accounts
Like user accounts, computer accounts provide a means for authenticating and auditing the
computer's access to the network and its access to domain resources
We have to join a computer to our domain so the user can login with their AD account.
When a computer joined AD domain its account been created in Domain for authentication.

Domain Name System

DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS is how domain names are translated into IP
addresses, and DNS also controls email delivery. DNS is what allows you to use your web
browser to find web sites as well as send and receive email.
What is a DNS and what does it do?
The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to resolve human-readable hostnames like
www.Dyn.com into machine-readable IP addresses like 204.13.248.115. DNS also provides
other information about domain names, such as mail services.
What is DNS and how does it work?
Domain Name Servers (DNS) are the Internet's equivalent of a phone book. They maintain a
directory of domain names and translate them to Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. This is
necessary because, although domain names are easy for people to remember, computers or
machines, access websites based on IP addresses.

How does a DNS server work?

When you enter a URL into your Web browser, your DNS server uses its resources to resolve the
name into the IP address for the appropriate Web server. Instead, you just connect through a
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domain name server, also called a DNS server or name server, which manages a massive
database that maps domain names to IP addresses.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. This is a method for automatically
configuring TCP/IP network settings on computers, printers, and other network devices. Using
DHCP, the computer user never has to make any TCP/IP settings.

What is the DHCP IP Address?

All computers that are on a TCP/IP network must have an IP address on the network to work
correctly. You can manually configure IP addresses at each computer, or you can install a
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server that can assign IP addresses to each client
computer or device on the network.

.What is the use of DHCP?

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a protocol for assigning dynamic IP addresses
to devices on a network. With dynamic addressing, a device can have a different IP address
every time it connects to the network.

Is it better to have a Static or Dynamic IP?

The prefix dyna means power, however, dynamic IP addresses aren't more powerful, but they
can change (or be changed). ... Yes, static IP addresses don't change. Most IP addresses assigned
today by Internet Service Providers are dynamic IP addresses. It's more cost effective for the ISP
and you.

How does DHCP server work?

DHCP works by leasing IP addresses and IP information to network clients for a period of time.
For the lease to happen, the following negotiation process occurs: 1. during the boot process, a
client computer that is configured as a DHCP client sends out a broadcast packet called
DHCPDISCOVER.

DHCP Scopes
Before your DHCP server can provide IP address leases to clients, however, a range of IP
addresses must be defined at the DHCP server. This range, known as a scope.
Defines a single physical subnet on your network to which DHCP services are offered. So, for
example, if you have two subnets, your DHCP server must be connected to each subnet and you
must define a scope for each subnet. Scopes also provide the primary way for the server to
manage distribution and assignment of IP addresses and any related configuration parameters to
clients on the network.

DHCP Lease Renewal Process

This lease renew process is also very easy to understand. The scope of the IP address lease
period is limited to 8 days (by default), i.e. if a client leases an IP address from a DCHP
Server, the lease period is valid only for 8 days, then it has to renew its lease to remain
active on the network. Let's not worry about this renewal process, because all the clients will
attempt to renew its lease as 50%' of the lease duration has expired.

Group policy
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Group Policy is a hierarchical infrastructure that allows a network administrator in charge of

