Lesson 1: Waves and Particles

▪ Electromagnetic radiation
▪ Nature of photons
▪ The photoelectric effect
▪ Compton effect
▪ De Broglie wavelength
 Waves and Particles
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic spectrum
 Waves and Particles

Electromagnetic radiation
▪ Light is one member of the family of electromagnetic radiation which
forms a continuous spectrum beyond both ends of the visible (light)
spectrum
▪ While each type of radiation has a different source, all result from
electrons in atoms undergoing an energy change and all have certain
properties in common.
 Waves and Particles
Common Properties
▪ All types of electromagnetic radiation travel through a vacuum at
300000km/s (3 × 108m/s), i.e. with the speed of light.
▪ They exhibit interference, diffraction, and polarization, which suggests
they have a transverse wave nature.
▪ They obey the wave equation, v = fλ, where v is the speed of light, f is
the frequency of the waves and λ is the wavelength. Since v is
constant for a particular medium, it follows that large f means small λ.
 Waves and Particles
Common Properties
▪ They carry energy from one place to another and can be absorbed by
matter to cause heating and other effects.
▪ The higher the frequency and the smaller the wavelength of the
radiation, the greater is the energy carried,
For example, gamma rays are more ‘energetic’ than radio
waves. This is shown by the photoelectric effect in which electrons are
ejected from metal surfaces when electromagnetic waves fall on them.
 Waves and Particles
Particle behavior of light
▪ Scientists discovered that light and other electromagnetic radiation can
display particle like behavior.
▪ This behavior requires different approach to the nature of
electromagnetic radiation.
▪ The approach requires a quantum of radiation (a photon).
▪ It was discovered that light can only deposit a discrete amount of
energy (unbreakable packet (photon) has energy).
 Waves and Particles
Particle behavior of light
So how much energy is a photon?
The work of Planck and Einstein established a fact that the energy of a
photon is linearly dependent on the frequency f of the light with which it is
associated:
E = hf, where h is plank’s constant h = 6.626×10-34J·s
E.g What is the energy of one violet photon??
From the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength (λ) of violet light is
0.4µm.
 Waves and Particles
Particle behavior of light
So how much energy is a photon?
The work of Planck and Einstein established a fact that the energy of a
photon is linearly dependent on the frequency f of the light with which it is
associated:
E = hf, where h is plank’s constant h = 6.626×10-34J·s
E.g What is the energy of one violet photon??
c = hf, f = c/λ, f = 7.5×1014s-1,
E = 5×10-19J
 Waves and Particles
E.g. The energy of photon X is E. If photon Y has twice the wavelength
as that of photon X, the energy of photon Y is?
 The photoelectric effect
In the experiment called the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from a metal surface by light shining on it.
What classical mechanics suggested:
Higher Amplitude

Intensity
More # of photons

o When the intensity of the light increases, eventually electrons will be

ejected from the metal
o If the energy indeed is enough to remove the electron from the metal,
and we increase the intensity of the light, then the kinetic energy of the
ejected electrons will increase.
o Regardless of f, the electron is emitted when the amplitude is enough.
What classical mechanics suggested:
Higher Amplitude

Intensity
More # of photons

o When the intensity of the light increases, eventually electrons will be

ejected from the metal
o If the energy indeed is enough to remove the electron from the metal,
and we increase the intensity of the light, then the kinetic energy of the
ejected electrons will increase.
o Regardless of f, the electron is emitted when the amplitude is enough.
 The photoelectric effect
• According to Einstein, when light shines on a metal, a photon can give up its energy
to an electron in the metal. If the photon has enough energy to do the work of
removing the electron from the metal, the electron can leave the metal.
• If the photon has too little energy, the energy will just be used in the metal for other
purposes like warming up the metal but no electron will leave the metal plate.
• The work required to remove an electron from the metal plate depends on how
strongly the electron is held by the metal.
• For each kind of metal, electrons are only ejected from the metal if the light being
used had a frequency higher than a certain value (cut-off frequency (f0))
 The photoelectric effect
• The most loosely held electrons require the smallest amount of work. The energy
required to remove the most loosely held electrons in a metal is called the
metal’s work function, W0.
• If a photon happens to have more energy than the work needed to remove an
electron, the extra energy becomes the kinetic energy of the ejected electron.
Potential difference (stopping potential)

