Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 1

Chapter 1 : Basics for Electronics

1.1 Introduction
Electronics has been the key to the development of modern technology based civilization. The
electronics experts have great contribution to build up this technology based civilization. A lot of
researches are going on to improve the performance of electronics based systems and to invent
more and more new electronics systems. Different institutions in Bangladesh and abroad, teaches
electronics courses both theoretical and practical. The aim of this book is to discuss the theoretical
and practical topics of electronics for undergraduate levels. This chapter does not include the main
theories of electronics, rather discusses some topics that are directly or indirectly related to
electronics and helps understanding the main theories of electronics.

1.2 Different Kinds of Formulas

In science, a formula is a concise way of expressing information symbolically, as in a mathematical
formula or a chemical formula. The informal use of the term formula refers to the general
relationship between some quantities. The formula may be equality, and inequality, or other
mathematical description. In this book, we will find many formulas used for different purposes.
Mainly formulas are used in three ways as described below.
1.2.1 Definition
When we study electricity and electronics, we come across a lot of new words like current, voltage,
and resistance, and so on. Only a verbal explanation of these words is not enough to understand
them clearly and apply them for problems solving. So, we use verbal description as well as
mathematical formula to define them, for better understanding. These mathematical formulas help
use to use the new terms to solve related problems.
Here is an example of a definition. In our earlier courses, we already learnt that the capacitance is
defined as the ability to store charge for a particular voltage. The formula for this definition will be:
𝑄
𝐶= (1-1)
𝑉
Where, 𝐶 is the capacitance, 𝑄 is the charge stored in the capacitor, and 𝑉 is the potential
difference across the capacitor. This formula is a definition. It tells us what capacitance C is and
how to calculate it. It also helps us to calculate the other parameters as:
𝑄
𝑉= (1-2)
𝐶
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 (1-3)
In summary, definitions are formulas that a researcher creates. They are based on scientific
observation and form the basis for the study of electronics, and, of course, in other fields.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 2

1.2.2 Law
Scientific laws are natural phenomena that the scientific community has found to be true (up to the
present time). Generally, laws describe what will happen in a given situation as demonstrable by a
mathematical equation or description. Generally, scientific laws are described by theories. A
scientific theory is a description of the natural world that scientists have proven through rigorous
testing, studying and observing. As understood within the scientific community, a theory explains
how nature behaves under specific conditions, that is, theories describe natural laws.
Here is an example of a law:
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=𝑘 (1-4)
𝑑2
where,
𝐹 = electrostatic force between two point charges
𝑘 = a constant of proportionality
𝑄1 = first charge
𝑄2 = second charge
𝑑 = distance between the point charges
This equation is called Coulomb’s law. It explains the nature of force between two point charges.
That is, the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to
the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
This is an important equation (law), because, it is the foundation of electricity and electronics. All
the variables and the interaction of them, explained in this law, were present in the nature, before
its discovery. Coulomb was able to prove that behavior experimentally and express it by an
equation. Although earlier researchers could measure 𝐹, 𝑄1, 𝑄2, and 𝑑. Coulomb discovered the
law relating the quantities and wrote the formula for it.
Before discovering a law, someone may have a hunch that such a relationship exists. After a
number of experiments, the researcher writes a formula that summarizes the discovery. When
enough people confirm the discovery through experiments, the formula becomes a law. A law is
true because we can verify it with experiments, even for different values of the parameters.
1.2.3 Derivation
Given an equation like this:
𝑦 = 9𝑥
We can add 5 to both sides and get:
𝑦 + 5 = 9𝑥 + 5
The new equation is true because both sides are still equal. There are many other operations like
subtraction, multiplication, division, factoring, and substitution that preserve the equality of both
sides of the equation. Thus, we may derive many new formulas using algebraic rules.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 3

A derivation is a formula that we can get from other formulas. This means that we start with one
or more formulas and, using mathematics, arrive at a new formula not in our original set of
formulas. A derivation is also true, because mathematics preserves the equality of both sides of
every equation between the starting formula and the derived formula.
For instance, George Ohm was conducting experiments with conductors. He discovered that the
ratio of voltage to current was a constant. He named this constant resistance and wrote the
following formula for it:
𝑉
𝑅= (1-5)
𝐼
This is the original form of Ohm’s law. By rearranging it, we can get:
𝑉
𝐼= (1-6)
𝑅
This is a derivation. It is not the original form of Ohm’s law, but it is converted to another equation,
which is also true.
Here is another example of derivation. The definition for capacitance is:
𝑄
𝐶= (1-7)
𝑉
This equation can be rearranged as,
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 (1-8)
This new equation is a derivation. It says that the charge on a capacitor will be equal to the product
of its capacitance and the voltage across it.
Summary:
Definition: A formula invented for a new concept or a new term.
Law: A formula to represent the behavior of a natural phenomenon.
Derivation: A formula found mathematically altering the definitions or laws.