Microsoft's Active Directory to implement specific configurations for users and computers.
Group Policy can also be used to define user, security and networking policies at the machine
level.
Group Policy allows administrators to define options for what users can do on a network -
including what files, folders and applications they can access
Group Policy filtering
Group Policy filtering may affect only certain users or computers In OUs
Shares and NTFS permissions
Access to a folder on a file server can be determined through two sets of permission entries:
the share permissions set on a folder and the NTFS permissions set on the folder (which can also
be set on files).Share permissions are often used for managing computers with FAT32 file
systems, or other computers that do not use the NTFS file system.
Share permissions and NTFS permissions are independent in the sense that neither changes the
other. The final access permissions on a shared folder are determined by taking into
consideration both the share permission and the NTFS permission entries
Shadow Copies (VSS.)
Volume Shadow Copy Service {VSS), which was Introduced in Windows server" 2003,
facilitates the conversation between these components to allow them to work better together.
When all the components support VSS, you can use them to back up your application data
without taking the applications offline.
If you enable Shadow Copies of Shared Folders on a volume using the default values, tasks will
be scheduled to create shadow copies at 7:00 A.M. and noon. The default storage area will be on
the same volume, and its size will be 10% of the available space.
File Server Resource Manager
You can use this tool to set storage quotas and to control the types of files that can be saved to a
file server.
Or
File Server Resource Manager is a feature set in the File and Storage Services server role in
Windows Server that helps administrators classify and manage stored data in file servers.
File screening
File screens help you control the types of files that user can store on a file server. You can limit
the extension that can be stored on your shared files. For example, you can create a file screen
that does not allow files with an MP3 extension to be stored in personal shared folders on a file
server.
Manage Quotas
Quotas allow you to limit the space that is allowed for a volume or folder, and they can be
automatically applied to new folders that are created on a volume. You can also define quota
templates that can be applied to new volumes or folders.

Definition Backup
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Backup refers to the process of making copies of data or data files to use in the event the original data or
data files are lost or destroyed.
OR
A copy of a file or other item of data made in case the original is lost or damaged.
Print Server (PSERVER)
A print server is a computer that can process print-related jobs on a network of computers. Print
servers are connected to a computer network in order to serve the need for printing jobs in a
network that may contain more than one printer. A print server usually allows users in a
computer network to perform a printing job without having to move files to the computer
connected directly to the printer. It is also known as printer server or network printer, (although
the latter is actually one of the properties of the print server).
Windows Deployment Services
Windows Deployment Services is a server role that gives administrators the ability to deploy Windows
operating systems remotely.

WDS can be used for network-based installations to set up new computers so administrators do not have
to directly install each operating system (OS).

Hyper-V
Microsoft's virtual machine capability. Introduced in Windows Server 2008, it enables multiple instances
of Windows, Linux and other operating systems to run simultaneously. It uses the Para virtualization
method, which requires the operating system be modified to run as a virtual machine.

Additional Domain Controller

Why do we need to add additional Domain Controller? This answer is very simple: "for services
redundancy" or "for domain authentication improvement in remote site".
In case of server failure, we still have another one which can provide necessary services in
our network, which avoids business discontinuity.
Backup & Restore
Data restore is the process of copying backup data from secondary storage and restoring it to its
original location or a new location. A restore is performed to return data that has been lost, stolen
or damaged to its original condition or to move data to a new location.
Remote Desktop Connection
Remote desktop is a program or an operating system feature that allows a user to connect to a
computer in another location, see that computer's desktop and interact with it as if it were local.

Disk Defragmentation
Defragmentation is the process of locating the noncontiguous fragments of data into which a
computer file may be divided as it is stored on a hard disk, and rearranging the fragments and

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restoring them into fewer fragments or into the whole file. ... Windows XP comes with a utility
called "Disk Defragmenter."
Subnet Mask
A subnet mask is a number that defines a range of IP addresses that can be used in a network. ...
A subnet mask hides, or "masks," the network part of a system's IP address and leaves only the
host part as the machine identifier. A common subnet mask for a Class C IP address is
255.255.255.0.
Memory Quota
A resource quota, defined by a Resource Quota object, provides constraints that limit aggregate
resource consumption per project. It can limit the quantity of objects that can be created in a
project by type, as well as the total amount of compute resources and storage that may be
consumed by resources in that project.

Windows deployment services

Windows deployment services is a server role that give you the ability to deploy windows
operating system remotely.windows deployment system can be used for network based
installation to set up the new computes then we do not have to direactly insall each operating
system through CD,DVD and USB.

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How To Install Windows Server

1. Power-On/Restart the System & Select Boot Menu Option.

2. Select CD/DVD-ROM OR USB Form Boot Menu.

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3. Window’s Loading Files.

