ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES

Weather is a day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at any place concerning temperature, pressure,
wind, humidity, and rainfall.
The term climate is the average weather in a given area throughout a longer period time, usually defined
as 30 years or more.
Climate Change

Climate change is a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. These shifts may be natural,
such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main
driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas.
Earth is a system, where everything is connected, changes in one area can influence changes in all others.
The consequences of climate change now include, among others, intense droughts, water scarcity, severe
fires, rising sea levels, flooding, melting polar ice, catastrophic storms and declining biodiversity.
Factors affecting Climate
Natural Factors
 The Earth‟s climate can be affected by a number of natural factors. The prominent ones are continental
drift,
volcanoes, ocean currents, the earth‟s tilt, and comets and meteorites.
 The natural factors affect the climate change in a long term and persist for thousand to millions
of years. Anthropogenic (Human Caused) Factors
 Anthropogenic or manmade factors result in short term climatic changes. It involves the changes in the
energy balance of the Earth atmosphere system leading to changes in weather and climate.
 Cause of anthropogenic (human caused) climate change includes greenhouse gases, aerosols and
pattern of land use changes.
Greenhouse effect and Global Warming

Natural Greenhouse Effect

The green-house effect is a natural phenomenon and has been occurring for millions of years on the earth.
Life on the earth has been possible because of this natural greenhouse effect which is due to water vapour
and small particles of water present in the atmosphere.
Together, these produce more than 95 percent of total greenhouse warming.
Average global temperatures are maintained at about 15°C due to natural greenhouse effect.
Without this phenomenon, average global temperatures might have been around –17°C and at such low
temperature life would not be able to exist.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
Atmospheric gases like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapour, and
chlorofluorocarbons are capable of trapping the out-going infrared radiation from the earth‟s surface thereby
causing greenhouse effect.
Hence these gases are known as greenhouse gases and the heating effect is known as greenhouse effect.

Gas Sources and Causes

Carbon dioxide (CO2) Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Refrigeration, solvents, insulation foams, aero propellants, industrial
and
commercial uses
Methane (CH4) Growing paddy, excreta of cattle and other livestock, termites, burning of
fossil
fuel, wood, landfills, wetlands, fertilizer factories.
Nitrogen oxides (N2O) Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers; burning of wood and crop residue.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Iron ore smelting, burning of fossil fuels, burning e-waste.

Global Warming
Global warming is a consistent upsurge in the earth's average temperature denoted by increasing global
surface temperatures caused or influenced by the uninterrupted emissions of greenhouse gases.
It is also known as the 'Greenhouse Effect,' which is one of the major causes affecting global warming.
The Earth is now about 1.1°C warmer than it was in the late 1800s due to Greenhouse gas concentrations at
their highest levels. The last decade (2011-2020) was the warmest on record.
Effects of Global Warming
 Melting of the ice caps and glaciers will lead to rise in sea level.
 Sea level rise influence on Fertile agricultural lands on the coast will be submerged and saline water
intrusions will degrade the neighbouring land. Ground water in such regions will become useless.
 Populous cities lying on the coasts will be submerged under the sea.
 Increased likelihood of extreme events such as heat wave, flooding, hurricanes, rainfall patterns etc.
 Lack of freshwater during droughts and contamination of freshwater supplies during floods
compromise hygiene, thus increasing rates diseases like cholera, diarrhoea etc.
 Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas will adversely affects marine food chain.
 Bleaching of Coral Reefs (rain forests of the ocean) will cause great loss of marine biodiversity.
Ozone