1.3 Approximations
We use approximations all the time in our everyday life. In
mathematics, a result that is not exact but close to the exact value, 𝐿 ≈ 3 cm
is called an approximate value and the process is called
approximation. As shown in Fig.1-1, the exact length of the line is 𝐿 = 2.95 cm
𝐿 = 2.95 cm, but for convenience, we may say it 𝐿 = 3 cm. Here,
Fig.1-1: Length of a line
the exact value is 2.95 cm and the approximate value is 3 cm. If the
difference does not affect the other results significantly, we can use
this approximate value.
1.3.1 The Ideal Approximation
As will be described in Section 1.25, the size of copper wire is represented using American Standard
Wire Gauge (AWG) or British Standard Wire Gauge (SWG). 1 foot of AWG-22 wire has a resistance
(𝑅𝑤 ) of 16.14 m, and inductance (𝐿𝑤 ) of 0.24 μH. If the wire is placed 1 inch above the chassis
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 4

(the circuit board), it will produce a capacitance (𝐶𝑤 ) of 1.2 pF. If we had to include the effects of
resistance, inductance, and capacitance in every calculation of current, the calculation will be
complicated and hence, we have to spend too much time. For this reason, everybody ignores the
resistance, inductance, and capacitance of
connecting wires in most situations. If the wire Rw = 0
is considered just as a connecting path, Cw = 0 Lw = 0
neglecting the resistance, inductance, and (a): Practical Wire
(b): Equivalent circuit
capacitance, it is called ideal approximation. (first approximation)
The ideal approximation, sometimes, is called
the first approximation. It gives the simplest Rw
(ideal) equivalent circuit for a device. As Cw = 0 Lw = 0 Rw Cw Lw
already discussed, the ideal approximation of a (c): Equivalent circuit (d): Equivalent circuit
piece of wire is just a conductor of zero (second approximation) (third approximation)
resistance, zero inductance and zero
capacitance. Fig.1-2: Equivalent circuits of a connecting wire

The ideal approximation is adequate for

everyday electronics work. The exception occurs at higher frequencies, where we have to consider
the inductance and capacitance of the wire. Suppose a 1 meter wire has an inductance of 0.15 μH
and a capacitance of 0.2 pF. At 10 MHz, the inductive reactance of the wire is 15.71 , and the
capacitive reactance is 16 . For this frequency, the reactance can no longer be neglected. So, the
ideal approximation, will not work at the limit of 10 MH𝑧. As a thumb rule, we can say, if the
frequency of the circuit is below 1 MHz, we can use the ideal approximation. Otherwise, the
calculated result will be much deviated from the actual one.
1.3.2 Second Approximation
As we have seen above that, beyond a limit, the ideal approximation does not work. To get a more
accurate theoretical result, in addition to the ideal approximation, some other mostly effective
parameters have to be considered. The second approximation adds one or more components to
the ideal approximation. For example, if the frequency of the current passing through the wire is
less than 10 MHz, but the value of current is very high, we can neglect the capacitive and inductive
reactances but we have to consider the resistance of the wire. Thus the equivalent circuit of the
wire will be as shown in Fig.1-2(c). This is the second approximation of the wire.
1.3.3 Third Approximation and Beyond
The third approximation includes some other components in the equivalent circuit of the device, to
get more accurate results. For example, if the frequency of the current passing through the wire is
quite greater than 10 MHz, and the value of current is very high, we have to consider both the
inductive reactances and the resistance of the wire. Thus, the equivalent circuit of the wire will be
as shown in Fig.1-2(d). This is the third approximation of the wire.

1.4 Concept of Voltage and Current

All materials are made of atoms and atoms are made of negatively charged electrons (𝑄𝑒 =
−1.60217663 × 10−19 Coulombs), positively charged protons (𝑄𝑝 = +1.60217663 × 10−19
Coulombs) and neutrons (chargeless). Normally, atoms possess equal number of electrons and
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 5

protons. For this reason, any materials, like- gold (Au), silver (Ag) copper (Cu), aluminum (Al) etc.,
have equal amount of positive charge and negative charge. As a result, normally each material is
electrically neutral and has no potential difference. The situation is depicted in Fig.1-3 using water
tank analogy. In Fig.1-3(a), there are two water tanks connected by a pipe. As the water levels are
same in both the tanks, there is no potential (mechanical) difference, and hence, no flow of water.
Similarly, in Fig.1-3(b), there are
two metals, connected by a Metal ‘A’ Metal ‘B’
Tank ‘A’ Tank ‘B’
conducting wire. As the metals
have equal number of positive h1 = h2 Wire
and negative charges, so, there h1 h2
is no potential difference +Q = -Q +Q = -Q
between them. Hence, there is Water level is same. So Both metals have equal +ve and –ve
no flow of charges and no no potential difference charge. So, there is no potential
and no water flow. difference and no current flow.
current.
(a (b)
But as shown in Fig.1-4(a), the
water level in tank ‘A’ is higher Fig.1-3: Concept of potential (a) Mechanical
than that in tank ‘B’. So, there potential, and (b) Electrical potential(a)(a)
will have a mechanical potential
difference, and hence, water will flow from tank ‘A’ to tank ‘B’ (higher potential to lower potential).
Similarly, by any mechanism, if the positive charges and negative charges of metal ‘A’ and ‘B’ [Fig.1-
4(b)] are separated, there exists a potential difference. As shown in Fig.1-4(b), metal ‘A’ is at higher
potential (higher positive charges) compared to metal ‘B’. Therefore, positive charges will flow
from metal ‘A’ to metal ‘B’ (actually electrons flow in opposite direction).
Potential difference tells us how much electrical energy is available to push electric charges
through a circuit. The unit to measure electric potential difference is volt (V). Electric potential
difference is also referred to as
simply voltage. Potential h1 > h2 Conventional
difference (or voltage) is Tank ‘A’ Tank ‘B’ Metal ‘A’ current (I) Metal ‘B’
measured by an instrument called
Voltmeter. It is always connected h1
in parallel to the points where h2 Electrons
potential difference is to be +Q > -Q +Q < -Q
Different water levels
measured as given in Fig.1-7(a). produce potential Metal ‘A’ has more +ve charge and
As shown in Fig.1-4(a), due to the difference and water flow. metal ‘B’ has more –ve charge. So, there
is potential difference and current flow.
potential difference between tank
‘A’ and ‘B’, water will flow (b)
Fig.1-4: Concept of potential (a) Mechanical potential,
through the pipe connecting and (b) Electrical potential
them. Similarly, due to the
potential difference between metals ‘A’ and ‘B’, electric charge will flow from ‘A’ to ‘B’. As positive
charge cannot move, electrons will flow from metal ‘B’ to metal ‘A’ [Fig.1-4(b)]. The flow of charge
will stop when the potential difference is zero. This flow of charge is called the current. Actually the
rate at which the electric charges flow through a device/wire is called current. The unit used to
measure the current is called Ampere (A). 1 ampere is equivalent to a flow of 1 Coulomb per
second through the cross-section of a conductor or device [further discussed in Section]. Although
current was originally thought to be a flow of positive charge, we now know that in most cases it is
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 6