4. Select Following Option & Click On Next Button.

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5. Click On Install Now Button.

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6. Wait Setup Is Starting.

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7. Enter The Product Key (DBGBW-NPF86-BJVTX-K3WKJ-MTB6V) & Click On

Next.
8. Select Server with a GUI& Click On Next Button.

1.
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9. Check The Box & Click On Next Button.

10. Click On Custom Option.

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11. Select The Desired Partition & Click On Next Button.

12. Wait Until Installation Complete.

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13. Don’t Press Any Key, Just Wait & Watch.

14. Enter New Password& Click On Finish Button.

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15. Now Press CTRL+ALT+Delete Keys.

16. Enter Your Password& Login.

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When you complete install windows server on the system.

Open server mangers

Open local server

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Turn off windows firewall

Select Public: on

Select Windows firewall on or off

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Select Turn off Windows Firewall (not recommended)

Change Computer name

Select Change

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Type Computer Name then Select OK

Select OK

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Select Close

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Restart Now

Open Ethernet

Select Ethernet

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Select IPV4 and then properties

Select use the following IP address

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Now give IP windows server

Now install Active Directory

Dashboard: Select add roles and features
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Before You Begin: Select Next

Installation Type: Select Next

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Server Selection: Select Next

Server Roles: Now firstly select Active Directory Domain Services

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Now Select Add Features

Server Roles: Now Active Directory is selected press Next

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Features: Select Next

AD DS: Select Next

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Confirmation: Firstly select Restart option

When you click on restart option then windows show a dialogue box add roles and features
wizard select here Yes

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Confirmation: Now Select Install

Result: Now feature installation processing

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Results: Now Feature Installed Complete then Select close

Dashboard: Check Notification

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Select Promote this server to a domain controller

Deployment configuration: Select add a new forest and then type name

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Deployment Configuration: Type name then Select Next

Domain Controller Option

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Domain Controller Options: Type Password and then Select Next

DNS Options: Select Next

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Additional Options: Select Next

Paths: Select Next

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Review Options: Select Next

Prerequisites check:Select install

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Installation: Waiting for DNS installation to finish

Now Select Close

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Results: Select Close

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How to Make (OU) Organization Unit In Active Directory

Select Tools

Select Active Directory User and Computers

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Right Click On cnt.edu

Then Select New

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Then Select Organization Unit

Type Name Which You Want to Give Organization Unit

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Type Name and Select OK

Now, Organization Unit made

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For making User Click on Organization Unit, then Click on Empty Space.

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Then Select New

Then Select User

Type User Name Then Type User Logon Name Then Select OK

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Type Password and Unmark The First Option

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Mark 2 And 3 Option Then Select Next

Then Select Finish

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Now User Is Created In Which Your Organization Unit

Now Install DNS

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Dashboard: Click on Add roles and Features

Before You Begin: Select Next

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Installation Type: Select Next

Server Selection: Select Next

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Server Roles: Select DNS

Server Roles: Select Add Features

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If you show this error then Select Continue

Server Roles: Now DNS Selected Click on Next

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Features: Select Next

DNS Server: Select Next

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Confirmation: Select Restart Option and then Install

Results: Installation Process

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Results: Now Process is Complete then select Close

Now, Install DHCP

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Dashboard: Add Roles and features

Before You Begin: Select Next

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Installation Type: Select Next

Server Selection: Select Next

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Server Roles: Select DHCP Server

Add Features

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If you show this error then select continue

Server Roles: Now DHCP Server Selected Click on Next

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Features: Select Next

DHCP Server: Select Next

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Confirmation: Select Restart Option then Select Install

Results: Starting Installation

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After Restart System Turned on then do DHCP Configuration

Dashboard: Check Notification

Complete DHCP Configuration

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Description: Select Next

Authorization: Commit
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Summary: Select Close

Select Tools: Select DHCP

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Extend selected option

Then show ipv4 and ipv6

Right Click on ip4 and Select New Scope
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Welcome to the new scope wizard: Select Next

Give Scope Name then Next

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How much Range do you want to add write here. Assign Start IP Address & End IP Address.

