Unit 3

Storage fundamentals

Primary vs secondary storage :

What is primary storage?

Computer memory is prioritized according to how often that memory is required for use in
carrying out operating functions. Primary storage is the means of containing primary memory (or
main memory), which is the computer’s working memory and major operational component. The
main or primary memory is also called “main storage” or “internal memory.” It holds relatively
concise amounts of data, which the computer can access as it functions.
Because primary memory is so frequently accessed, it’s designed to achieve faster processing
speeds than secondary storage systems. Primary storage achieves this performance boost by its
physical location on the computer motherboard and its proximity to the central processing unit
(CPU).
By having primary storage closer to the CPU, it’s easier to both read and write to primary
storage, in addition to gaining quick access to the programs, data and instructions that are in
current use and held within primary storage.

What is secondary storage?

External memory is also known as secondary memory and involves secondary storage devices
that can store data in a persistent and ongoing manner. Because they can be used with an
interruptible power supply, secondary storage devices are said to provide non-volatile storage.
These data storage devices can safeguard long-term data and establish operational permanence
and a lasting record of existing procedures for archiving purposes. This makes them the perfect
hosts for housing data backups, supporting disaster recovery efforts and maintaining the long-
term storage and data protection of essential files.

How computer memory mimics human memory

To further understand the differences between primary storage and secondary storage, consider
how human beings think. Each day, people are mentally bombarded by a startling amount of
incoming data.
 Personal contacts: The average American makes or receives 6 phone calls per day, as well as
sends or receives approximately 32 texts.
 Work data: In addition, most people are also engaged in work activities that involve incoming
organizational data via any number of business directives or communiques.
 Advertising: It’s been estimated that the average person is exposed to as many as 10,000
advertisements or sponsored messages per day. Subtracting 8 hours for an average night’s sleep,
that equates to a person being exposed to an advertising message every 5.76 seconds that they’re
awake.
 News: The advertising figure does not include media-conveyed news information, which we’re
receiving in an increasing number of formats. In many current television news programs, a single
screen is being used to simultaneously transmit several types of information. For example, a
news program might feature a video interview with a newsmaker while a scroll at the bottom of
the screen announces breaking news headlines and a sidebar showcases latest stock market
updates.
 Social media: Nor does that figure account for the growing and pervasive influence of social
media. Through social media websites, messaging boards and online communities, people are
absorbing even more data.
Clearly, this is a lot of incoming information to absorb and process. From the moment we awake
until we return to sleep, our minds scan through all this possible data, making a near-endless
series of minute judgments about what information to retain and what to ignore. In most
instances, that decision comes down to utility. If the mind perceives that this information will
need to be recalled again, that data is awarded a higher order of mental priority.
These prioritization decisions happen with such rapid frequency that our minds are trained to
input this data without truly realizing it, leaving it to the human mind to sort out how primary
and secondary memory is allocated. Fortunately, the human mind is quite adept at managing
such multitasking, as are modern computers.
An apt analogy exists between how the human mind works and how computer memory is
managed. In the mind, a person’s short-term memory is more dedicated to the most pressing and
“current” cognitive needs. This might include data such as an access code used for personal
banking, the scheduled time of an important medical appointment or the contact information of
current business clients. In other words, it’s information of the highest anticipated priority.
Similarly, primary storage is concerned with the computer’s most pressing processing needs.
Secondary data storage, on the other hand, offers long-term storage, like a person’s long-term
memory. Secondary storage tends to operate with less frequency and can require more computer
processing power to retrieve long-stored data. In this way, it mirrors the same retention and
processing as long-term memory. Examples of long-term memory for a human could include a
driver’s license number, long-retained facts or a spouse’s phone number.

Memory used in primary storage

Numerous forms of primary storage memory dominate any discussion of computer science:
 Random Access Memory (RAM): The most vitally important type of memory, RAM handles
and houses numerous key processes, including system apps and processes the computer is
currently managing. RAM also serves as a kind of launchpad for files or apps.
 Read-Only Memory (ROM): ROM allows viewing of contents but does not allow viewers to
make changes to collected data. ROM is non-volatile storage because its data remains even when
the computer is turned off.
 Cache memory: Another key form of data storage that stores data that is often retrieved and
used. Cache memory contains less storage capacity than RAM but is faster than RAM.
 Registers: The fastest data access times of all are posted by registers, which exist within CPUs
and store data to achieve the goal of immediate processing.
 Flash memory: Flash memory offers non-volatile storage that allows data to be written and
saved (as well as be re-written and re-saved). Flash memory also enables speedy access times.
Flash memory is used in smartphones, digital cameras, universal serial bus (USB) memory sticks
and flash drives.
 Cloud storage: Cloud storage might operate as primary storage, in certain circumstances. For
example, organizations hosting apps in their own data centers require some type of cloud service
for storage purposes.
 Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM): A type of RAM-based semiconductor memory,
DRAM features a design that relegates each data bit to a memory cell that houses a tiny capacitor
and transistor. DRAM is non-volatile memory thanks to a memory refresh circuit inside the
DRAM capacitor. DRAM is most often used in creating a computer’s main memory.
 Static Random-Access Memory (SRAM): Another type of RAM-based semiconductor
memory, SRAM’s architecture is based around a latching, flip-flop circuitry for data storage.
SRAM is volatile storage that sacrifices its data when power is removed from the system.
However, when it is operational, it provides faster processing than DRAM, which often drives
SRAM’s price upward. SRAM is typically used within cache memory and registers.

Memory used in secondary storage

There are three forms of memory commonly used in secondary storage:
 Magnetic storage: Magnetic storage devices access data that’s written onto a spinning metal
disk that contains magnetic fields.
 Optical storage: If a storage device uses a laser to read data off a metal or plastic disk that
contains grooves (much like an audio LP), that’s considered optical storage.
 Solid state storage: Solid state storage (SSS) devices are powered by electronic circuits. Flash
memory is commonly used in SSS devices, although some use random-access memory (RAM)
with battery backup. SSS offers high-speed data transfer and high performance, although its
financial costs when compared to magnetic storage and optical storage can prove prohibitive.

