Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table

Protons, Neutrons & Electrons

• Elements are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms

• Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons
• Their size is so tiny that we can’t really compare their masses in conventional units such as
kilograms or grams, so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used
• One relative atomic mass unit is equal to the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• All other elements are measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom and since these are
ratios, the relative atomic mass has no units
• Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of hydrogen
would have exactly the same mass as 1 atom of carbon
• The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are shown below:

Defining Proton Number

• The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
The symbol for this number is Z
• It is also the number of electrons present in an atom and determines the position of the
element on the Periodic Table

Defining Nucleon Number

• Nucleon number (or mass number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom. The symbol for this number is A
• The nucleon number minus the proton number gives you the number of neutrons of an atom
• Note that protons and neutrons can collectively be called nucleons.
• The atomic number and mass number for every element is on the Periodic Table
 Diagram showing the notation used on the Periodic Table

Electrons (symbol e–)

• These subatomic particles move very fast around the nucleus

• They move in orbital paths called shells
• The mass of the electron is negligible, hence the mass of an atom is contained within the
nucleus where the neutron and proton reside
The structure of the carbon atom
 The
symbol key for carbon as represented on the Periodic Table

Exam Tip

Both the atomic number and the mass number are given on the Periodic Table but it can be easy to
confuse them.

Think MASS = MASSIVE, as the mass number is always the bigger of the two numbers, the other
smaller one is thus the atomic / proton number.

The Basis of the Periodic Table

• Elements are arranged on the Periodic table in order of increasing atomic number where
each element has one proton more than the element preceding it
• Hydrogen has 1 proton, helium has 2 protons, lithium has 3 etc.
• The table is arranged in vertical columns called Groups numbered I – VIII and in rows
called Periods
• Elements in the same group have the same amount of electrons in their outer shell, which
gives them similar chemical properties

The Periodic Table

Exam Tip

The proton number is unique to each element and could be considered as an element’s “fingerprint”.
Electrons come and go during chemical processes but the proton number doesn’t change.

Defining Isotopes

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and
electrons but a different number of neutrons.
• The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and then the
mass number.
• So C-14 is the isotope of carbon which contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 14 – 6 = 8
neutrons.

The atomic structure and symbols of the three isotopes of hydrogen:

Types of Isotope

• Isotopes can be divided into two categories: radioactive and non-radioactive

• Radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) are unstable due to the imbalance of neutrons and
protons, which causes the nucleus to decay over time through nuclear fission and
emit radiation. Examples of radioisotopes include tritium and carbon-14
• Decay occurs at a different rate for each isotope, but the time taken for the radioactivity of an
isotope to decrease by 50% is constant for that particular isotope and is known as the half-life
• Radioactive isotopes have numerous medical and industrial uses
• Non-radioactive isotopes are stable atoms which really only differ in their mass

Uses of Radioactive Isotopes

Medical uses

• Radiation is extremely harmful and kills cells so isotopes are used to treat cancer. The isotope
cobalt-60 is frequently used for this purpose
• Medical tracers as certain parts of the body absorb isotopes and others do not. In this way an
isotope can be injected into the blood and its path through the body traced with a radioactive
detecting camera, revealing the flow of blood through bodily systems
• Medical instruments and materials are routinely sterilized by exposure to radiation, which
kills any bacteria present

Industrial uses
 • Radioactive dating uses the carbon-14 isotope to date carbon-containing materials such as
organic matter, rocks and other artefacts. The half-life of C-14 is 5730 years and so this
technique is often used to date very old historical objects
• Similar to medical use, radioactive tracers are deployed to detect leaks in gas or oil pipes
• The radioactive isotope uranium-235 is used as nuclear in power plants in controlled fission
reactions

Exam Tip

Radioactive decay is a random process which occurs inside the nucleus and is independent of
temperature, pressure, pH etc. It is a nuclear process and is not considered a chemical reaction.

Extended Only
Why Isotopes Share Properties

• Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics

• This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells and this is what
determines an atom’s chemistry
• The difference between isotopes is the neutrons which are neutral particles within the nucleus
and add mass only

Electron Shells

Electronic structure

• We can represent the structure of the atom in two ways: using diagrams
called electron shell diagrams or by writing out a special notation called
the electronic configuration

Electron shell diagrams

• Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells (or energy levels) and each shell has a different amount
of energy associated with it
• The further away from the nucleus then the more energy a shell has.
• Electrons occupy the shell closest to the nucleus which can hold only 2 electrons and which
go in separately
• When a shell becomes full electrons then fill the next shell
• The second shell can hold 8 electrons and the third shell can hold eighteen electrons and the
electrons organise themselves in pairs in these shells
• The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and an atom is much more stable if
it can manage to completely fill this shell with electrons
 The electron shells