Ozone (composed of three atoms of oxygen) is a gas that occurs both in the Earth‟s upper atmosphere
and at
ground level.
Ozone Layer is a layer in the earth‟s stratosphere that contains high levels of ozone.
This layer protects the earth from the Sun‟s harmful UV radiation. It absorbs 97 – 99% of the UV radiation
from the Sun.
Good Ozone and Bad Ozone
 The ozone found in the troposphere is near the earth‟s surface and is harmful to life (causes breathing
issues
in humans) and plants (damages crops and plants.) Urban smog comprises the bad ozone.
 The good ozone is found in the stratosphere. It is called good as it absorbs the sun‟s harmful
ultraviolet
radiation.
Ozone Layer Depletion
 Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning of the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere.
 Chemical compounds that cause ozone layer depletion are called Ozone Depleting Substances
(ODSs). Ozone depleting substances includes,
 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
 hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs)
 halons (were used in fire extinguishers)
 methyl bromide (was used as fumigant. Fumigation is a method of pest control by suffocating pests with
poison)
 carbon tetrachloride (formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, refrigerant and as a cleaning agent)
 methyl chloroform (solvent for organic compounds; used for cleaning metal parts and circuit
boards). Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone and its Effect
Human health
 Ozone depletion can cause increased amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth which can lead to
more cases of skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems.
 Overexposure to UV is believed to be contributing to the increase in melanoma, the most fatal of
all skin cancers. Since 1990, the risk of developing melanoma has more than doubled.
Food supplies
 UV can also damage sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce crop yields.
 Some scientists suggest that marine phytoplankton, which are the base of the ocean food chain, are
already under stress from UV radiation.
 This stress could have adverse consequences for human food supplies from the oceans.
Acid Rain

Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry
forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the
atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents.
The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and
nitric acids. These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
Source of SO2 and NOX
 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Oil refineries and other industries.
 A small portion is from natural sources such as
volcanoes. Effects of acid rain
 Acid precipitation affects both aquatic and terrestrial organisms.
 Acid rain can cause the ocean‟s pH to fall. This phenomenon is known as „ocean acidification‟.
 Excess nitrogen inputs from the atmosphere in the oceans promote increased growth of marine
plants and phytoplankton which may result in more frequent harmful algal blooms and
eutrophication.
 Some microbes in the soil cannot tolerate changes to low pH and get killed.
 It also damages buildings and monuments.
 Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes which further results in leaching of heavy metals
such as iron, lead and copper into drinking water.
 Acid rain does not harm humans immediately. The sulfur dioxide creates various health
problems. It can cause lung inflammation including asthma, bronchitis and emphysema.
 Environmental Laws
 Our constitution, originally, did not contain any direct provision regarding the protection of
natural environment.
 However, after the United Nations Conference on Human Environment, held in Stockholm in
1972, Indian constitution was amended to include protection of the environment as a constitutional
mandate.
 Environment related legislation came very late in 1972 with Wild Life Protection Act 1971.
 The forty second amendment (Fundamental Duties) Clause (g) to Article 51A of the Indian
constitution made it a fundamental duty to protect and improve the natural environment.
 Clause (g) to Article 51A of the Indian constitution states “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India
to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and have
compassion for living creatures.”
 There is a directive, given to the State as one of the Directive Principles of State Policy regarding the
protection and improvement of the environment.
 Article 48A states “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”.
 Article 21 of the Indian Constitution assures the citizens of India the right to a healthy environment.
 The Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure a healthy environment for
the country. This later became the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) in 1985.
 The Environment Protection Act of 1986 (EPA) came into force soon after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy
and is considered umbrella legislation as it fills many lacunae in the existing legislations.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981, or the Air Act, in short, was a law passed by
the Parliament of India to prevent and control the harmful effects of air pollution in India. This act is
seen as the first concrete step taken by the government of India to combat air pollution.

Why was the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 passed?
The effects of climate change caused by all forms of pollution became all too apparent in the early
1970s. To mitigate their harmful effects, it was believed that nations would need to pass their own
laws.
Thus, during the United Nations General Assembly on Human Environment held in Stockholm in
June 1972, a resolution was passed which implored the nations of the world to preserve natural
resources such as air.
India itself had issues regarding air pollution due to a wide variety of factors such as stubble burning,
improper industrial practices, environmental factors etc.
To combat these factors a special law was enacted under the Constitution of India, which was the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981.
The main objectives of this Act are to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control and abate air
pollution in the country.

What are the definitions under the Air Act?