Types of primary storage devices

Storage resources are designated as primary storage according to their perceived utility and how
that resource is used. Some observers incorrectly assume that primary storage depends upon the
storage space of a particular storage medium, the amount of data contained within its storage
capacity or its specific storage architecture. It’s actually not about how a storage medium might
store information. It’s about the anticipated utility of that storage media.
Through this utility-based focus, it’s possible for primary storage devices to take multiple forms:
 Hard disk drives (HDDs)
 Flash-based solid-state drives (SSDs)
 Shared storage area network (SAN)
 Network attached storage (NAS)

Types of secondary storage devices

While some forms of secondary memory are internally based, there are also secondary storage
devices that are external in nature. External storage devices (also called auxiliary storage
devices) can be easily unplugged and used with other operating systems, and offer non-volatile
storage:
 HDDs
 Floppy disks
 Magnetic tape drives
 Portable hard drives
 Flash-based solid-state drives
 Memory cards
 Flash drives
 USB drives
 DVDs
 CD-ROMs
 Blu-ray Discs
 CDs

Data Storage
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Data Storage is a key segment of computerized gadgets, as buyers and organizations

have come to depend on it to save data going from individual information to business-
basic data. It is used to capture and retain digital data on storage devices.

Types of Data Storage:

 Network Attached Storage Device: The network-attached storage device permits

the storage and recovery of data from a centralized location by approved network
 users. These devices are adaptable and versatile. NAS associates with a wireless
router, making it simple for disseminated workplaces to access documents from
any device associated with the network.
 Cloud storage: Cloud storage is a storage option that utilizes remote servers and is
accessible from any computer with Internet access. It is kept up, worked and
overseen by a cloud storage service provider on storage servers that are based on
virtualization strategies. Examples of cloud storage providers are Google Drive,
iCloud, Citrix ShareFile, ownCloud, Dropbox, Amazon Cloud Drive, MediaFire,
etc.
 Direct Attached Storage: Direct-attached storage is storage associated with a PC.
It is associated with one computer and not accessible to other computers. DAS can
furnish clients with preferable execution over networked storage in light of the fact
that the server does not need to cross a system to peruse and compose information.
Hard drive or USB flash drive is an example of direct-attached storage.
 Storage Area Network: The storage area network is a network-based storage
system. SAN systems connect to the network utilizing high-speed interfaces
enabling improved execution and the capacity to interface numerous servers to a
centralized disk storage store. Storage area networks are highly scalable because
capacity can be added as needed.
 Object storage: Object storage is a technique for organizing data into distinct
components called objects that are kept with specific identifiers and metadata. It is
very scalable. Each object is given a distinct address in this type, and data may be
retrieved by using that address as a reference. It is made for large-scale,
unstructured data storage, including multimedia files, backups, and archives.
Distributed storage systems and cloud storage platforms is an example of Object
storage.
 Magnetic tape : Magnetic tape is used as a medium for data storage in a process
known as tape storage. Due to its affordability, toughness, and high quality, it has
been a preferred option for long-term archival and backup storage. It is commonly
used in industries like healthcare, media, and government sectors, where
compliance and preservation of data are critical.
Some Interesting Facts:
 Researchers from the Uni of Michigan and the Uni of Illinois conducted a study
whereby they dropped USB sticks containing HTML files that have img tags
embedded in a nearby car park. They found that 48% of the flash drives were
picked up and connected them to a PC. 68% of users neglected to take any safety
precautions or scans.
 The highest potential USB flash drive 3.0 today is 2 TB – released by Kingston,
and known as the Data Traveler Ultimate GT (generation terabyte).
 Trek Technology and IBM were the first to begin selling USB flash drives 1.0 and,
later, 1.1, in 2000.
 Difficulties:

 Configuring, testing, and monitoring of system are required in Network storage

devices.
 Network storage devices are more complex to configure and manage.
 Direct attached storage is unprotected to malicious attacks

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Information Retrieval (IR) can be defined as a software program that deals with the
organization, storage, retrieval, and evaluation of information from document
repositories, particularly textual information. Information Retrieval is the activity of
obtaining material that can usually be documented on an unstructured
nature i.e. usually text which satisfies an information need from within large
collections which is stored on computers. For example, Information Retrieval can be
when a user enters a query into the system.
Not only librarians, professional searchers, etc engage themselves in the activity of
information retrieval but nowadays hundreds of millions of people engage in IR every
day when they use web search engines. Information Retrieval is believed to be the
dominant form of Information access. The IR system assists the users in finding the
information they require but it does not explicitly return the answers to the question. It
notifies regarding the existence and location of documents that might consist of the
required information. Information retrieval also extends support to users in browsing
or filtering document collection or processing a set of retrieved documents. The
system searches over billions of documents stored on millions of computers. A spam
filter, manual or automatic means are provided by Email program for classifying the
mails so that it can be placed directly into particular folders.
An IR system has the ability to represent, store, organize, and access information
items. A set of keywords are required to search. Keywords are what people are
searching for in search engines. These keywords summarize the description of the
information.
What is an IR Model?
An Information Retrieval (IR) model selects and ranks the document that is required
by the user or the user has asked for in the form of a query. The documents and the
queries are represented in a similar manner, so that document selection and ranking
can be formalized by a matching function that returns a retrieval status value
(RSV) for each document in the collection. Many of the Information Retrieval
systems represent document contents by a set of descriptors, called terms, belonging
to a vocabulary V. An IR model determines the query-document matching function
according to four main approaches:
The estimation of the probability of user’s relevance rel for each document d and
query q with respect to a set R q of training documents: Prob (rel|d, q, Rq)
Types of IR Models

Components of Information Retrieval/ IR Model

 Acquisition: In this step, the selection of documents and other objects from
various web resources that consist of text-based documents takes place. The
required data is collected by web crawlers and stored in the database.
 Representation: It consists of indexing that contains free-text terms, controlled
vocabulary, manual & automatic techniques as well. example: Abstracting
contains summarizing and Bibliographic description that contains author, title,
sources, data, and metadata.
 File Organization: There are two types of file organization methods.
i.e. Sequential: It contains documents by document data. Inverted: It contains term
by term, list of records under each term. Combination of both.
 Query: An IR process starts when a user enters a query into the system. Queries
are formal statements of information needs, for example, search strings in web
search engines. In information retrieval, a query does not uniquely identify a single
object in the collection. Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with
different degrees of relevancy.
Difference Between Information Retrieval and Data Retrieval
Information Retrieval Data Retrieval

The software program that deals with Data retrieval deals with obtaining data from a
the organization, storage, retrieval, and database management system such as ODBMS.
evaluation of information from It is A process of identifying and retrieving the
document repositories particularly data from the database, based on the query
textual information. provided by user or application.
 Information Retrieval Data Retrieval

Determines the keywords in the user query and

Retrieves information about a subject.
retrieves the data.