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Write here, IP Range which you want to Reserve

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Now, Add this IP

Now, Select Next

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Lease Duration: How much time do you want to give IP write here then Next

Configuration DHCP Option: Select Yes I want to configure these option now
Then Select Next

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Router (Default Gateway): If you attached with Router then give the IP of Router then select Next

Domain Name and DNS Server: If your Present Domain Name show here then select Next

Activate Scope: Yes I want to activate the scope now

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Select Next

Completing the new scope wizard: Select Finish

If Ipv4 has green Symbol you must Active it then, select Finish
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For Activation of this Click on IPv4 then Click on Refresh

After Refresh IPV4 is Active

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If you want to see which IP Assign DHCP to the system, then Double Click on it (scope)

Click on Address Leases then all IPs will Show

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DNS must give in DHCP. For this Click on Scope Option, then Option Name,
then 025 DNS Domain Name, then OK

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How we can make Policy?

Select Tools

Select Group Policy Management

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Extend Forest

Extend Domains
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Extend Domain CNT.edu

Now Domain Is Extend

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Select Group Policy Management and Right Click then Select New

How much Range do you want to add, write here /Assign Start IP Address &End IP Address.

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Write Policy Name which you want to Impliment

Extend Group Policy Objects

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Which Policy you Implement Show here

Right Click on it then Edit and Click

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Extend Policies

Extend Administrative Templates: Policy definition (ADMX files) Retrieved from the local
computer.

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Select System

Now Select Prevent access to the command prompt

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Double Click on Prevent access to the command prompt

After Open it Enable this Policy

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Apply it then OK

Drag the policy which you implement and Drop on your Domain

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After drop it the Dialogue Box of Policy Management will open, then OK

Now, Policy Applied

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Press Windows +R

Type gpupdate.exe Then Select Ok

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Now Updating Policy

Now Computer Policy Update Has Complete Successfully

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IF you want to Open Group Policy management through Command Then Press Windows
+R

Type gpmc.msc then Select OK

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Open Group Policy Management Console: Extend Forest: CNT.edu

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Now Extend Domains

Now Extend Domain: CNT.edu

Now Block Cmd

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Note: If you Apply different Policies in One OU and you want only Some Policies are
implement and some are not. For this purpose we Right Click on that OU and Click on
Block Inheritance

A Symbol will confirm that Policy is Block Inheritance

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Note:
a) When you Remove Server Features and Remove Clients, firstly your Client must be on
Workgroup. If Client is not on workgroup it would be create problem.
b) When Install New Window firstly set the Password of Local Administrator.
c)
Method of Password Setting
First go on Client’s Computer then Right Click.
Then Click on Manage.
Then Click on User. Then Right Click on User.
Right Click on Administrator.
Now, Click on set Password.
After Setting of Password go to properties.
Check on Never Expire Password.
Uncheck on Disable.

New Useful Policy

1. User Configuration > Policies > Administrative Templates > System >
CTRL+ALT+DEL:
a. Remove Change Password
b. Remove Lock Computer
c. Remove Task Manager
d. Remove Logoff
Remove Storage Access:
All removable storage classes: Deny all Access
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System:
Don’t run specified windows app.
Run only specified windows app.
2. User Configuration > Policies > Administrative Templates > Desktop
See all Policies of Desktop.
3. User Configuration > Policies > Administrative Templates > Start Menu
and Taskbar
See all policies of star menu and taskbar.
4. User Configuration > Policies > Administrative Templates > Start Menu
and Taskbar
Block clock:
5. User Configuration > Policies > Administrative Templates > Start Menu
and Taskbar
ADD Wallpaper:
6. User Configuration > Policies > Administrative Templates > Desktop >
Desktop
Run Application:
7. User Configuration > Policies > Administrative Templates > System >
Logon

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How we can make Additional Controller Serve

Firstly Install Active Directly and DNS.After this 1 Notification show on top. Check Notification
and then click on Promote this server to a domain controller.