the flow of electrons. The direction of conventional current is just opposite to the direction of
electrons flow. The instrument used to measure the current is ammeter. Unlike the voltmeter,
ammeter is connected in series, so that, the full current can flow through the meter as shown in
Fig.1-13(b).
Metal ‘A’
Switch

Key
Tank ‘A’
Water Water Current I Current
+Q> -Q

Metal ‘B’
Battery/
Tank ‘B’ Generator Light
Pump
(a) Continuous water +Q< -Q
flow using pump (b) Continuous current flow
using battery or generator

Fig.1-5: Continuous flow of water and current with the help of external energy source

As shown in Fig.1-5(a), if we want continuous flow of water, we have to use a pump that will
maintain the potential difference. Similarly, to get continuous current, we must use some source of
electrical energy (battery or generator). The friction of the pipe that opposes the flow of water is
analogous to the resistance in electrical circuit that opposes the flow of current.

1.5 AC and DC Currents

There are two types of voltage and current. These are: 1) DC voltage and current, 2) AC voltage
and current. The examples of DC voltage sources are dry cell batteries, lead-acid batteries, DC
power supply etc. The main property of
these sources is that the voltage and V, I v, i
DC voltage DC current AC voltage
current do not change with time (do not Vm AC current
V Im
alternate). Fig.1-6(a) shows the graphs I
of DC voltage and DC current. The 0 t
-Im
voltage produced by a generator is AC. t -Vm
The power coming from grid-line in our (a) DC voltage and current
house is the example of AC voltage and (b) AC voltage and current
current. The main property of these Fig.1-6: AC and DC voltage and current
sources is that the voltage and current
change with time (alternate). Fig.1-6(b) shows the graphs of AC voltage and AC current. The DC
voltage and current is represented by their values only, whereas, the AC voltage and current are
represented by their RMS (root-mean-square) values and frequency. In Bangladesh, the grid power
used in households has 220 V (RMS) and 50 Hz.

1.6 Voltage Sources

 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 7

An ideal DC voltage source produces a constant voltage at the output. The simplest example of an
ideal DC voltage source is a remote battery (dry cell) whose internal resistance is zero. Fig.1-7(a)
shows an ideal voltage source connected to a variable load resistance of 1 Ω to 1 MΩ. The
voltmeter reads 10 V, exactly same as the source voltage, though the load resistance is varied. This
type of output voltage is possible
if the internal resistance of the VS (V)
battery is zero. 13
12
Fig.1-7(b) shows the graph of 11 Constant output
VS
output voltage (load voltage) RL
1  to 10 voltage (12 V)
versus load resistance. As shown 12 V 1 M 9
RL ()
in this graph, the load voltage Volt meter 8
1 10 1k 10k 100k 1M
remains fixed at 12 V though the (a) 0 (b)
load (output) resistance changes
Fig.1-7: Ideal voltage source: (a) Circuit and
from 1 Ω to 1 MΩ. In other
(b) Variation of voltage with RL
words, an ideal DC voltage source
produces a constant load voltage, regardless the value of load resistance. For an ideal voltage
source, only the load current changes with the changes in load resistance as shown in Fig.1-7(b).
However, it is difficult to
make an ideal voltage VS (V)
source. The practically 5
14
available voltage sources 12
10
[Fig.1-8] has a finite internal Voltage with load
8
resistance though its value is VS RL 6
very small. For this internal 12 V 4
resistance the output voltage Volt meter 2
RL ()
0
will decrease with the 1 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
decrease of the load (a) (b)
resistance. If the load Fig.1-8: Practical voltage source: (a) Circuit and
resistance decreases, the (b) Variation of voltage with RL
output current increases and
the voltage dropps across the internal resistance (𝑟𝑠 ) will increase and hence the output voltage
decreases. The output voltage can be calculated if the current is known as,
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑟𝑠 (1-9)

Example 1-1 rs
The open circuit (output) voltage of a voltage source is 0.2 V
12.2 V. If a 220 Ω load is connected at the output the source Vo =12 V
VS IL= RL
voltage falls to 12 V. Determine the internal resistance of the 54.55 220 
voltage source. 12.2 V mA

Solution: Fig.1-9: Circuit for Example 1-1

If a 220 Ω load is connected at the output the source voltage
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 8

falls to 12 V. So the current through the load resistance will be

𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑜 12 V
𝐼𝐿 = = = ≈ 54.55 mA
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 220 Ω
Therefore, when 54.55 mA current is drawn from the voltage source, the output voltage becomes
12 V. That is, 12.2 V − 12 V = 0.2 V drops across the internal resistance, when 54.55 mA current
flows through it. So, the internal resistance of the voltage source will be,
0.2 V
𝑟𝑠 = ≈ 3.67 Ω [Ans. ]
54.55 mA
Comments: The internal resistance of a voltage source is, always, very small.