Small errors are likely to go unnoticed. A single error object means total failure.

Not always well structured and is

Has a well-defined structure and semantics.
semantically ambiguous.

Does not provide a solution to the user Provides solutions to the user of the database
of the database system. system.

The results obtained are approximate

The results obtained are exact matches.
matches.

Results are ordered by relevance. Results are unordered by relevance.

It is a probabilistic model. It is a deterministic model.

User Interaction With Information Retrieval System

The User Task: The information first is supposed to be translated into a query by the
user. In the information retrieval system, there is a set of words that convey the
semantics of the information that is required whereas, in a data retrieval system, a
query expression is used to convey the constraints which are satisfied by the objects.
Example: A user wants to search for something but ends up searching with another
thing. This means that the user is browsing and not searching. The above figure shows
the interaction of the user through different tasks.
 Logical View of the Documents: A long time ago, documents were represented
through a set of index terms or keywords. Nowadays, modern computers represent
documents by a full set of words which reduces the set of representative keywords.
This can be done by eliminating stopwords i.e. articles and connectives. These
 operations are text operations. These text operations reduce the complexity of the
document representation from full text to set of index terms.
Past, Present, and Future of Information Retrieval
1. Early Developments: As there was an increase in the need for a lot of information,
it became necessary to build data structures to get faster access. The index is the data
structure for faster retrieval of information. Over centuries manual categorization of
hierarchies was done for indexes.
2. Information Retrieval In Libraries: Libraries were the first to adopt IR systems
for information retrieval. In first-generation, it consisted, automation of previous
technologies, and the search was based on author name and title. In the second
generation, it included searching by subject heading, keywords, etc. In the third
generation, it consisted of graphical interfaces, electronic forms, hypertext features,
etc.
3. The Web and Digital Libraries: It is cheaper than various sources of information,
it provides greater access to networks due to digital communication and it gives free
access to publish on a larger medium.
Advantages of Information Retrieval
1. Efficient Access: Information retrieval techniques make it possible for users to
easily locate and retrieve vast amounts of data or information.
2. Personalization of Results: User profiling and personalization techniques are used
in information retrieval models to tailor search results to individual preferences and
behaviors.
3. Scalability: Information retrieval models are capable of handling increasing data
volumes.
4. Precision: These systems can provide highly accurate and relevant search results,
reducing the likelihood of irrelevant information appearing in search results.
Disadvantages of Information Retrieval
1. Information Overload: When a lot of information is available, users often face
information overload, making it difficult to find the most useful and relevant material.
2. Lack of Context: Information retrieval systems may fail to understand the context
of a user’s query, potentially leading to inaccurate results.
3. Privacy and Security Concerns: As information retrieval systems often access
sensitive user data, they can raise privacy and security concerns.
4. Maintenance Challenges: Keeping these systems up-to-date and effective requires
ongoing efforts, including regular updates, data cleaning, and algorithm adjustments.
5. Bias and fairness: Ensuring that information retrieval systems do not exhibit
biases and provide fair and unbiased results is a crucial challenge, especially in
contexts like web search engines and recommendation systems
 Primary Memory
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Primary storage or memory is also known as the main memory, which is the part of
the computer that stores current data, programs, and instructions. Primary storage is
stored in the motherboard which results in the data from and to primary storage can be
read and written at a very good pace.
What is Primary Memory
Primary memory is a segment of computer memory that can be accessed directly by
the processor. In a hierarchy of memory, primary memory has access time less than
secondary memory and greater than cache memory. Generally, primary memory has a
storage capacity lesser than secondary memory and greater than cache memory.
Need of primary memory
In order to enhance the efficiency of the system, memory is organized in such a way
that access time for the ready process is minimized. The following approach is
followed to minimize access time for the ready process.
 All programs, files, and data are stored in secondary storage that is larger and
hence has greater access time.
 Secondary memory can not be accessed directly by a CPU or processor.
 In order, to execute any process operating system loads the process in primary
memory which is smaller and can be accessed directly by the CPU.
 Since only those processes are loaded in primary memory which is ready to be
executed, the CPU can access those processes efficiently and this optimizes the
performance of the system.
This organization of memory in a stepwise manner is known as Memory Hierarchy.
Primary Memory Example
Primary Memory examples are RAM, ROM, cache, PROM, EPROM, registers, etc.
Classification of Primary Memory
Primary memory can be broadly classified into two parts:
1. Read-Only Memory (ROM)
2. Random Access Memory (RAM)
Read-Only Memory
Any data which need not be altered are stored in ROM. ROM includes those programs
which run on booting of the system (known as a bootstrap
program that initializes OS) along with data like algorithm required by OS. Anything
stored in ROM cannot be altered or changed.
Types of ROM:
ROM can be broadly classified into 4 types based on their behavior:
 MROM: Masked ROM is hardwired and pre-programmed ROM. Any content that
is once written cannot be altered anyhow.
 PROM: Programmable ROM can be modified once by the user. The user buys a
blank PROM and writes the desired content but once written content cannot be
altered.
 EPROM: Erasable and Programmable ROM Content can be changed by erasing
the initial content which can be done by exposing EPROM to UV radiation. This
exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge on ROM and content can be
rewritten on it.
 EEPROM: Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM Content can be
changed by erasing the initial content which could be easily erased electrically.
However, one byte can be erased at a time instead of deleting in one go. Hence,
reprogramming of EEPROM is a slow process.
Random Access Memory
Any process in the system which needs to be executed is loaded in RAM which is
processed by the CPU as per Instructions in the program. Like if we click on
applications like Browser, firstly browser code will be loaded by the Operating system
into the RAM after which the CPU will execute and open up the Browser.
 Types of RAM:
RAM can be broadly classified into SRAM (Static RAM) and DRAM (Dynamic
RAM) based on their behavior:
 DRAM: Dynamic RAM or DRAM needs to periodically refresh in a few
milliseconds to retain data. DRAM is made up of capacitors and transistors and
electric charge leaks from capacitors and DRAM needs to be charged periodically.
DRAM is widely used in home PCs and servers as it is cheaper than SRAM.
 SRAM: Static RAM or SRAM keeps the data as long as power is supplied to the
system. SRAM uses Sequential circuits like a flip-flop to store a bit and hence
need not be periodically refreshed. SRAM is expensive and hence only used where
speed is the utmost priority.
Primary Memory is volatile in nature.
Content of primary memory may or may not vanish when power is lost depending on
if it is stored in RAM or ROM.
 The content of ROM is non-volatile in nature, they are stored even when power is
lost.
 The content of RAM is volatile in nature, it vanishes when power is lost