Electronic configuration

• The arrangement of electrons in shells can also be explained using numbers

• There is a clear relationship between the outer shell electrons and how the Periodic Table is
designed
• The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of shells of
electrons the atom has, showing the Period in which that element is in
• The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the Group that
element is in
• Elements in the same Group have the same number of outer shell electrons
 The electronic configuration for chlorine

Period: The red numbers at the bottom show the number of notations which is 3, showing that a
chlorine atom has 3 shells of electrons

Group: The green box highlights the last notation which is 7, showing that a chlorine atom has 7
outer electrons
 The position of chlorine on the Periodic Table

The noble gases

• The atoms of the Group 8/0 elements all have 8 electrons in their outer shells, with the
exception of helium which has 2. But since helium has only 2 electrons in total and thus the
first shell is full (which is the only shell), it is thus the outer shell so helium also has a full
valency shell
• All of the noble gases are unreactive as they have full outer shells and are thus very stable
• All elements wish to fill their outer shells with electrons as this is a much more stable and
desirable configuration
 The noble gases are on the Periodic Table in Group 8/0

The electronic configuration of the first twenty elements

Note: although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the filling of the shells follows a more
complicated pattern after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the third shell holds 8 and
the remaining electrons (for reasons of stability) occupy the fourth shell first before filling the third
shell.

Types of Substance & Properties

Elements, compounds and mixtures

• All substances can be classified into one of these three types

Element

• A substance made of atoms that all contain the same number of protons (one type of atom)
and cannot be split into anything simpler
• There is a limited number of elements and all elements are found on the Periodic Table
• Eg hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen

Compound

• A pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined

• There is an unlimited number of compounds
• Compounds cannot be separated into their elements by physical means
• Eg copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), carbon dioxide (CO2)

Mixture

• A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that

are not chemically combined
• Mixtures can be separated by physical methods such as filtration or evaporation
• Eg sand and water, oil and water, sulphur powder and iron filings
 Particle diagram showing elements, compounds and mixtures

Metals and nonmetals

• The Periodic Table contains over 100 different elements

• They can be divided into two broad types: metals and nonmetals
• Most of the elements are metals and a small number of elements display properties of both
types. These elements are called metalloids or semimetals
 The metallic character diminishes moving left to right across the Periodic Table

Properties of metals

• Conduct heat and electricity

• Are malleable and ductile (can be hammered and pulled into different shapes)
• Tend to be lustrous (shiny)
• Have high density and usually have high melting points
• Form positive ions through electron loss
• Form basic oxides

Properties of nonmetals
 • Do not conduct heat and electricity
• Are brittle and delicate when solid and easily break up
• Tend to be dull and nonreflective
• Have low density and low melting points (many are gases at room temperature)
• Form negative ions through electron gain (except for hydrogen)
• Form acidic oxides

Describing Alloys

• Alloys are mixtures of metals, where the metals are mixed together but are not chemically
combined
• They can be made from metals mixed with nonmetals such as carbon
• Alloys often have properties that can be very different to the metals they contain, for
example they can have more strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or
extreme temperatures
• Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the regular arrangements of atoms
• This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so they are usually much
harder than the pure metal
• Brass is a common example of an alloy which contains 70% copper and 30% zinc

Particle diagram showing a mixture of elements in an alloy

Ions & Ionic Bonds
The Formation of Ions

Ions

• An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by

the loss or gain of electrons
• This loss or gain of electrons takes place to gain a full outer shell of electrons
• The electronic structure of an ion will be the same as that of a noble gas – such as helium,
neon and argon

Formation of positively charged sodium ion

 Formation of negatively charged chloride ion

Ionisation of metals and non-metals

• Metals: all metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged ions
• Non-metals: all non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively charged
ions

Electrostatic attraction

• The positive and negative charges are held together by the strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between opposite
• This is what holds ionic compounds together
 Electrostatic forces between the positive Na ion and negative Cl ion

Extended Only
Ionic Bonds between Metallic & Non-Metallic Elements

Example: Sodium Chloride, NaCl

 Sodium chloride ionic
bonding
Explanation

• Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to gain a full outer
shell of electrons.
• A positive sodium ion with the charge +1 is formed.
• Chlorine is a group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full outer shell of
electrons.
• One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the outer shell of
the chlorine atom.
• A chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negatively charged chloride ion with a charge
of -1.