Deployment configuration: Select Add a Domain Controller to an existing Domain and Type Domain Name

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Type Domain Name and Administrator Password then Press Ok

Select a Domain from the Forest: Retrieving Domains in Forest is Proopcessing

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Select a Domain from the Forest: Select Domain then Select Ok

Now Domain is Selected then Select Next

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Domain Controller Option: Allow domain controller reinstall then give password and confirm password

After Give Password Select Next

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DNS Options: Select Next

Additional Options: Mark Install From Media then Select Next

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Paths: Select Next

Review Options: Select Next

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Prerequisites Check: Select Install

Results: Select Close

Dashboard: Add roles and features

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Before You Begin: Select Next

Installation Type: Select Next

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Server Selection: Select Next

Server Roles: Extend File and Storage Services

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Server Roles: Extend File and iSCSI Services and Mark File Server Resource Manager

Select Add Features

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Server Roles: Now File Server Resource Manager Marked Select Next

Features: Select Next

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Confirmation: Mark Restart Option

Confirmation: When You Mark on the Restart Option Then Window show
You, a Dialogue box now Select Next

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Confirmation: Now Restart Option Marked Select Install

Results: Starting Installation

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Results: Feature Installation complete Select Close

Select Tools

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Select File Server Resource Manager

Extend Quota Management

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Select Quota Templates

Right Click on Quota Templates Then Select Create Quota Templates

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Create Quota Template: Select Limit Then Select Ok

Type Name of Quota Template which you want to make

Select Limit Then Select Ok

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Now, Quota Template made

Now Select Quotas

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Right Click on Quotas Then Select Create Quota

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Select Create Quota on Path then Select Limit and Browse Folder

Select Folder Then Ok

Now Folder is Selected Now Select Limit Then Create

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Now Quota is Created

File screening Management

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Select Tools

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File Server Resource Manager

Select Screening Management

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Select File Groups

Right Click On Create File Group

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Create File Group Properties: File Group Name then Add Files To Include and
Files to exclude Names then OK

Now I Give the Name: Windows Backup File to Include and Exclude Name

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Now Include and Exclude Name Then Ok

Now File Group Is Created

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How To Create File Screens: Select File Screens for Block some files. So, that users can’t store these
files

Right Click On Empty Place Then Select Create File Screen

Create File Screen: Firstly Browse

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Select File Screens Folder or Any Folder on which you want to Apply Select this then Ok

Folder Is Selected. Now, on which File do you want to Apply Select this Then Create?

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Now File Screens Is Created

Backup and restore

Dashboard: Select Add roles and Features

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Before You Begin: Select Next

Installation Type: Select Next

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Server Selection: Select Next

Server Roles: Select Next

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Features: Mark Windows Server Backup

Features: Now Windows Server Backup Is Marked Then Select Next

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Confirmation: Mark Restart Option

Add Roles and Features Wizard: Select Yes

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Confirmation: Now Restart Option is marked then Select Install

Results: Starting Installation

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Results: Features Installation is completed

Select Tools
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Select Windows Server Backup

Select Local Backup

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Right Click on Local Backup Then Select Backup Schedule

Windows Server Backup: Please Wait

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Getting Started: Select Next

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Select Backup Configuration: Select Custom Then Select Next

Select Items for Backup: Select Add Items

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Select Item: Select Anyone Folder which you want to make Backup

Now Folder Is Marked Then Ok

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Select Items for Backup: Now Folder Is Selected Then Select Next

Specify Backup Time: Select once a day then Select Next

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Specify Destination Type: Backup to a Volume then Select Next

Select Destination Volume: Select Add

Add Volumes: Select Partition then Select Ok

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Select Destination Volume: Now Partition is Selected then Select Next

Confirmation: Now, Partition and Folder that you made Backup Show. Then Select and Finish
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Summary: Backup Schedule Wizard

Status: Creating backup Schedule

Summary: Select Close

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WINDOWS DEPLOYMENT SERVICES

1 – Open Server Manager and then on the Dashboard click Add Roles and
Features.