Secondary Memory
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In a computer, memory refers to the physical devices that are used to store programs
or data on a temporary or permanent basis. It is a group of registers. Memory are of
two types (i) primary memory, (ii) secondary memory. Primary memory is made up of
semiconductors, It is also divided into two types, Read-Only Memory (ROM) and
Random Access Memory (RAM). Secondary memory is a physical device for the
permanent storage of programs and data(Hard disk, Compact disc, Flash drive, etc.).
Secondary memory is a type of computer memory that is used to store data and
programs that can be accessed or retrieved even after the computer is turned off.
Unlike primary memory, which is volatile and temporary, secondary memory is non-
volatile and can store data and programs for extended periods of time.
1. Some examples of secondary memory include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state
drives (SSDs), optical discs (such as CDs and DVDs), and flash memory (such as
USB drives and memory cards). These storage devices provide a much larger
capacity than primary memory and are typically used to store large amounts of
 data, such as operating systems, application programs, media files, and other types
of digital content.
2. Secondary memory can be classified into two types: magnetic storage and solid-
state storage. Magnetic storage devices, such as hard disk drives and magnetic
tapes, use magnetic fields to store and retrieve data. Solid-state storage devices,
such as solid-state drives and flash memory, use semiconductor-based memory
chips to store data.
3. One of the main advantages of secondary memory is its non-volatile nature, which
means that data and programs stored on secondary memory can be accessed even
after the computer is turned off. Additionally, secondary memory devices provide
a large storage capacity, making it possible to store large amounts of data and
programs.
However, there are also some disadvantages to secondary memory, such as slower
access times and lower read/write speeds compared to primary memory. Additionally,
secondary memory devices are often more prone to mechanical failures and data
corruption, which can result in data loss.
Overall, secondary memory plays an important role in modern computing systems and
is essential for storing large amounts of data and programs.

Primary Memory

Primary memory is made up of semiconductors and it is the main memory of the

computer system. It is generally used to store data or information on which the
computer is currently working, so we can say that it is used to store data temporarily.
Data or information is lost when the systems are off. It is also divided into two types:
(i). Read-Only Memory (ROM)
(ii). Random Access Memory (RAM).
1. Random Access Memory: Primary memory is also called internal memory. This is
the main area in a computer where data, instructions, and information are stored. Any
storage location in this memory can be directly accessed by the Central Processing
Unit. As the CPU can randomly access any storage location in this memory, it is also
called Random Access Memory or RAM. The CPU can access data from RAM as
long as the computer is switched on. As soon as the power to the computer is switched
off, the stored data and instructions disappear from RAM. Such type of memory is
known as volatile memory. RAM is also called read/write memory.
2. Read-Only Memory: Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a type of primary memory
from which information can only be read. So it is also known as Read-Only Memory.
ROM can be directly accessed by the Central Processing Unit. But, the data and
instructions stored in ROM are retained even when the computer is switched off OR
we can say it holds the data after being switched off. Such type of memory is known
as non-volatile memory.

Secondary Memory

We have read so far, that primary memory is volatile and has limited capacity. So, it is
important to have another form of memory that has a larger storage capacity and from
which data and programs are not lost when the computer is turned off. Such a type of
memory is called secondary memory. In secondary memory, programs and data are
stored. It is also called auxiliary memory. It is different from primary memory as it is
not directly accessible through the CPU and is non-volatile. Secondary or external
storage devices have a much larger storage capacity and the cost of secondary
memory is less as compared to primary memory.

Use of Secondary memory

Secondary memory is used for different purposes but the main purposes of using
secondary memory are:
 Permanent storage: As we know that primary memory stores data only when the
power supply is on, it loses data when the power is off. So we need a secondary
memory to stores data permanently even if the power supply is off.
 Large Storage: Secondary memory provides large storage space so that we can
store large data like videos, images, audios, files, etc permanently.
 Portable: Some secondary devices are removable. So, we can easily store or
transfer data from one computer or device to another.
Types of Secondary memory

Secondary memory is of two types:

1. Fixed storage
In secondary memory, a fixed storage is an internal media device that is used to store
data in a computer system. Fixed storage is generally known as fixed disk drives or
hard drives. Generally, the data of the computer system is stored in a built-in fixed
storage device. Fixed storage does not mean that you can not remove them from the
computer system, you can remove the fixed storage device for repairing, for the
upgrade, or for maintenance, etc. with the help of an expert or engineer.
Types of fixed storage:
Following are the types of fixed storage:
 Internal flash memory (rare)
 SSD (solid-state disk)
 Hard disk drives (HDD)
2. Removable storage
In secondary memory, removable storage is an external media device that is used to
store data in a computer system. Removable storage is generally known as disks
drives or external drives. It is a storage device that can be inserted or removed from
the computer according to our requirements. We can easily remove them from the
computer system while the computer system is running. Removable storage devices
are portable so we can easily transfer data from one computer to another. Also,
removable storage devices provide the fast data transfer rates associated with storage
area networks (SANs).
Types of Removable Storage:
 Optical discs (like CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, etc.)
 Memory cards
 Floppy disks
 Magnetic tapes
 Disk packs
 Paper storage (like punched tapes, punched cards, etc.)