1.6.1 Stiff Voltage Source

We can ignore the internal resistance of the voltage source when it is very smaller than the load
resistance, say at least 100 times smaller than the load resistance. Any source that satisfies this
condition is called a stiff
voltage source. As shown in Vo (V)
5 14 R = 100R
Fig.1-10(b), when the load L S
rs 12
resistance becomes 100 IL 10 11.88 V
times the source resistance VS Stiff Voltage
8
RL ≥ VL 6
(𝑅𝐿 = 500 Ω) the output 12V 100rS 4
voltage becomes almost Voltmeter 2 RL ()
equal to the source voltage 0
1 0.5 1 k 1.5 k 2 k 2.5k 3 k 3.5 k
(𝑉𝐿 = 11.88 V). After this (a) k (b)
point, the output voltage is Fig.1-10: Practical voltage source: (a) Circuit
almost constant, that is and (b) Variation of voltage with RL
independent of the load
resistance (and load current). This portion in the graph is called stiff region. Stiff voltage is an
important term for AC voltage of grid supply.
The internal resistance of the voltage source of Fig.1-10(a) is 5 Ω. So, if the value of the load
resistance is greater than 100 × 5 Ω = 500 Ω, the source will work as a stiff voltage source. Thus,
as long as the load resistance is greater than 100𝑟𝑠 , the source is a stiff voltage source. When the
load resistance equals this limiting value (worst-case), the calculated error from ignoring the source
resistance is 1%, small enough to ignore practically.

1.7 Current Sources

A DC voltage source (ideal) produces a constant output (load) voltage regardless the load
resistance, and hence the load current. Similarly, a DC current source gives a constant current,
regardless the output load resistor and hence the output voltage. This type of current source is
called ideal current source. On the other hand, a practical current source has a very large internal
resistance that comes in parallel with the source. The schematic symbols of current sources are
shown in Fig.1-11. Fig.1-11(a) shows the symbol of an ideal current source whose internal
resistance is infinite (open circuit) and Fig.1-11(b) shows a practical current source. The finite
source resistance is connected in parallel with the ideal source. The symbol shown in Fig.1-11(a) is
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 9

the first approximation and that in Fig.1-11(b) is the second approximation. The variation of the
load (output) current with the variation of output load resistance is shown in Fig.1-11(d).

Io (mA)

Ideal source
Irs Irs IL
IS IS rS IS rS 1 k RL
Practical source
RL ()
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig.1-11: Practical current source: (a) Symbol (b) Equivalent circuit, (c) Equivalent circuit with
variable load RL and (c) Variation of output voltage with RL

Example 1-2
The rated current capacity of a practical current source is 500 mA, but when a 1 kΩ load resistance
is connected at the output, 490 mA current flows through it. Determine the internal resistance of
the current source.

Solution:
When a 1 kΩ load resistance is connected at the output, Irs =
IS = 0.5 A 10 mA IL = 0.49 A
450 mA current flows through it. Thus, 500 mA −
IS RL V L
490 mA = 10 mA current flows through the internal rS 200
0.5 A k 1 k
resistance of the source. As 𝑟𝑠 and 𝑅𝐿 are in parallel, the
voltage drop across these resistors will be,
𝑉𝐿 (= 𝑉𝑜 ) = 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = 450 mA × 1 kΩ = 450 V Fig.1-12: Circuit for Example 1-2
Therefore, when 50 mA flows through the internal
resistance 450 V drops across it. So the value of 𝑟𝑠 will be,
450 V
𝑟𝑠 = ≈ 45 kΩ [Ans. ]
10 mA
Comments: The internal resistance of a current source is always very large.

Current sources are constructed using transistors or some other electronic devices. We can convert
a DC voltage source into a current source by adding a large resistor in series. But the problem is, it
needs very large source voltage. Fig.1-13(a) shows such a current source constructed using a
voltage source. The source voltage is assumed to be 100 V DC and the series resistance is 200 kΩ.
Using Norton’s theorem, we can convert this voltage source into a current source which is shown in
the shaded area of Fig.1-13(b). The variation of output current with load resistance 𝑅𝐿 is shown in
Fig.1-13(c).
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 10

Io (mA)
200 k
1.1
Ammeter
rS IL 1.0
IL
0.9 Very small change
VS IS rS 200
RL RL 0.8 in IL for change in RL
1 mA k
200 V 0.7
0.6 (c) RL ()
0.5
0 1k 2k 3k 4k 5k 6k
(a) (b)
Fig.1-13 (a): Voltage source converted into current source, (b) Norton’s
equivalent circuit, and (c) Variation of voltage with load resistance RL