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2 – Next, In the Add Roles and Features Wizard box, click Next.

3 – On the Select installation type page, verify that you choose Role-Based
or feature-based installation then click Next.

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4 – Now select desired server you’d like to install Windows Deployment

Services on.

5 – On the Select server roles page, select the Windows Deployment

Services Click Add Features in the popup window then click Next.

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6 – On the Select features box, click Next..

7 – On the WDS box, review the information presented, and then proceed
with Next.

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8- On the Select role services box, click Next.

9 – On the Confirm installation selections box, click Install.

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10 – Once installation of WDS successful, just click Close.

11 – Next step, we need to configure Windows Deployment Services, open

your Server Manager, click Tools, and then click Windows Deployment
Services.

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12 – on the Windows Deployment Services console, double click Servers,

then right-click DC-CLOUD.Windows.ae, and then click Configure Server.

13 – On the Before You Begin box, click Next to proceed.

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14 – On the Install Options page, verify that you choose Integrated with
Active Directory and then click Next.

15 – On the Remote Installation Folder Location page, you can accept the
default location which is C:\RemoteInstall and then click Next.

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16 – on the System Volume Warning dialog box, click Yes.

17 – Next, on the PXE Server Initial Settings box, click Respond to all
client computers (known and unknown), and then click Next, please wait
for few second for the process to complete.

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18 – Next, on the Operation Complete box, please clear the Add images to
the server now check box, and then click Finish.

20 – Our next step is to add a boot image into WDS console, so in Windows
Deployment Services console, double click DC-CLOUD.Windows.ae and
then right-click Boot Images, and then click Add Boot Image.

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21 – On the Add Image Wizard, on the Image File page, click Browse, then
in Select Windows Image File box, double-click DVD Drive (D:), double-
click sources folder, and then double-click boot.wim.

22 – On the Image File box, verify the File Location which

is D:\sources\boot.wimand then click Next.

23 – On the Image Metadata box, click Next.

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24 – On the Summary box, click Next.

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25 – On the Task Progress page, click Finish.

26 – Once you successfully completed add a boot image into WDS, next you
need to add an install image into WDS, so in the WDS console, right-click
Install Images, and then click Add Image Group.

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Now we have to select and add the Install image. Install images are the
operating system images that you deploy to the client computer. Click
on Browse and the select Install.wim. Click on Open.

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In the below screenshot we will select all the editions of windows 7 that are
listed. click on Next

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Lets configure the WDS server properties now. Launch the Windows
Deployment Services Console, right click the WDS server and click
on Properties. Click on Boot and make sure Require the user to press the
F12 key to continue the PXE boot is selected for known and unknown
clients.

Click on PXE Response and make sure that Respond to all client
computers (known and unknown) is selected. Click on Apply and Okay.

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Two system are connected through Wi-Fi

 Netsh wlan set hostednetwork mode=allow ssid=name key=password.
 Netsh wlan start hostednetwork.
 Netsh wlan stop hostednetwork.
 Netsh wlan show hasted network.
 Netsh wlan show profile.
 Netsh wlan show profile name.
Windows 10 shortcut key
Window +D Go to Desktop
Window +I Go to Setting
Window +k Wireless Display & Audio Devices
Window + [1] [2] [3] [……] Open Program that are Print to Task Bar
Window +Ctrl +D / Window +Tab Virtual Desktop
Window +Ctrl +Left/Right Change Virtual Desktop
Window +Right/Left key Dual Desktop

Use of MS-DOS Commands

1. CLS: to clear the screen.
2. MD: to make directory.
3. COPY: to type data in directory (copy con “directory name”).
4. CTRL +Z: to save the entered data in the file.
5. TYPE: to see the typed data in the directory (type “directory name”).
6. CD: to exit or enter in any directory (to exit “c d.., to enter “c d (directory
name)” and to go directly to drive “c d \”).
7. (c /d /e :): to change drive.
8. DIR: to see the folders of any drive or directory.
9. RD: to remove any directory (rd “directory name”).