Secondary memory devices

Following are the commonly used secondary memory devices are:

1. Floppy Disk: A floppy disk consists of a magnetic disc in a square plastic case. It
is used to store data and to transfer data from one device to another device. Floppy
disks are available in two sizes (a) Size: 3.5 inches, the Storage capacity of 1.44 MB
(b) Size: 5.25 inches, the Storage capacity of 1.2 MB. To use a floppy disk, our
computer needs to have a floppy disk drive. This storage device becomes obsolete
now and has been replaced by CDs, DVDs, and flash drives.
2. Compact Disc: A Compact Disc (CD) is a commonly used secondary storage
device. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface. Its shape is circular and is made
up of polycarbonate plastic. The storage capacity of CD is up to 700 MB of data. A
CD may also be called a CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory), in this
computers can read the data present in a CD-ROM, but cannot write new data onto it.
For a CD-ROM, we require a CD-ROM. CD is of two types:
 CD-R (compact disc recordable): Once the data has been written onto it cannot
be erased, it can only be read.
 CD-RW (compact disc rewritable): It is a special type of CD in which data can
be erased and rewritten as many times as we want. It is also called an erasable CD.
3. Digital Versatile Disc: A Digital Versatile Disc also known as DVD it is looks just
like a CD, but the storage capacity is greater compared to CD, it stores up to 4.7 GB
of data. DVD-ROM drive is needed to use DVD on a computer. The video files, like
movies or video recordings, etc., are generally stored on DVD and you can run DVD
using the DVD player. DVD is of three types:
 DVD-ROM(Digital Versatile Disc Readonly): In DVD-ROM the manufacturer
writes the data in it and the user can only read that data, cannot write new data in
it. For example movie DVD, movie DVD is already written by the manufacturer
we can only watch the movie but we cannot write new data into it.
 DVD-R(Digital Versatile Disc Recordable): In DVD-R you can write the data
but only one time. Once the data has been written onto it cannot be erased, it can
only be read.
 DVD-RW(Digital Versatile Disc Rewritable and Erasable): It is a special type
of DVD in which data can be erased and rewritten as many times as we want. It is
also called an erasable DVD.
4. Blu-ray Disc: A Blu-ray disc looks just like a CD or a DVD but it can store data or
information up to 25 GB data. If you want to use a Blu-ray disc, you need a Blu-ray
reader. The name Blu-ray is derived from the technology that is used to read the disc
‘Blu’ from the blue-violet laser and ‘ray’ from an optical ray.
5. Hard Disk: A hard disk is a part of a unit called a hard disk drive. It is used to
storing a large amount of data. Hard disks or hard disk drives come in different
storage capacities.(like 256 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB, and 2 TB, etc.). It is created using the
collection of discs known as platters. The platters are placed one below the other.
They are coated with magnetic material. Each platter consists of a number of invisible
circles and each circle having the same centre called tracks. Hard disk is of two types
(i) Internal hard disk (ii) External hard disk.
6. Flash Drive: A flash drive or pen drive comes in various storage capacities, such as
1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, up to 1 TB. A flash drive is used to
 transfer and store data. To use a flash drive, we need to plug it into a USB port on a
computer. As a flash drive is easy to use and compact in size, Nowadays it is very
popular.
7. Solid-state disk: It is also known as SDD. It is a non-volatile storage device that is
used to store and access data. It is faster, does noiseless operations(because it does not
contain any moving parts like the hard disk), consumes less power, etc. It is a great
replacement for standard hard drives in computers and laptops if the price is low and
it is also suitable for tablets, notebooks, etc because they do not require large storage.
8. SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used in portable
devices like mobile phones, cameras, etc., to store data. It is available in different
sizes like 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, etc. To view the data
stored in the SD card you can remove them from the device and insert them into a
computer with help of a card reader. The data stores in the SD card is stored in
memory chips(present in the SD Card) and it does not contain any moving parts like
the hard disk.

What are the differences between primary and secondary memories?

Solution:
Primary Memory Secondary Memory

(i) Secondary memory devices are

(i) Primary memory devices are semiconductor
magnetic, optical and electronic
memories.
memories.

(ii) Primary memory can be volatile as well as

(ii) Secondary memory is always non-
non-volatile. RAM is the volatile memory and
volatile
ROM is the non-volatile memory,

(iii) Secondary memory is somewhat

(iii) Primary memory is more effective and
slower in interacting with the
interacts more quickly with the microprocessor
microprocessor than primary memory

What is an Optical Disk?

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In the rapidly advancing realm of digital technology, optical disks stand as a