The following are the definitions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
● Section 2(a) defines an „air pollutants‟ as any solid liquid or gaseous substance which may cause
harm or
damage the environment, humans, plants, animals or even damage property.
● A 1987 amendment to the act also added „noise‟ to the list of harmful substances.
● The air act defines „air pollution‟ as the presence of any dangerous pollutant that makes the air
unbreathable

Penalties and Procedure under the Air Act

The failure to comply with the Central Pollution Control Board directives would result in imprisonment
of 1 year. It can be extended to 6 years with a fine with the additional fine of 5000Rs per day added
provided the directives are still not met.
Any environmental complaint will only be taken into consideration by a court if it is made by the following:
● An officer authorised by the CPCB
● A person who has made a complaint to the board or an officer authorised by it. The complaint
must be made within sixty days of the offence committed.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for the
prevention and control of water pollution, and for the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of
water in the country.
The Act was amended in 1988.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977, to provide for the levy
and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of
industrial activities.
This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for
the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.
This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for
the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), statutory organisation, was constituted in September, 1974
under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. Further, CPCB was entrusted with the
powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) whose powers extended to the whole of India.
To carry out the directives of the CPCB the act also called for the setting up of the State Pollution
Control Board (SPCB) for the individual states of India
Functions
It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and
Forests of the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Principal Functions of the CPCB, as spelt out in the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981,
(i) to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by prevention,
control and abatement of water pollution, and
(ii) to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Indian Parliament enacted the Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972, which provides for the
safeguard and protection of the wildlife (flora and fauna) in the country.
This Act provides for the protection of the country‟s wild animals, birds, and plant species, in order
to ensure environmental and ecological security. Among other things, the Act lays down restrictions
on hunting many animal species.
The Act was last amended in the year 2006. An Amendment bill was introduced in the Rajya Sabha in
2013 and referred to a Standing Committee, but it was withdrawn in 2015.
Constitutional Provisions for the Wildlife Act
Article 48A of the Constitution of India directs the State to protect and improve the
environment and safeguard wildlife and forests. This article was added to the Constitution by
the 42nd Amendment in 1976.
Article 51A imposes certain fundamental duties for the people of India. One of them is to protect
and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have
compassion for living creatures.
History of wildlife protection legislation in India
The first such law was passed by the British Indian Government in 1887 called the Wild Birds Protection
Act, 1887. The law sought to prohibit the possession and sale of specified wild birds that were either
killed or captured during a breeding session.
A second law was enacted in 1912 called the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act. This was
amended in 1935 when the Wild Birds and Animals Protection (Amendment) Act 1935 was passed.
During the British Raj, wildlife protection was not accorded a priority. It was only in 1960 that
the issue of protection of wildlife and the prevention of certain species from becoming extinct
came into the fore.
There were only five national parks in India prior to the enactment of this Act.

Need for the Wildlife Protection Act

Wildlife is a part of „forests‟ and this was a state subject until the Parliament passed this law in 1972.
Now it is
Concurrent List.
Reasons for a nationwide law in the domain of environment particularly wildlife includes the following:

1. India is a treasure-trove of varied flora and fauna. Many species were seeing a rapid decline in
numbers. For instance, it was mentioned by Edward Pritchard Gee (A naturalist), that at the turn of
the 20th century, India was home to close to 40000 tigers. But, a census in 1972 showed this
number drastically reduced to about 1827.
2. A drastic decrease in the flora and fauna can cause ecological imbalance, which affects many
aspects of climate and the ecosystem.

Salient Features of Wildlife Protection Act

This Act provides for the protection of a listed species of animals, birds, and plants, and also for the
establishment of a network of ecologically-important protected areas in the country.
The Act created six schedules which gave varying degrees of protection to classes of flora
and fauna. Prohibition of hunting: It prohibits the hunting of any wild animal.
There are Six Schedules in the Act:
Schedule I and part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection with the highest penalties.
Schedule III and Schedule IV provide protection with lesser penalties.
Schedule V includes animals that can be hunted.
Schedule VI bans cultivation and planting of protected plants.
Exception: A wild animal listed under these schedules can be hunted/ killed only after getting permission
from the Chief Wildlife Warden (CWLW) of the state if:
It becomes dangerous to human life or to property (including standing crops on any land).
It is disabled or suffering from a disease that is beyond recovery.
Prohibition of Cutting/Uprooting Specified Plants: It prohibits the uprooting, damage, collection,
possession or selling of any specified plant from any forest land or any protected area.
Exception: The CWLW, however, may grant permission for uprooting or collecting a specific plant for
the purpose of education, scientific research, preservation in a herbarium or if a person/institution is
approved to do so by the central government.

