CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1st Semester, A.Y. 2024 – 2025

GEE 13A – Environmental Science and Engineering
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
- the application of knowledge from many disciplines to the study and management of the
environment
- the examination of the conditions, circumstances, and influences that affect life and how life
responds
- an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical, biological and information
sciences (including ecology, biology, physics, chemistry, plant science, zoology, mineralogy,
oceanography, limnology, soil science, geology and physical geography, and atmospheric
science) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
- the application of science and engineering principles to improve the environment (air, water,
and/or land resources) to provide healthful water, air, and land for human habitation and
for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites

FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

1. Public Health Protection
- to help prevent the transmission of diseases among human beings
2. Environmental Health Protection
- to preserve the quality of our natural surroundings, including water, land, air, vegetation, and
wildlife

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental study is an important tool to educate people for preserving quality
environment. The main scope of environmental studies include:
1. The study creates awareness among the people to know about various renewable and
nonrenewable resources of the region. The endowment or potential, patterns of utilization
and the balance of various resources available for future use in the state of a country are
analyzed in the study.
2. It provides knowledge about ecological systems and cause and effect relationships.
3. It provides necessary information about biodiversity richness and the potential dangers to the
species of plants, animals, and microorganisms in the environment.
4. The study enables one to understand the causes and consequences due to natural and main
induced disasters (floods, earthquakes, landslides, cyclones etc.,) and pollutions and
measures to minimize the effects.
5. It enables one to evaluate alternative responses to environmental issues before deciding on
an alternative course of action.
6. The study enables environmentally literate citizens (by knowing the environmental acts, rights,
rules, legislations, etc.) to make appropriate judgments and decisions for the protection and
improvement of the earth.

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 7. The study exposes the problems of overpopulation, health, hygiene, etc. and the role of arts,
science, and technology in eliminating/ minimizing the evils from society.
8. The study tries to identify and develop appropriate and indigenous eco-friendly skills and
technologies to various environmental issues.
9. It teaches the citizens the need for sustainable utilization of resources as these resources are
inherited from our ancestors to the younger generation without deteriorating their quality.
10. The study enables theoretical knowledge into practice and the multiple uses of environment.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY

To solve the problem of pollution and contamination of the resources caused by industrial
activities, it is necessary to have knowledge of environmental studies.
1. By environmental studies, people will understand the concept of “need of development
without destruction of environment”.
2. Through environmental studies, people can gain knowledge of different types of
environments and the effects of different environmental hazards.
3. Environmental studies inform people about their effective role in protecting the environment
by demanding changes in laws and enforcement systems.
4. Environmental studies have a direct relation to the quality of life we live.
5. Environmental studies develop a concern and respect for the environment.

ENVIRONMENT
- all that surrounds us
- the sum total of all conditions and influences which affect the development and life of all
organisms on earth

FUNCTIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
These are the functions of the environment that support human life and economic activity:
1. Source Function
- production of raw materials from the natural resources of soil, water, forests, minerals and
marine life
2. Sink Function
- safe absorption (through breakdown, recycling or storage) of the wastes and pollution
produced by production and human life
3. Service Function
- provision of the environmental or ecosystem services that support life without requiring
human action, for example, climatic stability, biodiversity, ecosystem integrity and protection
from ultraviolet radiation
4. Spiritual Function
- intrinsic recreational, psychological, aesthetic and spiritual value of environments

COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
Atmosphere
Abiotic or
Hydrosphere
Physical Component
ENVIRONMENT Lithosphere
Biotic or
Biosphere
Biological Component

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Abiotic or Physical Component
- the non-living part of the environment
- can be broadly classified into 3 groups – atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere

1. Atmosphere
- the gaseous layer that envelopes the world and extends up to 500 km from the earth surface
- major components: Nitrogen (78.09%), Oxygen (20.94%), water vapor (0.1%)
- minor components: Argon (0.9%), carbon dioxide (0.032%)
- trace components: Neon (0.0018%), Helium (0.0005%), methane (0.0002), etc.

Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere

a. Troposphere
- the lower portion of the atmosphere and extends from 0 km to 12 – 18 km
- contains 70% of the mass of the atmosphere
- temperature deceases uniformly with increasing altitude, from 15°C to -56.5°C
- the air masses are constantly in circulation as energy flows due to imbalances in heating
and cooling rates between equator and the poles
- chemical constituents are O2, CO2, N2, and water (clouds)

b. Stratosphere
- lies above the troposphere and extends from 11 km to 50 km
- temperature increases with increase in altitude, from -56.5°C to -2.5°C
- main constituent is ozone which absorbs ultraviolet radiation and raises the temperature
- the ozone layer serves as a protective shield for life forms on earth from the harmful effects
of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation

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 c. Mesosphere
- lies above the stratosphere and extends from 40 – 50 km to 80 – 90 km
- temperature decreases with increase in altitude due to low levels of ultraviolet species
(ozone), from -2.5°C to -86.5°C
- main chemical constituents are N2, O2, O2+, NO+

d. Thermosphere or Ionosphere
- lies above the mesosphere and extends from 80 – 90 km to 800 km
- temperature increases with height, from -86.5°C to 1200°C near the top
- contains charged particles like O 2+, O+, NO+, etc.

e. Exosphere
- uppermost layer of the atmosphere and extends from 800 km to 3000 km
- temperature is very high due to direct solar radiation, increases with increase in altitude
- oxygen and nitric oxide ionize after absorption of solar radiation in the far ultraviolet
region
- chemical constituents are only H2 and He

2. Hydrosphere
- all the water on earth which is found in all three states which are gas, liquid, and solid
- as gas, water is found as water vapor in the atmosphere
- in liquid form, water is found in streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and oceans along with mist in the
air and as dew on the surface of the ground
- in solid form, water is found as ice and snow
- the total volume of water on Earth is estimated at 1.386 billion km³, with 97% is saltwater (unfit
for human consumption), 2.3% is locked in the polar ice caps, 0.7% is freshwater (0.66% is
ground water and the rest is freshwater in rivers, lakes, and streams)
- Hydrological Cycle
o helps in exchange of water between air, land, sea, living plants and animals
o based on massive evaporation of water from the seas and oceans, cloud formation and
condensation into rainfall
o ensures continuous circulation of water between the oceans, atmosphere and biosphere
(plants, animals and man)

The Hydrological Cycle

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3. Lithosphere
- the hard and rigid outer layer of the earth
- made of the mantle of rocks which are subjected to continuous weathering forces (rain, wind,
chemical and biological) and suffer disintegration that results to primitive soil suitable for the
growth of plants — after death and decay, plant debris returns to soil
- mineral component of soil comes from the parent rocks by weathering processes while the
organic component is due to plant biomass as well as populations of bacteria, fungi and
insects (earthworms)
- typical soil, suitable for agriculture, contains about 5% organic matter and 95% inorganic
matter
- soil plays an important role as it produces food for man and animals; good soil and good
agriculture are valuable assets for a nation
- plants draw water and nutrients from soil—they transport water into the plant body (roots and
leaves) and discharge excess water into the atmosphere through leaves through the process
of transpiration
- mountains provide natural frontier, shelter for tribals, important flora and fauna; they contain
forests which are important natural resources
- plateaus are rich in forest and mineral wealth
- plains account for maximum world population because of the convenience for cultivation,
communication, transport and industrial growth

Soil Profile

a. Top Soil
- also called the humus layer
- the layer of maximum biological productivity and is rich in organic material, hence, very
important for vegetation cover and agricultural crops
- reckless deforestation causes loss of top soil which means loss of agricultural production

b. Sub-soil
- receives organic matter, salts and clay particles leached from the top soil
- contains metal salts, especially iron oxide in a large proportion

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 c. Bedrock
- also known as parent rock from which soil was formed
- contains no organic matter and made up of stones and rocks, so it is very hard

Biotic or Biological Component

- includes all living things in the environment

4. Biosphere
- a narrow zone 600 meters above earth’s surface and 10,000 meters below sea level where
soil, water, and air combine to sustain life
- an area that contains all living organisms and the products of their activities
- oxygen and carbon dioxide level of atmosphere depend on the plant world

Connection of the Four Spheres of the Earth

NATURAL CYCLES
The Oxygen Cycle
- the process of biogeochemical transitions of oxygen atoms in its different forms in nature
among the environmental components – atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and
biosphere
- plays an important role in atmospheric chemistry, geo-chemical transformations and life
processes

1. Production of Free Oxygen

a. Photolysis: ultraviolet radiation of the sun breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous
oxide
b. Photosynthesis: plants make food and release oxygen as a byproduct
c. Weathering: oxygen-containing minerals in rocks gradually breaks down
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 2. Utilizing the Free Oxygen
a. Respiration: animals take in oxygen from the atmosphere and use it to break down
carbohydrates
b. Decomposition: invertebrates, including fungi, bacteria, and some insects, decay the
dead organic matter of plants and animals remains
c. Combustion: organic materials, including fossil fuels, plastics, and wood, are burned in
the presence of oxygen
d. Corrosion: metals like iron or alloy rust when they are exposed to moisture and oxygen for
an extended period, new compounds of oxides are formed by the combination of
oxygen with the metal

3. Utilizing Carbon Dioxide and Releasing Oxygen Back

a. Photosynthesis: plants utilize the carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere for preparing
food, thus completing the cycle

The Oxygen Cycle

The Nitrogen Cycle

- series of processes by which nitrogen and its different forms are circulated and
interconverted in nature with the help of living organisms
- shows the path that nitrogen follows through the biogeochemical cycle using its storage
reservoirs, such as the atmosphere, living organisms, and soil
- major load of nitrogenous organic residue in soil originates from death and decay of plants
and excreta of animals; these residues are taken up by various soil microorganisms for their
metabolism which give products such as ammonia, nitrates and nitrites

1. Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria

- converting inert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into biologically available forms such as
ammonia (NH3), nitrates, or nitrites

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 2. Nitrification by Bacteria
- converting ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate

3. Assimilation by Plants
- absorbing nitrogen from the soil and incorporating them in the plant and animal bodies

4. Ammonification by Decomposers
- converting the dead organic nitrogen of plants or animals back into ammonia

5. Denitrification by Denitrifiers
- reducing nitrates or nitrites and releasing gaseous nitrogen

The Nitrogen Cycle

The Carbon Cycle

- the circulation of carbon on earth in which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted to
organic nutrients through photosynthesis and is again converted back to the inorganic state
by respiration, decay, or combustion
- atmosphere is the minor reservoir of carbon dioxide while the oceans are the major reservoir,
containing as much as 50 times more as that of air where it is stored as bicarbonate mineral
deposit on the ocean floor

1. Role of Primary Producers

a. Photosynthesis: carbon present in the air as carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants, the
primary producers to produce food in the form of carbohydrates
b. Cellular Respiration: respiration by plants returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, thus
once again contributing to the cycle in a different manner

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 2. Role of Primary Consumers
a. Carbon Fixation: primary consumers such as cows and horses use plants as their food,
and carbon gets accumulated and fixed into their bodies in the form of organic carbon
b. Cellular Respiration: respiration by animals release carbon dioxide back to the
atmosphere

3. Role of Detritus Feeders

a. Decomposition: once plants and animals die, the fixed organic carbon is released back
into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas by the detritus feeders

4. Role of Fossils and Fossil Fuels

a. Combustion: carbon that is leftover in the body of the dead organisms after decay
becomes fossil fuels over many years, which on combustion releases the carbon stored
in them back to the atmosphere, thus completing the cycle

The Carbon Cycle

The Phosphorous Cycle

- shows the movement of phosphorus and its different forms in nature with the help of living
organisms
- phosphates are necessary for the growth and maintenance of animal and human bones
and teeth while organo-phosphates are required for cell division involving production of
nuclear DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)

1. Weathering
- over long periods, phosphates found in the sedimentary rocks as PO 43- are leached out
of the disintegrated rocks from its various environmental sources in the form of inorganic
phosphate ions
- other than weathering, volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust also serve as other
significant phosphate sources

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 2. Mineralization by Plants
- plants absorb organic phosphorus present in soil and underground water and convert
them to inorganic forms for utilization is called mineralization
- the aquatic plants absorb inorganic phosphorus from lower layers of water bodies due
to their low solubility in water

3. Assimilation by Animals
- herbivorous and carnivorous animals, including humans, absorb phosphorus when they
consume these plants for their food, a process known as assimilation
- animals obtain phosphorus directly from drinking water

4. Decomposition by Microorganisms
- microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi decompose organic phosphates back into
the inorganic form, which is then returned to the soil and water bodies
- phosphorus-containing compounds may also be carried in the surface runoff to rivers,
lakes, and oceans to form sediments

5. Geological Uplift by Tectonic Movements

- over long periods, sedimentary rocks containing phosphorus may be moved from the
ocean to the land, thus phosphorous deposited as sediments are ultimately released
back into the environment through the process of weathering, thus completing the cycle

The Phosphorous Cycle

The Sulfur Cycle

- shows the collection of processes by which sulfur moves in its different forms between the
terrestrial, aquatic and living systems on earth
- sulfur is present in all kinds of proteins and plants directly absorb sulfur-containing amino acids
such as methionine, cystine, and cysteine

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- sulfur is released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels, volcanic activities, and
decomposition of organic molecules
- on land, sulfur is stored in underground rocks and minerals and is released by precipitation,
weathering of rocks and geothermal vents

1. Formation of Inorganic Sulfur

a. Biological: by decomposers present in the soil
b. Geological: through weathering of rocks formed from geological uplift

2. Oxidation of Inorganic Sulfur to Sulfate (SO42−)

- hydrogen sulfide is oxidized to produce elemental sulfur by certain photosynthetic
bacteria such as Chlorobiaceae and Chromatiaceae species
- elemental sulfur is then converted to sulfate by chemolithotrophic bacteria

3. Assimilative Reduction of Sulfate to Sulfide (S2−)

- also known as sulfur reduction, it is performed by plants, fungi and various microorganisms
such as Desulfovibrio and Desulfobulbus species in two steps: sulfates are converted to
sulfites and reduction of sulfites to hydrogen sulfides

4. Incorporation of Sulfide into Organic Compounds

- the sulfide assimilated is converted into an organic form which the animals consume and
fix through the foods they eat
- once these plants and animals die, decomposers release the fixed organic sulfur back
into its free form as elemental sulfur

The Sulfur Cycle

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