cornerstone in the evolution of data storage. As innovations continuously reshape how
we store and retrieve information, these disks have proven to be instrumental in the
preservation and dissemination of digital content. Utilizing sophisticated laser
technology for reading and writing data, optical disks offer an expansive array of
applications, mirroring the functionality of memory cards but surpassing them with
significantly larger capacities and extended lifespans. This makes them a robust and
enduring alternative to earlier storage technologies, marking a significant milestone in
the journey of digital data storage.
What is an Optical Disk?
Optical Disk is a storage medium that relies on laser technology to read and write
data, in shape, it is a flat circular disk which is made up of polycarbonate or a similar
material with a very shiny reflective layer on the surface. they are mainly used for
sharing, storing and backup Data as they have a great life span and capacity compared
to older technologies like floppy disks.
Applications of Optical Disk
the applications and uses of optical disks span a wide spectrum, from personal data
storage and entertainment to professional media production and educational
distribution lets have a look on the application and uses of Optical Disk:
 Data Security: Securely store backups and archives for businesses and
individuals, offering long-term preservation and resistance to magnetic fields.
 Software Distribution: A reliable and cost-effective way to distribute large
programs, especially in areas with limited internet access.
 Data Transfer: Share big files offline, ideal for transferring between devices
without relying on online platforms.
 Medical Imaging: Optical disks find its use in High-resolution scans like X-rays
and CT scans as they look at it as a secure storage option.
 Scientists use optical disk for storing and preserving massive datasets like genomic
or environmental data as it offer’s a secure and reliable storage solution.
 Educational Resources: in the world of Interactive learning materials optical
disks find its use and make the offline access for education possible.
 Offline Navigation: GPS data and maps for car navigation systems often use
optical disks as result they offer reliable guidance even when cellular networks are
not available.
Type of Optical Disk
optical disk are available in several types, each designed for different storage
capacities the main type of Optical Disk are:
1. Compact Disc (CD)
Compact disk are Optical Disk which are used mainly for storing music , software and
compact data on average they offer storage capacity of 400 to 800 MB they are
available in three type:
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read Only Memory) : CD-ROM are optical disc
especially designed for storing pre-recorded data that users cannot write or edit.
2. CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable): CD-R are optical disc that provide users the
capacity to craft their own CDs, but can be written just single-time .
3. CD-RW (Compact Disc-ReWritable): CD-RW permits the users to erase data
and rewrite it onto the same disc as may time as user want to , offering a more
dynamic storage solution.
2. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
Digital Versatile Disc are Optical Disk which are used mainly for storing movies,
games, and larger data files , they hold storage capacity of 4.7 GB – 18 Giga-byte
(GB) .they are also available in three type:
1. DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc-Read Only Memory): DVD-ROM are used
for storing Pre-written data that can’t be written or edited by the user .
2. DVD-R (Digital Versatile Disc-Recordable): DVD-R are mainly used for storing
data that can only be written single time by the user and once it is written it can’t
be erased .
3. DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disc-ReWritable): DVD-RW are used for data
which need to be written, erased, and rewritten multiple times by the user it
provide flexibility of data so the errors are not costly.
3. Blu-ray Disc (BD)
Blu-ray Disc are Optical Disk offering the highest capacity and resolution to user so
are used mainly for storing large movies, large games and also for the archiving
purposes they hold the vast storage capacity of 25 GB – 128 GB Giga-byte (GB) they
also available in three type:
1. BD-ROM (Blu-ray Disc-Read Only Memory): These are pre-written discs
containing data that cannot be manipulated according to the need users. They offer
high security as data cant be manipulated are so are used for distributing movies,
software, and games, offering high-quality, high-capacity content in a read-only
format.
2. BD-R (Blu-ray Disc-Recordable): They are designed just for one-time recording,
so data once entered is preserved as erasing is not possible with BD-R. This makes
BD-R ideal for functioning as a permanent backups of critical data.
3. BD-RW (Blu-ray Disc-ReWritable): These discs are designed to provide user a
great flexibility of writing , erasing, and rewriting of data multiple times. BD-RW
discs is best suited for the users who require to update their stored data regularly .
How Optical Disk works?
Optical disks work by using laser technology to read and write data. The process
involves precision optics and mechanics. Here’s how they function:
 Data as Pits and Lands: The optical disk’s surface is a marvel of
microengineering. Pits and lands are arranged in a spiral track starting from the
center of the disk. These physical differences correspond to binary data. Pits,
which are depressions in the disk’s surface, and lands, which are the areas between
pits, represent binary 1s and 0s.
 The Laser’s Dance: An optical drive is consist of a laser assembly that emits a
focused beam of light onto the shiny reflecting surface of disk. as the disk spin ,
the laser beam tracks along the spiral path where data is stored as the data is very
compact and require a light beam hence make this process very delicate and
precise operation even a small error can cause high change in data.
 Decoding the Reflections: The optical drive consist of a photodiode (laser sensor)
that captures the light reflected back from the disk’s surface , This sensor holds the
responsibility of translating the pattern of light and dark into electrical signals,
which are then converted into binary data that computers can understand.
 Writing with Light: In writable optical media, the laser used for writing is more
powerful than the one used for reading. This laser can modify the disk’s surface by
creating pits in a dye layer or changing the state of a phase-change material. This
process is akin to sculpting the disk’s surface at a microscopic level.
 Different Disks, Different Dances: Each type of optical disk (CD, DVD, Blu-ray)
has its own deferent specifications for the size of pits ,lands and spacing between
them. For example, Blu-ray discs have smaller pits and tighter spacing hence
require a blue-violet laser with a shorter wavelength than the red lasers used
for CDs and DVDs by doing so more data can be packed into the same amount
physical space .
 Key Takeaways: Optical disks are an elegant integration of physics and digital
technology, turning physical patterns into binary data. The process involves
precision optics and mechanics, highlighting the marvel of data storage evolution
from physical grooves to microscopic digital encoding.
Advantages of Optical Disk
Optical disks have a wide array of applications across various sectors because of their
efficient data storage and retain capabilities. Their ability to store huge amounts of
data reliably makes them an important and useful tool in numerous contexts. Below
some of applications of optical disks are listed:
 High Storage Capacity: Significantly larger than older technologies like floppy
disks.
 Durability: Can last for decades if in proper care.
 Scratch Resistance: Most of optical discs are fairly resistant to minor scratches
and are reliable.
  healthcare: optical disks are used in field healthcare for storing and sharing
medical imaging data such as X-rays, MRI scans, and ultrasound images.
 government: optical disks find their use in many government agencies for storing
sensitive confidential information that requires long-term preservation
Disadvantages of Optical Disk
despite of widespread use and benefits in data storage and distribution but optical
disks still have some limitations which affect their efficiency . These disadvantages
are important and needed to be consider, especially in case we want to compare them
with more modern storage technologies. Below are the key disadvantages of optical
disks:
 Slower Access Speeds: Optical disks generally have slow data access speed if
compared to current technologies like SSDs, affecting efficiency in data retrieval
and transfer
 Vulnerability: Optical disks are susceptible to damage from deep scratches, dust,
and extreme temperatures, which lead to data loss.
 Limited Rewrite ability: some optical disks are just write-once (CD-R, DVD-R)
and they are not editing
 Dependency on Specific Hardware: in order to read or write data optical disks
require specific optical drives.
 Environmental Concerns: production and disposal of optical disks involve
materials like polycarbonate plastic, which contribute to environmental pollution

What is a CD (Compact Disk)?

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


Compact disc is portable storage devices used for storing digital data like recording,
storing, and playing video, and audio. Compact Disc can be explained as a disc-like
memory device made from plastic material.