● The Act provides for the formation of wildlife advisory boards, wildlife wardens, specifies their
powers and duties, etc.
● It helped India become a party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

o CITES is a multilateral treaty with the objective of protecting endangered animals and plants.
o It is also known as the Washington Convention and was adopted as a result of a
meeting of IUCN members.
● For the first time, a comprehensive list of the endangered wildlife of the country was prepared.
● Scheduled animals are prohibited from being traded as per the Act‟s provisions.
● The Act provides for licenses for the sale, transfer, and possession of some wildlife species.
● It provides for the establishment of wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, etc.
● Its provisions paved the way for the formation of the Central Zoo Authority. This is the
central body responsible for the oversight of zoos in India. It was established in 1992.
● The National Board for Wildlife was constituted as a statutory organization under the
provisions of this Act.
o This is an advisory board that offers advice to the central government on issues of wildlife
conservation in India.
o It is also the apex body to review and approve all matters related to wildlife, projects of
national parks, sanctuaries, etc.
o The chief function of the Board is to promote the conservation and development of
wildlife and forests.
o It is chaired by the Prime Minister.
● The Act also provided for the establishment of the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
o It is a statutory body of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change with an
overall supervisory and coordination part, performing capacities as given in the Act.
o Its mandate is to strengthen tiger conservation in India.
o It gives statutory authority to Project Tiger which was launched in 1973 and has put
the endangered tiger on a guaranteed path of revival by protecting it from extinction.
● The act provided for the constitution of Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) to combat
organized wildlife crime in the country.
o The Bureau has its headquarters in New Delhi.
Protected Areas under the Wildlife Protection Act
1. Sanctuaries
2. National Parks
3. Conservation Reserves
4. Community Reserves
5. Tiger Reserves

The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980

The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 (FCA, 1980) is an act by the Parliament of India which ensures
conservation of forest and its resources.
It was enacted by the Parliament of India in order to control the ongoing deforestation of the forests of
India. It came into force on October 25, 1980.
Objectives of the Forest Conservation Act 1980
The aim of the Forest is to preserve the forest ecosystem of India by fulfilling the following objectives:

1. Protect the forest along with its flora, fauna and other diverse ecological components while
preserving the integrity and territory of the forests.
2. Arrest the loss of forest biodiversity
3. Prevent forest lands being converted into agricultural, grazing or for any other commercial
purposes and intentions.

Features of the Forest Conservation Act 1980

The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 comes with the following features:

1. The Act restricts the state government and other authorities to take decisions first without
permission from the central government.
2. The Forest Conservation Act gives complete authority to the Central government to carry
out the objectives of the act.
3. The Act levies penalties in case of violations of the provisions of FCA.
4. The Forest Conservation Act will have an advisory committee which will help the Central
government with regard to forest conservation.