1.7.1 Stiff Current Source

If the source resistance is at least 100 times greater than the load resistance, then we can ignore
the effect of the source resistance. The current source that satisfies this condition is called stiff
current source. Thus, for a stiff IL , IS
current source, 𝑟𝑆 ≥ 100 × 𝑅𝐿 1.1 99.99
99% RS = 1 k
[Fig.1-14(a)]. The worst case limit is IL 1.0 %
𝑟𝑆 = 100 × 𝑅𝐿 . For this limiting rs ≥ 0.8
Stiff
I RL
case, if the source resistance is S 100RL 0.6 region
neglected, the calculated result will 0.4
be 1% smaller than the actual one. 0.2 RS =100RL
RL ()
(a) 0
1 10 0.1 k 1k
(b)
1.8 Motions of Charge
Fig.1-14: Stiff current source: (a) Symbol
Carriers (b) Variation of output voltage with RL

Though in the early age, it was assumed that current was produced due to the movement of
positive charges, later it was proved that the current, in a conductor, was produced due to the
movement of negatively charged electrons, not the positive charges. Thus, in conductors, electrons
are the only charge carriers. In semiconductors, both electrons and holes are the charge carriers. In
solutions/liquids (like electrolytes of batteries), negative and positive ions can move and produce
current. Here, we will discuss the motion of electrons and the motion of holes has been discussed
in Chapter 2, Section 2.14.
1.8.1 Motion of Electrons without any Potential Difference
Let us consider a section of a conducting material (like Cu) as shown in Fig.1-15. All conductors
have a number of free electrons, which are essentially free from their original atoms while the
positively charged atomic ions are held in place by the bonding forces which create the solid
(conductor). When a conductor is kept in room temperature, thermal energy will be added to the
conductor. So electrons will gain thermal energy and will produce random motions or Brownian
motions [Fig.1-15(a)]. The speed of the electrons is called thermal speed and is denoted by 𝑉𝑇 . The
value of the thermal speed is given by

3𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑇 = √ (1-10)
𝑚𝑒
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 11

where, 𝑘 = Boltzmann constant (= 1.38 × 10−23 J/K), 𝑇 = absolute temperature, and 𝑚𝑒 = mass
of electrons (= 9.1 × 10−31 kg).
At room temperature (𝑇 = 300 K) the value of 𝑉𝑇 will be ≈ 105 m/s. All electrons will have the
same thermal speed, but the thermal velocity will be different for different electrons, due to
different motions in different directions. The average value of thermal velocity (𝐴 𝑇 ) will be zero,
and hence, the net current flow will also be zero [Fig1-15(b,c)]. In a time interval (Δ𝑡) the same
number of electrons will move from left to right and vice versa [Fig1-15(b)]. Therefore, the net
current flow will be certainly zero.
Net velocity 𝑣𝑑 = 0
𝜆, 𝑡

𝑣𝑑

Atoms Electrons Cross-sectional area Collisions

(a) Random or Brownian (b) Net electrons flow (c) Free path 𝜆, and relaxation
motion of electrons through a section is zero time 𝑡 between two collisions

Fig.1-15: Motion of electrons without potential difference

1.8.2 Motion of Electrons with Potential Difference

When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, a drift velocity is developed in addition
to the thermal speed. Due to this drift velocity, electrical current flows through the conductor. It is
instructive to calculate the effective velocity of the electrons when a current flows, as the result is
rather unexpected.
Let us first calculate the density of free (electrons in conduction band) electrons in copper. One
mole of copper has a mass of 63.5 × 10−3 kg and, by definition, this contains 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023
atoms (Avogadro’s number), and the density of copper is 𝜌 = 8920 kg m−3. So, the volume, 𝑉, of
one mole of copper is:
mass (𝑚) 63.5 × 10−3 kg
𝑉= = = 7.12 × 10−6 m3
density (𝜌) 8920 kg m−3
For copper, each atom contributes one free electron so the density of free electrons in copper will
be:
𝑁𝐴 6.02 × 1023
𝑛= = = 8.46 × 1028 m−3
𝑉 7.12 × 10−6 m3
The current density 𝑗𝑐 is related to the drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 by the following equation:
𝑗𝑐 = 𝑛𝑄𝑒 𝑣𝑑 (1-11)
𝑗𝑐
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑑 = (1-12)
𝑛𝑄𝑒
Now let us consider a current of, say, 1 A through a wire of cross-sectional area 1 mm2(=
10−6 m2). Therefore, the drift velocity of the charge carriers (electrons), for this current, will be:
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 12

𝑗𝑐 1/10−6 m2
𝑣𝑑 = = = 74 × 10−6 ms−1 ! (1-13)
𝑛𝑄𝑒 8.46 × 1028 m−3 × 1.6 × 10−19 C
This is a very small velocity indeed. A free electron takes about 3.75 h to travel a distance of 1 m.
But we find that when a switch is turned ON, a light connected at the end of a wire, glows
immediately. This is due to the effect of electric field.
When the switch is ON, due to the pressure of the
voltage source, electrons start to move. If an electron Fall
moves a very small distance, it will create a force on Pressure Net velocity 𝑣𝑑
the next electron, the next electron will produce a
pressure on the adjacent electron and so on. Thus, 𝑣𝑑
the electrons, near the light, will immediately start to
move and the light will lit immediately. The situation Fig.1-16: Motion of electrons with
is illustrated in Fig.1-16. To understand the process potential difference
let us consider a tube full of marbles. If we apply
pressure at one end, it will move a little distance, but the marble at the opposite end will fall off
immediately.

VB

1A

6.25 × 1018 I
electrons/s e

Cross-sectional area

Fig.2-1: Current flows through a wire

Example 1-2
As shown in Fig.2-, a wire is carrying 1 A of current. Determine the average number of electrons
passing through a cross-sectional area in 1 s.