What is a CD(Compact Disk)?

CDs or Compact Disks are optically readable media. CDs are the replacement of the
phonograph disc. The main material of the CD is plastic. The shape of the plastic is
circular and one side of the circular plastic is coated with the reflecting metal coating,
usually aluminium. Data can be stored much more densely in optic media than in
magnetic media, like Hard disk. Optic media have a much longer life span. Millions
of bits are burned into this coating.
CDs can store many types of data, like audio, video, games, any documents, etc. The
data are scanned by a laser beam with a CD driver to visualize the data. The only
thing that is less in CD is storage capacity is very less compared to HDD or DVD and
the read-write speed is also very less. The storage capacity of a CD is 700 MB only.
History of Compact Disk
At first, as CD invented in the year 1960 by the American physicist James Russell.
The compact disk (CD) was introduced by Philips and Sony in 1980 and released in
1982. One day he listened to music and he recognizes that the audio quality is very
poor and he tried to improve the record player. But he realized that the poor quality of
the music happens due to the recorder due to the contact of the needle with the
recorder.
Then he thought this can be avoided by using a light to read the music without
physically touching the disk. Then he started working on digital data with optic media
and found a way to record media onto a photosensitive platter with tiny bits of light
and dark of size 1-micron in diameter. Then he filed a patent application in 1966, and
the patent was granted in 1970. After this Sony and Philips licensed with his patents
for recording using optic readable media. After all this finally, in 1982 Sony released
a CD player name CDP-101. This is how CDs are introduced.
How Compact Disc Works?
Compact discs, sometimes known as CDs, typically have a diameter of 12 cm, or 4.5
inches. There are four distinct layers in it.
 Top Layer
 Lacquer Layer
 Reflective Layer
 Polycarbonate Disc Layer
The top layer is used to mark the disc’s identification marks, and it may also carry
printed instructions or a name identifying the contents of the device. Below the top
layer, in the lacquer layer, The device is protected from exposure to atmospheric air,
which can cause oxidation. The reflective layer, which is constructed of aluminium
material and is located beneath the lacquer layer, is where the laser beam is pointed in
order to catch a reflection, which can then be used to read the disk’s data. The data are
encoded for the compact disc to function properly in the polycarbonate layer at the
bottom of the disc.
A CD player or disc drive is required in order to access a compact disc. It is made up
of a variety of hardware components, including a tiny laser beam and another tiny
electronic light detector, within a CD player. Here, a semiconductor diode laser is
used to produce the laser beam, and a photoelectric cell serves as the electronic light
detector.
When the CD player or disc drive is turned on, the internal motor of the device
enables the compact disc to rotate at a significant high speed, between 200 and 500
rotations per minute. This causes the internal semiconductor diode laser to be powered
up and begin scanning the disc’s tracks from the centre outward. To read the data
from the base layer, this is transferred through the disc. As a result, the reflection that
was generated can retrieve the data from the CD and provide it to the device accessing
the CD. The digital light detector can receive the reflection and read the electronic
contents that are already saved into the storage unit.

Characteristics of Compact Disk

The standard diameter of a CD is 120mm and thickness is 1.2mm. The main body of
the CD is made of hard plastic known as polycarbonate with a reflective metallic
layer. This layer is coated with metallic acrylic plastic. This metal is aluminum. In this
layer, the data are stored using the laser light which reflects the coated layer for
reading and writing the data. The data is read in the form of pits, each pit is of 0.83-
micrometre and the data is arranged as spiral track from the disc’s inner hole to its
outer edge, because the CD is of circular shape.
The hole is in the centre of the CD, which diameter is 15mm. The area closest to the
hole is known as the clamping area, no data is stored in this area because there is no
metallic layer. This area is nearly equal to 26 mm to 33 mm in radius. The radius of
the usable area, that is where the data can be store is of 38mm.

Types of Compact Disks

There are three types of CDs available:
 CD-R : CD-R full form is Compact Disc – Recordable. This type of compact disc
can be written only once and can not erased.
 CD-ROM : CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. This disks
are read once, after read it is use as a ROM, that is cannot be updated later.
 CD-RW : CD-RW full form is Compact Disc-ReWritable. This type of compact
disc can be written multiple times and can be erased also, like Pendrive.
Advantages of Compact Disk
 Portable: CDs are more compact and lightweight, they are easier to store and
travel.
 Reliable: In that time, an entire software can be stored on one CD, so its very
reliable for the software industries in the days.
 Multiple Applications: It is also adaptable. The higher capacity of the compact
disc was exploited for uses other than storing digital audio. CDs became a popular
media for distributing home films, software packages, and other digital content.
  Random Access: CD provides random data access. Users can use this random
access to choose music tracks, specific files or data, or explore a menu via a user
interface.
 Rewritable Formats: Another benefit of compact discs is the availability of
rewritable versions such as CD-R and CD-RW.
Disadvantages of Compact Disk
 Inferior Capacity: CDs have more storage capacity than their predecessors, but
subsequent storage mediums have more capacity. Storage capacity is lower than a
hard drive or DVD, now a days CD is not used at all.
 Older Technology: A compact disc’s limitation stems from its older read and
write mechanism technology, which is based on 780nm wavelength.
 Inferior Quality: It should be noted that audio-video files with higher audio and
video quality can be stored on DVDs and Blu-ray Discs.
 Durability Issues: Magnetic tapes are less durable than CDs. However, it is still
fragile because it is easily scratched if not treated carefully. When exposed to
severe heat and humidity, it might deform and become unusable.
 Obsolete Medium: Another issue of CDs is that they have become obsolete as
better storage methods have become available.
 It’s also worth noting that compact discs aren’t suitable for backup storage because
of their limited storage capacity, susceptibility to breakage, and obsolescence. It is
preferable to use hard drives or solid-state drives.