K = qV
K = Ephoton - W The most loosely held electrons(less W) get the most
kinetic energy.
Kinetic Energy of Energy of a Work function
photoelectrons photon

Maximum kinetic energy = photon energy – work needed to eject the electron
 The photoelectric effect
• The results from one photoelectric effect experiment in which the frequency f of the light
source was being varied are plotted in the following graph. The maximum kinetic energy is
plotted along the y axis and f along the x axis.
 The photoelectric effect
• As you change the frequency used to eject photoelectrons, if you measure the maximum kinetic
energy, the graph is a straight line that crosses the x axis at a certain frequency f = f0.
• Notice that when the light coming from the source has this particular frequency f0, the maximum
kinetic energy is zero (KEmax = 0).
• This means that the photons being used have exactly the energy required to remove the most loosely
held electrons in the metal plate (= work function).
• There is no extra energy left over to become kinetic energy of the electron. At this frequency f0, the
energy of the photon is
E = hf0.
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓0 = 𝑊0
• which means that: 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑊0 = ℎ𝑓0 − 𝑊0 = 0
 The photoelectric effect
• From this experiment, you can plot such a graph and determine the metal’s work function:
➢ You need to determine the x-axis intercept (= f 0).
➢ The work function of the metal is then 𝑊0 = ℎ𝑓0.
Also, such an experiment can be used to determine the value of Planck’s constant. If you look at
the equation:
𝑲𝑬max = 𝒉𝒇 − 𝑾0 This is the equation of a straight line
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
KEmax is y
h is m (the gradient)
-W0 is c (the y-axis intercept which is a negative intercept)
Different metals have different work
functions so that you end up with
different graphs for different metals
From the graph we can see that:
➢ potassium has the smallest cut-off frequency. This means that potassium has the lowest work
function. The loosest electrons in potassium are much looser than the loosest electrons in all
the other metals.
➢ the work function of potassium is the y-intercept shown in the diagram but you must get rid of
the minus since the work function must be positive. You’ll always get a negative y-intercept
but the work function is positive.
➢ The gradient of all the graphs is the same. If you look at the straight line graph equation
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑊0, the gradient of the graph of KEmax versus f is Planck’s constant h. That
means the gradient of all the four line graphs above is h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s -1
➢ when the frequency is less than f0 for each metal, no electrons are able to leave the metal. The
energy of the arriving photons is used for other purposes which are not the photoelectric
effect.
 The photoelectric effect

Example: An experiment shows that when electromagnetic radiation of

wavelength 270 nm falls on an aluminum surface, photoelectrons are emitted.
The most energetic of these are stopped by a potential difference of 0.406 volts.
Use this information to calculate the work function of aluminum.

Solution: The kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectrons is given by the
electron charge times the potential that stops the photoelectrons:

K = eV = (1.6 10−19 C)(0.405 V) = 0.65 10−19 J

The photon energy is

hc (6.63 10−34 J s)(3.00 108 m/s) −19

E = hf = = −9
= 7.37  10 J
 270 10 m
The difference is the work function:

−19 6.72 10−19 J

W = E − K = 6.72 10 J= −19
= 4.2 eV
1.6 10 J / eV
21
E.g. Light of wavelength 600nm is directed at a metallic surface
with a work function of 1.60 eV. Calculate
a. the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron.

b. the maximum speed of the photoelectron.

c. the stopping potential of the metal.

1. Light of wavelength 600nm is directed at a metallic surface
with a work function of 1.60 eV. Calculate
a. the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
[7.6x10-20J]
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectron. [4.1 x 105m
s-1]
c. the stopping potential of the metal. [0.48 V]
1. Why is it that only light with a frequency above the cut-off frequency f0 will eject
electrons?
Classical Physics – At any frequency even below the cut-off frequency, if the light is made
much brighter or stays ON for long enough, the electrons will eventually have enough energy to
leave the metal. Unfortunately, this was not what was happening experimentally. Even if the
light was very bright or was ON for a very long time, as long as the frequency was below the
cut-off frequency, there were no photoelectrons and no photocurrent so that the ammeter read
ZERO current!
Quantum Physics - If the photon has a frequency lower than the metal’s cut-off frequency f0,
the photon’s energy will be below the metal’s work function W0 and therefore, it cannot eject an
electron. Even if the light is made brighter or is kept ON for a much longer time, ZERO
photoelectrons will be emitted.
2. Why does the maximum kinetic energy (KEmax) of the ejected electrons not increase
when the intensity of the light is increased without changing the frequency?