Solution:
𝑄
We know, 𝐼=
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄 = (1 A) × (1 s) = 1 Coulomb
Again we know, 1 electron has a charge of 1.6 × 10−19 Coulomb. Therefore, the number of
electrons passing through the cross-section should be
1C
𝑛𝑒 = = 6.25 × 1018 [Ans. ]
1.6 × 10−19 C
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 13

Comments: The number of electrons passing through a conductor for 1 A of current is huge! This is
due to the very small amount of charge associated with an electron.

1.9 Current in Capacitors

From the construction of capacitor described in Section 1.16, we know that the space between two
conducting plates is either empty, or filled up with insulating dielectric material. When a capacitor
is connected to a voltage source, +ve charge accumulates in one plate, and –ve charge accumulates
in the other plate, until the potential difference between the plates becomes equal to the source
voltage. Conduction current (due to the movement of electrons) flows through connecting wires,
and capacitor leads but not through the gap (or dielectric) between the capacitor plates. We know
that in a single loop circuit, the value of current should be equal at every point of the loop. To
describe the continuity of this current, Maxwell introduced a current called displacement current
through vacuum or any dielectric material (insulator). This current is developed due to the variation
of electric field in the space between the capacitor plates. As shown in Fig.1-17, when +ve and -ve
charges accumulate in the plates, the electric field strength between the plates, increases
gradually. The displacement current is directly proportional to the rate of change of electric field.
Mathematically, we can define the displacement current as:
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝜙𝐸
𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖𝑆 =𝜖 [∵ 𝜙𝐸 = 𝑆𝐸] (1-14)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝐷 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝑗𝐷 = = 𝜖 (1-15)
𝑆 𝑑𝑡
where,
𝐼𝐷 = Displacement current Conduction
𝑗𝐷 = Displacement current density current
Capacitor
𝜖 = Permittivity of the material used in i(t) plate
Electric +q(t)
between the capacitor plates
field E(t) Displacement
𝐸 = Electric field-strength vS(t) ) current
Dielectric
𝜙𝐸 = Electric flux, and i(t) (𝜖) -q(t)
𝑆 = area of the capacitor plates. ) Area S

Displacement currents play an important role in

Fig.1-17: Displacement current in capacitor
the propagation of electromagnetic radiation,
such as light and radio waves, through empty
space. A time varying magnetic field is always associated with a time varying electric field that may
be conceived in terms of a displacement current.

1.10 Resistors
The word Resistor is born out of the word “resist”, which means to withstand the effect. A resistor
resists, or regulates the flow of electrons that passes through it. The device resistor was invented
by Boykin, an American engineer, in 1959. These little devices regulate, attenuate, or reduce
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 14

voltage and current, but do not have a source of power in their own. The current flows through
them in a regulated manner leading to a loss of energy in the form of heat.
Although any conducting wire of circuits produces unwanted resistance to the flow of current, we
always add some resistance in circuits to control the flow of current. A resistor is a passive two-
terminal electrical component that provides resistance (opposition) to the flow of charges. The
ability of a resistor to resist the current is called resistance and is denoted by 𝑅.
In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide
voltage, and bias active elements (like diodes and transistors). Resistance of a conducting wire is
given by,
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌 (1-16)
𝐴
where, 𝜌 is the resistivity of the material of the wire, 𝑙 is the length of the wire, and 𝐴 is its cross-
sectional area. Different materials have different values of 𝜌. Silver has the lowest value of 𝜌. The
values of resistivity of some common materials are given in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1: Resistivity and conductivity of some common materials
Sl. Resistivity Conductivity Sl. Resistivity Conductivity
Material Material
No. ()  ∙ 𝐦 () 𝐒/𝐦 No. ()  ∙ 𝐦 () 𝐒/𝐦
6.99
1 Silver 1.59 × 10−8 6.30 × 107 9 Nickel × 10−8 1.43 × 107

9.28
2 Copper 1.68 × 10−8 5.96 × 107 10 Lithium × 10−8 1.08 × 107

Annealed
3 1.72 × 10−8 5.80 × 107 11 Iron 1.0 × 10−7 1.0 × 107
copper
1.06
4 Gold 2.44 × 10−8 4.10 × 107 12 Platinum × 10−7 9.43 × 106

1.09
5 Aluminum 2.82 × 10−8 3.50 × 107 13 Tin × 10−7 9.17 × 106

6 Calcium 3.36 × 10−8 2.98 × 107 14 Lead 2.2 × 10−7 4.55 × 106
4.22
7 Tungsten 5.60 × 10−8 1.79 × 107 15 Titanium × 10−7 2.38 × 106

8 Zinc 5.90 × 10−8 1.69 × 107 16 Stainless steel 6.9 × 10−7 1.45 × 106

To construct circuits, resistors of different values and shapes are used. Different resistors have
different physical shapes, colors, resistance and power rating. Some of the resistors commercially
available in the market are shown in Fig.1-18.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 15

Variable resistors (presets)

Potentiometer
Fixed value resistors
Varistors
Variable resistors (vertical presets)

Fig.1-18: Photographs of different types of resistors

1.11 Different Types of Resistors

There is an endless list of different types of resistors in the context of composition type, film type,
wire-wound type, resistors characteristics like - physical size, reliability, temperature rating, noise,
temperature coefficient, and voltage coefficient and so on. The chart in Fig.1-19, shows some
common types of resistors.