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10.DEL: to remove file from any directory ( del “file name”).

11.TREE: to see the folders and sub-folders in any drive or directory.
12.DEL TREE: to delete the folders and sub-folders of any drive or directory.
13.PATH : To see the path of the directory.
14.LABEL: to give name to any drive or directory.
15.VER: to see the version of windows.
16.TIME: to see or change the time of system.
17.DATE: to see or change the date of system.
18.XCOPY: to copy files from any directory ( xcopy “directory name”).
19.ERASE: to remove file or files from any directory (erase “directory
name”).
20.REN: to rename any file or directory (ren “file name 1” “file name 2”).
21.EXIT: to exit from MS-DOS.
22.Ipconfig
23.Dxdiag
24. Regedit

Folder Lock
 windows Firewall  2-key
 Advance Setting  Program
 Inboun Rule  Browser
 New Rule  Location
 Kegen  Block
 Next
C:Program fileNew soft Folder Lock Flash Formate in CMD
1. Diskbar 5. Select partition 1
2. Select disk 6. Active
3. Clean 7. Format fs=ntfs
4. Create partition primary 8. Complete process.

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Connect Systems through Wi-Fi

Steps1: Window + R
Steps2: Cmd
Steps3: Netsh wlan Set hostednetwork Mode = allowSSid=name key 123456789

Steps4: Netsh wlan stast hostednetwork

Steps5: Netsh wlan stop hostadnetwork. Wi-Fi disconnect less action
Instruction
1. Sharing of every system that u want to connect must be on.
2. Firewall of every system must be off.
3. Static IP of every system must have.

System System System

192.168.1.1 192.168.1.2 192.168.1.3

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Papers Bank
Computer Hardware Test
1. A device that generates the periodic signals used to control the timing of all CPU operations.

2. What is the difference between SDRAM and DRAM?

3. What technology used in SDRAM and DDR RAM?

4. What is the difference between AGP and PCI graphics cards?

5. What is the Second name of DB25 Port?

6. In Power Supply Red Cable have Voltage?

7. What is ATX Technology?

8. What is BTX Technology?

9. CMOS stand for?

10. Define North Bridge in System

11. What is Multi-matter?

12. What is Resister?

13. Define Cashes

14. Difference between Dual Core and Core 2 Due

15. The contents of these chips are lost when the computer is switched off?

16. Which parts of the computer perform arithmetic calculations?

17. Heat skin is used for?

18. Which software used for protection of Computer?

19. What are examples of storage devices?

20. Define System Unit in single Word?

21. What are the differences between software and hardware?

22. List of computer drivers.

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23. BIOS stands for:

24. POST stand for

25. How many pins on a VGA?

26. Define IDE Technology

27. Difference Between Magnetic Disk and SSD Hard

28. What is SSD

29. What is Data

Computer Network Technician

Attempt all question. Each question carried equal marks.
1. Which technology is used in 3rd generation of computer?

2. In which type of network Ethernet technology us used?

3. Define system software. Also give example?

4. What is difference between static and dynamic Ram?

5. Why Peer to Peer network is not preferred in enterprise network?

6. What is difference between primary and secondary DNS?

7. Define IP Address?

8. What is difference between primary static and Dynamic IP?

9. What is difference between public and private IP?

10. How many bits are in IPv4 and IPV6 Addresses?

11. Which slot on motherboard is called DIM slot?

12. Define DNS?

13. Write steps to assign static IP address on client?

14. Define gateway?

15. Who is father of computer?

16. What is Analytical Engine?

17. Define cloud storage?

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18. Define optical storage?