Classical Physics – If the light is more and more bright, the electrons will receive more and more energy which
means they will have more and more extra energy for kinetic energy. The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons was therefore expected to keep increasing. They were measuring the maximum kinetic energy using
the voltage needed to stop the photoelectrons from reaching the collector. It is harder to stop photoelectrons with
more kinetic energy, so you need a larger stopping voltage. In photoelectric experiments, if the light’s brightness is
increased at constant frequency, the stopping voltage does not change which means that the maximum kinetic
energy doesn’t seem to change!
Quantum Physics - As the light intensity increases, more photons per second strike the metal, and the result is not
that electrons get more extra energy to move faster but instead it is ‘more electrons per second’ are ejected.
Therefore, at constant frequency, the maximum kinetic energy stays the same, but the photocurrent increases (more
electrons).
3. Why is it that above the cut-off frequency, it doesn’t matter how dim the light is, there
will be some photoelectrons and therefore some photocurrent immediately after switching
the light ON?

Classical Physics – Even if the light has a frequency above the cut-off frequency, when the light is switched ON,
the electrons will first take some time while collecting energy from the light waves arriving and then after some
time when they have received enough energy to leave the metal plate, they will leave the metal plate. Photocurrent
will not show immediately as you switch ON the light but after a bit of time. In the experiment, this does not
happen. As long as the frequency is above the cut-off frequency, the photocurrent begins immediately after you
switch ON the light!
Quantum Physics – If the light has a frequency above the cut-off frequency, as soon as a photon arrives at the plate
which is pretty much almost when the light is switched ON, the electron leaves the metal immediately. That is why a
photocurrent is seen on the ammeter almost as soon as the light is switched ON!
 The Compton effect
• Arthur Compton successfully managed to use Einstein’s photon model to explain his research
on the scattering of X-rays when they collided with electrons in graphite.
• X-rays are high-frequency EM waves and just like light, they are made up of photons. The
following diagram shows what happens when an X-ray photon strikes an electron in a piece of
graphite.
The Compton effect
 The Compton effect
• Like two balls colliding on a table, the X-ray photon scatters in one direction after the
collision, and the electron that was stationery now starts moving and it recoils in another
direction. Compton observed that:
1. the scattered photon has a frequency f’ that is smaller than the frequency f of the
incident X-ray photon. This indicates that the photon loses some of its energy during the
collision since hf > hf’
2. the stationary electron starts moving. This indicates that the electron gains some
energy since now has kinetic energy it did not have before. Does it get the energy from the
photon. If that is true, does that mean photons from electromagnetic waves interact with
particles of matter the way we see in ordinary mechanics (collisions) swapping energy?
 The Compton effect
• Compton then treated the X-ray wave’s photon as if it were a particle colliding with an
electron. According to the principle of conservation of energy,
• Energy of incident photon = energy of scattered photon + kinetic energy of recoiling electron
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 ′ + 𝐾𝐸
The scattered photon’s energy is then
hf’ = hf – KE.
Which is the incoming photon’s energy minus the kinetic energy it gives to the electron.
• The energy hf’ and frequency f’ of the scattered photon must therefore be less than the energy
hf and frequency f of the incident photon respectively, exactly as observed by Compton.
 The Compton effect
• Since c = fλ, the scattered photon has a lower frequency and longer wavelength. Frequency
𝑐
and wavelength are inversely proportional (𝜆= ).
𝑓

• In ordinary mechanics, the conservation of total linear momentum requires that

𝒑⃗ = 𝒑⃗′ + 𝒑⃗(𝒆)
Momentum of incident photon = momentum of scattered photon + momentum of recoiling
electron
• But how do you determine the momentum of a photon when it is a wave and has no mass. You
can’t use p = mv, the usual equation to find momentum.
• Compton came up with a new equation to determine the momentum of a photon which is