Resistor

Linear Nonlinear

Thermistor

Variable
Fixed resistor resistor
LDR

Rheostat Potentiometer Preset

Varistor

Carbon Ceramic
composition composition Wire wound Film resistor SMD

Metal oxide
Carbon film Metal film
film

Fig.1-19: Classifications of resistors

 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 16

1.11.1 Fixed Value Resistors

Fixed value resistors are constructed to provide a fixed resistance in the circuit. Their resistance
cannot be changed by the users. Due to the change in operating temperature their resistance may
vary by a small amount. These are two-terminal components (leaded or SMD- Surface Mounted
Device). There are many types of fixed value resistors:
Composition Resistors
These resistors are made of a mixture of conducting and non-conducting materials. The most
commonly available types of composition resistors are:
 Carbon Composition Resistors
 Ceramic Composition Resistors
Carbon Composition Resistors
Carbon composition resistors are the oldest type resistors. These resistors are most commonly
used as they are easy to manufacture, inexpensive and are suitable for most of the common
applications. These resistors are made up of a mixture of carbon powder and ceramic filler
material. The mixture is molded into axial resistor package enclosed by an insulating coating with
two leads attached at the two ends of the package [Fig.1-20]. The ratio of carbon to the ceramic
material and distance between the end terminals determine its resistance. The greater is the
proportion of carbon in the mixture, the lesser is its resistivity, and vice versa. The ceramic filler
used in the mixture is mostly phenolic, which is similar to the plastic. These resistors are available
in an axial package with color-coding [discussed later] for an indication of resistor value and
tolerance.
Carbon composition resistors can have very low
resistance (1 Ω) to extremely high resistance (22 Carbon composition: Mixture
MΩ). The power rating of these resistors depends on of conducting carbon particles
Color bands
and non-conducting binder
the physical size of the resistor. Greater is the
physical size, greater is the power rating. These
resistors are commonly available in 1/4 and 1/2 Watt
series. These resistors have wide tolerance levels Leads embedded in
Mould case carbon composition
(deviation from the nominal resistance value) from
5% to 20%. Due to wide tolerance, these resistors (a) Internal construction
are not suitable for precision applications.
The operating temperature range of carbon
composition resistors typically ranges from −55° C
to 125° C.
The carbon composition resistors offer quite pure (b) Photographs of carbon
composition resistors
resistance and almost negligible inductance or
capacitance. So, they typically have good frequency Fig.1-20: Carbon composition resistors
response, low noise, and acceptable stability. This
makes these resistors suitable for high-frequency applications as well as low power circuits.
Ceramic Composition Resistors
The ceramic composition resistors are similar to carbon composition resistors except the materials
[Fig.1-21]. They are composed of a mixture of a finely ground ceramic and conductor which is
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 17

compressed into a cylindrical shape. This improves their pulse stability and operating temperature
range. The ceramic resistors can operate at ambient temperatures up to 250° C. These are typically
available in 1/2 Watt, 1 Watt and 2 Watt series with
resistance values ranging from 3.3 Ω to 1 MΩ. There are
ceramic composition resistors available with a power
rating up to 1000 Watt. The ceramic resistors offer the
same advantages as the carbon composition resistors
(pure resistance, stability, reliability, and pulse stability). Fig.1-21: Ceramic composition resistors
These resistors are available in many types of packages like
axial, tubular, slab, disk and washer, encapsulated, load
bank, water-cooled and various custom packages.
Wire Wound Resistors
Wire wound resistors are made by winding metal wire on a former (core). A Nichrome
(Nickel/Chromium) or Manganin (Copper/Nickel/Manganese) are commonly used as the metal
wires, because they provide high resistance to the electric current and operates at high
temperature. Most commonly used core materials include plastic, fiberglass, or ceramic. The wire
has a specific fixed-value resistance. The entire component is insulated by a coat of vitreous
(opaque) enamel. These resistors are shown in Fig.1-
22. The resistance value is dependent on the Ceramic core Coil of nichrome wire
resistivity of the wire, the cross section, and the
length. Since these parameters can be accurately
controlled, a high precision resistance can be
Connecting Connecting
achieved. Wire wound resistors are mainly produced lead End cap lead
with alloys, since pure metals have a high
(a) Internal construction
temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR).
However, for high temperatures, pure metals such
as tungsten are often used. The temperature
coefficient is a measure of how much the resistance
will change as the temperature changes. TCR is
measured in units of ppm/˚C. If a manufacturer
rates a resistor at 50 ppm/˚C, the resistor will not
change more than 50 Ω in resistance for each 1 MΩ
(b) Photographs of wire wound resistors
of the resistors given value, for a temperature
change of 1˚ C. Fig.1-22: Wire wound resistor
Wire wound resistors are low resistance devices,
commonly manufactured in sizes from 5 to 200 watts. The wattage chosen depends on the physical
size of the resistor.
Power wire wound resistors
Power wire wound resistors exist for very high power applications. The range varies from 0.5 W to
more than 1000 W. Power wire wound resistors can be divided into types according to their
coating types.
Silicone resins are used for lowest power dissipation levels. These are compact resistors that can
withstand temperature up to 300° C above the ambient temperature.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 18