Formula of ionic compound: NaCl

Example: Magnesium Oxide, MgO

Diagram showing the dot-and-cross diagram of magnesium oxide

Explanation

• Magnesium is a group 2 metal so will lose two outer electrons to another atom to have a full
outer shell of electrons
• A positive ion with the charge +2 is formed
 • Oxygen is a group 6 non-metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a full outer shell of
electrons
• Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the magnesium atom to the outer
shell of the oxygen atom
• Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge -2

Formula of ionic compound: MgO

Extended Only
The Lattice Structure of Ionic Compounds

Lattice structure

• Lattice structure refers to the arrangement of the atoms of a substance in 3D space

• In lattice structures, the atoms are arranged in an ordered and repeating
• The lattices formed by ionic compounds consist of
a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions

The lattice structure of NaCl

3.3 Molecules & Covalent Bonds
Single Covalent Bonds

Covalent compounds

• Covalent compounds are formed when electrons are shared between atoms
• Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding
• As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons
• When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, we describe them as ‘molecules’

Covalent
bonding in non-metals

Hydrogen:
Chlorine:

H2O:
CH4 (methane):
NH3 (ammonia):
HCl:

Ionic & Covalent Compounds

• Ionic compounds
 o Have high melting and boiling points so ionic compounds are usually solid at room
temperature
o Not volatile so they don’t evaporate easily
o Usually water-soluble as both ionic compounds and water are polar
o Conduct electricity in molten state or in solution as they have ions that can move and
carry a charge

• Covalent compounds
o Have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are
usually liquids or gases at room temperature
o Usually volatile which is why many covalent organic compounds have distinct aromas
o Usually not water-soluble as covalent compounds tend to be nonpolar but can
dissolve in organic solvents
o Cannot conduct electricity as all electrons are involved in bonding so there are no free
electrons or ions to carry the charge

Extended Only
Electron Arrangement in Complex Covalent Molecules

Nitrogen:

C2H4 (ethene):
CH3OH (methanol):

CO2:
Extended Only
Melting & Boiling Points of Ionic & Covalent Compounds

• Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points

• This is because the oppositely charged ions in the lattice structure are attracted to each other
by strong electrostatic forces which hold them firmly in place
• Large amounts of energy are needed to overcome these forces so the m.p. and b.p. are high
• Simple covalent substances, such as carbon dioxide and methane, have very strong covalent
bonds between the atoms in each molecule, but much weaker intermolecular forces between
individual molecules
• When one of these substances melts or boils, it is these weak intermolecular forces that
break, not the strong covalent bonds
• Less energy is needed to break the molecules apart, so they have lower m.p. and b.p. than
ionic compounds
Macromolecules
Giant Covalent Structures

• Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon which have giant covalent structures
• This class of substances contains a lot of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent atoms by
covalent bonds forming a giant lattice structure
• Giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points as they have many strong
covalent bonds that need to be broken down
• Large amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces and break down bonds

Diamond, graphite and fullerene are examples of giant covalent structures

Uses of Giant Covalent Structures

Diamond

• Each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron
• All the covalent bonds are identical and strong with no weak intermolecular forces
• Diamond thus:
o Does not conduct electricity
o Has a very high melting point
o Is extremely hard and dense (3.51 g/cm3)
• Diamond is used in jewellery and as cutting tools
• The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with diamonds
• Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond-tipped

Graphite
 • Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagonal-shaped forms,
leaving one free electron per carbon atom
• These free electrons exist in between the layers and are free to move and carry charge, hence
graphite can conduct electricity
• The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the layers are connected to each other
by weak intermolecular forces only, hence the layers can slide over each other making
graphite slippery and smooth
• Graphite thus:
o Conducts electricity
o Has a very high melting point
o Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond (2.25 g/cm3)
• Graphite is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks
• It is also used to make non-reactive electrodes for electrolysis

Extended Only
The Structure of Silicon(IV) Oxide (Silicon Dioxide)

• SiO2 is a macromolecular compound which occurs naturally as sand and quartz

• Each oxygen atom forms covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms and each silicon atom in turn
forms covalent bonds with 4 oxygen atoms
• A tetrahedron is formed with one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms, similar as in diamond
Diagram showing the structure of SiO2 with the silicon atoms in blue and the oxygen atoms in red

Extended Only
Diamond & Silicon(IV) Properties

• SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent bonds and no intermolecular forces so it has similar
properties to diamond
• It is very hard, has a very high boiling point, is insoluble in water and does not conduct
electricity
• SiO2 is cheap since it is available naturally and is used to make sandpaper and to line the
inside of furnace
• TEST YOURSELF
Metallic Bonding
Extended Only
Electrical Conductivity & Malleability of Metals

• Metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding

• Within the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and become positively charged
• The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be delocalised
• They move freely between the positive metal ions like a sea of electrons
• Metallic bonds are strong and are a result of the attraction between the positive metal ions and
the negatively charged delocalised electrons

Diagram showing metallic lattice structure with delocalised electrons

Link between metallic bonding and the properties of metals

• Metals have high melting and boiling points

 o There are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures
o A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break these bonds

• Metals conduct electricity

o There are free electrons available to move and carry charge
o Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to displace itself
from the other end
o Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted

• Metals are malleable and ductile

o Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different positions
o Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the valence electrons do not belong to any
particular metal atom so the delocalised electrons will move with them
o Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result metals are strong but flexible
o They can be hammered and bent into different shapes without breaking