ℎ As long as you know the wavelength of the X-ray waves, you can
P= determine the momentum of the X-ray’s photon using this relationship.
𝜆
 The Compton effect
• When he used this relationship, the conservation of linear momentum equation balanced
experimentally, that is
𝒑⃗ = 𝒑⃗′ + 𝒑⃗𝑒
• Compton simplified this vector equation, taking into account the angle θ and he found that the
difference between the wavelength λ′ of the scattered photon and the wavelength λ of the
incident photon given by

h
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

h
• In this equation 𝑚𝑒 is the mass of the electron. The quantity is a constant called the
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

h
Compton wavelength of an electron and has the value = 2.43 x 10-12 m.
𝑚𝑒 𝑐
 The Compton effect
h
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

h
𝜆′ = 𝜆 + (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚0 𝑐

The angle at which the photon is

Compton wavelength (of the
scatted
scattered particle

The amount at which the exact amount of 𝜆 of the photon changes depends on two things:
1. The angle from which it was scattered.
2. The mass of the particle it strikes.
 The Compton effect
• Example:
• X-Ray of wavelength 2 Å are scattered from a material. The scattered photons are observed at
right angle to the incident beam. Calculate:
a) The wavelength of the scattered photon.
b) Energy of the recoil electron.
 The Compton effect
• Example:
• X-Ray of wavelength 2 Å are scattered from a material. The scattered photons are observed at
right angle to the incident beam. Calculate:
a) The wavelength of the scattered photon. 2.024 Å
b) Energy of the recoil electron. 1.179×10-17J
 The Compton effect
Example 2:
• In a Compton scattering experiment, the incident radiation has a wavelength of 2.00 Å, while
the wavelength of the radiation scattered through 180⸰ is 2.048 Å. Calculate:
a) The wavelength of the radiation scattered at an angle of 60⸰ to the direction of the
incidence.
b) The energy of the recoil electron which scatters the radiation through 60⸰.
 The De Broglie Wavelength
• In 1923, Louis de Broglie made the shocking suggestion that since light waves could exhibit
particle-like behavior, particles of matter should also exhibit wave-like behaviour.
• He proposed that all moving matter has a wavelength just like a wave does. Since his
suggestion has proved true, nowadays we call the wavelength of any matter, the de Broglie
wavelength.
• He suggested that the wavelength (λ) of a particle in matter is given by re-arranging the same
relation that was used by Compton to calculate the momentum of photon,
ℎ
• The de Broglie wavelength is therefore, 𝜆 = where h is Planck’s constant and p is the
𝑃

magnitude of the particle’s momentum. If you know the momentum of any particle (any object
really), you can determine its de Broglie wavelength.
 The De Broglie Wavelength
• The scientists who confirmed de Broglie’s suggestion
(hypothesis) were Davisson and Germer in 1927 and in
separate experiments, Thomson. Davisson and Germer
directed a beam of electrons onto a nickel crystal and
observed that the electrons produced a diffraction pattern
(wave-like behavior).
• Electrons which we know are particles were producing a
diffraction pattern. The de Broglie wavelength of the
electrons is obtained using λ= h/p since you know the
momentum of an electron (p = mv). In more recent
experiments, scientists have carried out Young’s double-slit
experiment using electrons and they have showed the
effects of wave interference (see the screen in the diagram)
 The De Broglie Wavelength
• Other particles can also exhibit this wave-like properties, producing diffraction pictures. For
example, neutrons are sometimes used in diffraction studies of crystal structure.
• Although all moving particles have a de Broglie wavelength, diffraction using particles is
observable only for particles whose masses are very small, on the order of the mass of sub-
atomic particles like an electron or a neutron. The picture becomes less and less defined when
the wavelength and the slit spacing or crystal spacing are far too different in sizes.
 The De Broglie Wavelength
• The photograph below shows a highly magnified view of a female mosquito, made with a
scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The microscope used for the photograph takes
advantage of the electron’s de Broglie
wavelength, which we can easily adjust
experimentally to much smaller than the
wavelength of visible light.
You accelerate the electrons through a voltage V
and the electrons get energy E = eV = ½mev2 .
That makes the electrons move with a velocity
𝑣 = √2𝑒𝑉/𝑚e .
From there, 𝜆= ℎ/𝑝 = ℎ/𝑚𝑒√2𝑒𝑉/𝑚𝑒 = ℎ/√2𝑒𝑉𝑚𝑒
It is the small electron wavelength obtainable
with electrons that is responsible for the
exceptional resolution of fine detail in this
photograph.
 The De Broglie Wavelength
• Example:
1. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a 0.05 eV electron.
2. Through what potential must you accelerate an electron so that it has a wavelength of
1.0nm?