19. What is major disadvantage of Peer to Peer network?

20. What is Range of PAN?

21. Which type of connector is used for Ethernet cable?

22. What is difference between dedicated server and shared server?

23. Define Active directory?

24. What is difference between RAM and cache?

25. Define PDA?

26. Which device is used to connect two different LAN’S with each other?

27. Which device is used in bus topology to connect client with each other?

28. DEFINE EEPROM?

29. Foe which purpose PCI SLOTS AREUSED?

30. What is AVG Slot?

Paper Network
1. Assembling and dissembling the computer hardware,
2. Configure Network between Two computers.
3. Connect any two computers with a common printer.

Network Paper
1) Install any latest Antivirus in your Pc.
2) Install/Configure NTFS Permissions.
3) Install Windows Server 2008 in your Pc.
4) Do the configuration of assigning IPS to Client through DHCP.
5) Install a Network printer.
6) Verify Physical Connection between Computers.

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PRACTICAL – 1

(a) Assemble Motherboard (Data Cables, Sockets, Ports), Storage devices (CD/DVD)
and CARD (NIC).
(b) Install 32/64 bit window 7 in your PC.
(c) Preparing partitions and volumne.
(d) Install Scanner in your PC.

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PRACTICAL - 2

(a) Check either computer has been assigned TCP/IP.

(b) Create a User Account as a guest.

(c) Create a backup of any drive in your PC and restore it.

Practical
Install antivirus
Install NTFS
Install server 2008 in your pc configure of assigning IP’s to client through DHCP
Network printer and take a test print
Physical connection between computers

Theory
What is DNS?
What is data?
OSI model layers name?
Types of network name?
UAC abbreviation
Modem abbreviation

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Computer Network Technician

Fill in the blanks with correct answer.
1. The physical parts of a computer are called __________________.
2. LAN stands for _____________________________________.
3. Windows 7 has ________________ different editions.
4. An IP address has ______________ Octets.
5. The ____________________ and windows Server 2008 domain functional levels offer significant
new functionality.
6. CU stands for ___________________.
7. Microwave signals must be transmitted in a ______________________.
8. _______________ restricts network traffic based on a collection of configurable rules.
9. OSI Model has _______________ layers.
10. We can copy a user account in ___________________ to create a new account.

Choose and tick (✔) the correct answer.

1. A collection of raw facts and figures is called.
(a) Data (b) Information (c) Processing (d) None of these
2. Step by step instructions that run the computer are called.
(a) Hardware (b) Documents (c) CPU (d) Software

3. The physical layout of a LAN knows as.

(a) Topology (b) Hub (c) Link (d) None of these
4. A connection for similar networks uses.
(a) Attenuation (b) Gateway (b) Bridge (d) None of these
5. A program that serves the purpose of managing files and directories on the disk is called.
(a) Windows Explorer (b) Internet Explorer (c) DOS (d) All of these
6. GUI stands for.
(a) Graphical user interface (b) General user interrupt
(c) Graphics, Utilities, Icons (d) Grayed User Interface

7. OSI reference model has.

(a) 7 Layers (b) 3 Layers (c) 6 Layers (d) 1 Layer
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8. Switches and cables are examples of.

(a) Protocols (b) Standards (c) Routers (d) Physical medial
9. The general format of the URL.
(a) Type://address/path/ (b) Path/address/type (c) Address/type/path (d) Address/path/type
10. Web pages are connected to one another using.
(a) Hyperlinks (b) HTTP (c) Interlink (d) Multimedia

Write short answers.

1. What is software? 7. What is unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
cable?
2. What is coaxial cable?
8. What is the role of IP in the TCP/IP
3. What is windows firewall? protocol suite?
4. Explain DNS. 9. What is a token?
5. What is Encryption? 10. What is workgroup computing?
6. What is Web publishing?

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