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing the
protection and improvement of the environment.
It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing
environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to
different parts of the country.
Salient Features of the EPA Act
Powers of the Central Government: The Central Government shall have the power to take all such
measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of
the environment in coordination with the State Governments.
The Central government is also empowered to:
 Plan and execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution.
 Lay down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects.
 Lay down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources.
 The restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall/ shall not be carried out subject to certain safeguards.
 The Central Government may appoint officers under this Act for various purposes and entrust them
with the corresponding powers and functions.
The central government as per the Act has the power to direct:
 The closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process.
 The stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.
Restriction on Pollutant Discharge: No individual or organisation shall discharge/emit or permit to
discharge/emit any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards.
Compliance with Procedural Safeguards: No individual shall handle or shall be caused to handle any
hazardous substance except in accordance with the procedure and without complying with the safeguards,
as prescribed.
Powers of Entry and Inspection: Any person empowered by the Central Government shall have a right
to enter (with the assistance deemed necessary) at any place:
 For the inspection of compliance of any orders, notifications and directions given under the Act.
 For the purpose of examining (and if required seizing) any equipment, industrial plant, record,
register, document or any other material object may furnish evidence of the commission of an offence
punishable under this Act.
Establishment of Environmental Laboratories: The Central Government, as per the Act, is entitled to:
 Establish environmental laboratories.
 Recognise any laboratory or institute as environmental laboratories to carry out the functions entrusted
to such a laboratory.
 The Central Government is also entitled to make rules specifying the functions of environmental
laboratories.
Appointment of Government Analyst: A Government Analyst is appointed by the Central Government
for the analysing the samples of air, water, soil or other substance sent to a recognised environmental
laboratory.
Penalties for Offences: Non-compliance or Contravention to any of the provisions of the Act is
considered as an offence.
 Any offences under the EPA are punishable with the imprisonment of upto five years or a fine upto
one lakh rupees or both.
Offences by Companies: If an offence under this Act is committed by a company, every person directly in
charge of the company, at the time of the commitment of offence, is deemed to be guilty unless proven
otherwise.
Offences by Government Departments: If an offence under this Act has been committed by any
Department of Government, the Head of the Department (HoD) shall be deemed to be guilty of the
offence unless proven otherwise.
Any officer, other than HoD, if proven guilty, shall also be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly.
Cognizance of offences: No Court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a
complaint made by:
 The Central Government or any authority on behalf of the former.
 A person who has approached the Courts after a 60-day notice has been furnished to the Central
Government or the authority on its behalf.
Drawbacks of the Act
Complete Centralisation of the Act: A potential drawback of the Act could be its centralization. While
such wide powers are provided to the Centre and no powers to the state governments, the former is liable
to its arbitrariness and misuse.
No Public Participation: The Act also says nothing about public participation as regards environmental
protection.
There is a need to involve the citizens in environmental protection to check arbitrariness and raise
awareness and empathy towards the environment.

Incomplete Coverage of Pollutants: The Act does not address modern concept of pollution such as
noise, overburdened transport system and radiation waves which are also an important cause for the
deteriorating environment
.

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force on 29 December 1993. It has 3 main
objectives: The conservation of biological diversity
The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.

Montreal Protocol
The Protocol was signed in 1987 and entered into force in January 1989.
The protocol gives provisions to reduce the production and consumption of Ozone depleting substances
(ODSs) to protect the ozone layer.
It aims at phasing out:
 Chlorofluorocarbons.
 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons.
India became a party to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in
June 1992. Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol
The Kigali Amendment aims for the phase-down of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by cutting their
production and consumption.
It entered into force from January 1 2019.
The goal is to achieve over 80% reduction in HFC consumption
by 2047. INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO COMBAT
CLIMATE CHANGE UNFCCC
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed in 1992 at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development also known as the Earth Summit, the Rido
Summit or the Rio Conference.
The UNFCCC entered into force in 1994 and has been ratified by 197 countries.
Its objective is to achieve stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
would prevent dangerous repercussions within a time frame so as to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally
and enable sustainable development.
It is the parent treaty of the 2015 Paris Agreement. It is also the parent treaty of the 1997 Kyoto
Protocol.

Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 and entered into force in 2005.
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC, which commits its parties by
setting internationally binding emission reduction targets for Greenhouse gases.

It recognized that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG
emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity.
Paris Agreement
Paris Agreement (also known as the Conference of Parties 21 or COP 21) is a landmark environmental
accord that was adopted in 2015 to address climate change and its negative impacts.
It replaced the Kyoto Protocol which was an earlier agreement to deal with climate change.
It aims to reduce global GHG emissions in an effort to limit the global temperature increase in this century
to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing means to limit the increase to 1.5°C by 2100.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
IPCC is a scientific intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations.
It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
The IPCC produces reports that support the UNFCCC.
IPCC reports cover all relevant information to understand the risk of human-induced climate change, its
potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.