Zip files in Windows

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History for ZIP files : The concept of zip file format was given by Phil Katz, who
was the founder of the PKWARE, which replaces the previous concept i.e ARC
compression format by Thom Henderson .
What Are Zip Files and why it is used ? Zip file is like a container, which contains
one or more files or directories that have been compressed, to reduce their actual
size . The format of the Zip is generally known as archive file format that always
supports lossless data compression . Zip files mostly use the file extensions “.zip”,
or “.ZIP” and the MIME media type application/zip. A number of compression
algorithms are permitted in zip files but since 2008 only DEFLATE is used and
supported by all the systems.
Where it is used ? Today Zip file format is most popular lossless data compression
technique. As explained above, that ZIP file used to contains one or more files that
have been compressed, to reduce their actual file size. But the most important
question is that, where it is used, ZIP files are used wherever there is a storage
problem i.e. where we have less storage available to send or there the files. For
example : Suppose we have a folder that contains 15 files and we have to email it to
some person. As we know that, here we cannot email whole folder to someone, so
we have to email the 15 individual files. Now, this is the platform, where ZIP files
comes in use, because we can “ZIP UP” those 15 files into a single zip archive, and
then email it .
How extract the files from zip files in windows : The steps to be followed for
extracting files from zip files are :
 At first do right click on the zip file you want to extract.
 Then in the dialog box, click on the option Extract Here.

 Then the desired files will be get extracted in the current folder in which you are.
 What is a Floppy Disk?
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

A floppy disk is a detachable, flexible magnetic storage device that may hold
computer files or other electronic data. It is composed of a flexible and thin magnetic
storage disk that is enclosed inside a rectangular plastic carrier that has a fabric lining
for increased sturdiness. Data can be read and written because the disk is magnetic.
Writes and reads floppy disks with a floppy disk drive.
Table of Content
 What is a Floppy Disk?
 Usage of Floppy Disk
 How Does a Floppy Disk Work?
 Types of Floppy Disk
 Advantages of Floppy Disk
 Disadvantages of Floppy Disk
 Difference Between Floppy Disk and Compact Disk

What is a Floppy Disk?

Floppy disks also known as floppy diskettes, floppy disks or floppy disks, are a type
of storage medium that can read data storage information and are used to store
electronic data. Unlike CD-ROM, it was 8 inches in diameter when it was initially
created, and users could not write data to it.
Although later versions of this disk could hold up to 800KB of data, it could only hold
80KB at a time. These days, network file transfers and USB devices have taken the
position of floppy disks, however they are no longer in use.
Usage of Floppy Disk
Below are some usages of Floppy Disk
 Floppy disks were the sole means to install new software and create data backups
on early computers as they lacked USB and CD-ROM (compact disk read-only
memory) drives.
 Installing the program from a single 3.5″ floppy disk was possible if it was small—
less than 1.44 MB. Nonetheless, diskettes were often needed because the majority
of programs were bigger than 1.44 MB.
 Users also frequently stored and backed up their files on floppy disks.
 A word processing file, for instance, may be saved as a backup or transferred to a
floppy disk and used on a different machine.
How Does a Floppy Disk Work?
 Data is magnetically stored on the circular platter surface of a floppy disk.
 A read/write head within the drive reads data that has been encoded onto the
platter by moving over it.
 After that, the drive converts these bits into text, images, or music that the
computer’s CPU can understand.
 The magnetic polarity used by the read/write head is either 0 or 1.
 The computer can interpret this as binary data and determine what is on the platter.
 The read/write head aligns the magnetic polarities so that the computer may write
data to the platter—0s and 1s that can be decoded by another device later on.
Types of Floppy Disk
Here are the four types of Floppy Disk.
 8-inch Drive: The First ever floppy design to be adopted as a read-only format
before being able to read and write which was introduced in the early 1970s was 8-
inch Drive. The physical characteristic that permitted the floppy drive series its
name was floppy.
 Zip Drive: The Zip drive was introduced by Iomega Corporation. Since zip drives
were peripheral, they were primarily able to enhance an already-existing system.
Due to its high cost, this drive was not widely utilized and never really took off as
a storage device.
 3.5″ Drive: 3.5″ Drive is another kind of floppy disk. Conversely, a 3.5′′ drive is
typically found in desktop computers and servers and has a bigger diameter of 3.5
inches.
 5.25″ Drive: A 5.25″ is a floppy disk drive that was a common computer
accessory. During the early nineties, computers with capacities ranging from 360
kilobytes to 1.2 gigabytes were also armed with floppy disk drives.
Advantages of Floppy Disk
Below are some advantages of Floppy Disk.
 Flexibility and comparably: Floppy drives have several benefits, one of which is
their flexibility and comparably small size. 3.5″ Drive floppy disks are smaller in
size than Compact Disks.
 Cost: Less costly than other storage devices portable and non-volatile which
means that data stored on them won’t be lost when the system is powered down
and compatible with the majority of computers.
 Compose Protection: Floppy disks also include a little score that provides a
feature called Write Protection, even with the plastic wrapping.
 Boot Disk: Floppy disk drives are often situated above the primary hard drives in
the boot order sequence.
Disadvantages of Floppy Disk
Below are some disadvantages of Floppy Disk.
 Capacity: The main disadvantage of this disks is their smaller capacity for storing
data when compared to more modern technologies like CDs, which have an
average capacity of 650–700 MB per disk.
 Dependability: A floppy disk drive and a variable capacity source were absent
from a vast majority of PCs.
 Easily Broke: The floppy disk, which is extremely flexible and fragile, was made
using a plastic shell. If someone handles it carelessly, it might break easily.
 Data Deletion: If the disk comes into touch with a magnetic field side, then data
may be deleted.
Difference Between Floppy Disk and Compact Disk
Floppy Disk Compact Disk

Floppy disks are a type of storage medium that Compact disk is an compression that
can read data storage information and are has the capacity to store data and it can
utilized to store electronic data. be accessed by computers.

Compact Disk keeps the platters in a

In floppy disk spindle hole is present on it. disk pack together with a freely rotating
spindle.
Floppy Disk Compact Disk

Compact Disk have a relatively high

Floppy disks have a relatively low capacity for
capacity for data storage than Floppy
data storage.
Disk.

Floppy Disk is comparatively smaller than Compact Disk is slightly bigger than
Compact Disk. Floppy Disk.

Compact disks offer higher levels of

In floppy disks data security is inadequate.
data protection.