Another type of coating is vitreous enamel. This traditional coating has good insulating properties
at low temperatures, but the insulating capability is reduced when operated at the full rated
temperature.
The majority of the power wire wound resistors have a ceramic core and a ceramic coating to
protect the winding. The ceramic coating combines a high insulation and physical protection with
good heat dissipation. Typical power ratings are between 4 and 15 W.
For the highest power dissipation values, wire wound resistors have an aluminum case with fins.
These fins give a larger surface area to dissipate heat, letting the resistor handle more power
without being damaged. These resistors have a ceramic core and a silicone resin coating, encased
in an aluminum extrusion. The surface is anodized to maintain a good insulation resistance. These
power wire wound resistors have a typical power rating of 25 to 50W.
Film resistor
Along with the composition and wire-wound resistors, film resistors are widely used. These
resistors are made by depositing a resistive material (called film)
on a substrate in a zigzag pattern. The film may be a Carbon
Film, Metal Film, or Metal Oxide Film. The substrate is made
from glass, ceramic, or silicon, and it is used as an insulating base
for the resistor. Also a fine spiral groove cut along the film-rod
using a laser or diamond cutter results in a long spiral strip,
which forms the resistor (Fig.1-24 & 25). By precisely varying the (a)
thickness, zigzag pattern, and the composition of the material
the desired resistance value is achieved. The resistor materials
are made from metals (nickel alloy) or carbon or metal oxide (tin
oxide) deposited with precise control. The deposited layer may
470

470

470

470

470
be a thin film (few micrometers)- called thin film resistor or thick
film (10 to 50 micrometers)- called thick film resistor.
A protective coating is used to cover the resistor material (b)
deposited on the substrate. The end caps and the connecting
Fig.1-23: Resistor package: (a)
terminals are made of metal such as nickel or silver, or they can
Photographs (b) Cutaway diagram
be made from an alloy, and attached to the resistors.
Film technology allows producing resistor networks on a single chip [Fig.1-23]. A resistor network
consists of two or more independent resistors contained in one single surface- mounted package.
Carbon Film Resistors
Carbon film resistors have the carbon film on the ceramic former and they are covered with
insulation coating material like epoxy (for protection). After that leads connection are added and a
helix cut is given to adjust the value of resistance. Carbon film resistors are a significant
improvement of carbon composition resistors.
Due to the helical resistive path, these resistors develop some capacitance and inductance. These
small resistors have a capacitance of approximately 0.5 pF and the self-induction is around 0.01 μH
for uncut resistors, and up to several μH for spiral cut resistors. These resistors are available in
values between 1 Ω – 10,000 MΩ and have power ratings of 1/16 to 3 W.
Manufacturing
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 19

Carbon film resistors are made with a deposition process. At high temperature and under a high
pressure, a ceramic carrier is held in hydrocarbon gas. The gas (methane or benzene) is cracked at a
temperature of 1000° C. The crystalline carbon is pyrolytically deposited on the ceramic substrate.
The desired resistance value can be obtained by choosing the right layer thickness, and by cutting a
spiral shape in the carbon layer. The helical cut in the film increases the length of the current path.
By decreasing the pitch of the helix, the length of the resistive path increases, and therewith the
resistance value increases. Carbon film resistors provide better tolerance value in the range of 1 %
to 5 %. These resistors can have resistance in range from a few milliohms to 100 MΩ.

Carbon film

Helical cut to make End cap with lead

desired resistance value

Coating Ceramic carrier

(b) Photographs of carbon film resistors
(a) Internal construction Fig.1-24: Carbon film resistor

Because of the use of pure carbon, the carbon film resistor has a higher negative temperature
coefficient than carbon composition. The operating temperature range of carbon film resistors is
similar to carbon composition resistors. It typically varies from −55° C to 155° C.
Metal Film Resistors
Metal film resistors are constructed by depositing a film of metal (Nichrome or Tantalum Nitride)
on a cylindrical ceramic substrate or rod. Like carbon film resistors, the coating is cut to a long
helical resistive path by laser.
These resistors are available for a wide range of resistances- from few milliohms to 60 MΩ. The
value of the resistance depends on the thickness and length of the resistive path. Metal film
resistors are available for a wide range of power ratings- 1/20 Watt to 20 Watt. Unlike carbon film
resistors, metal film resistors have better temperature stability, with 1 % to 2 % tolerance. There
are also precise metal film resistors available that have tolerance as low as 0.01%. However, metal
film resistors having precise tolerance often have a lower power rating.
The operating temperature range of metal film resistors range from −65° C to 250° C. They have a
lower temperature coefficient compared to carbon composition and carbon film resistors which
gives better temperature stability. Important thing is that these resistors have a positive
temperature coefficient.
Metal Oxide Film Resistors
Metal-oxide film resistors are fixed value, axial resistors and are similar to metal film resistors.
They are made of ceramic rod that is coated with a thin film of metal oxides, such as tin oxide. Also,
antimony oxide is added to yield better resistance. The more the antimony, the more is the
resistance. The width of the helical metal oxide film cut and its thickness are inversely proportional
to the resistance. The metal oxide film is most often produced using chemical deposition methods.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 20

Metal oxide film resistors exceed the performance of metal film and carbon film resistors for the
following properties: power rating, voltage rating, overload capabilities, surge capacity, and high
temperature operation. These resistors have a higher operating temperature range (up to 450°C)
and the temperature coefficient is around 300 ppm/°C, which is higher than for metal film types.
These resistors are typically available in power ratings from 1/4 W to 140 W with tolerance
typically 0.5 % to 20 %.

Metal oxide film End cap

Connecting lead Coating Ceramic substrate

(a) Internal construction (b) Photographs of metal oxide film resistors

Fig.1-25: Metal oxide film resistors

Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by
depositing a much thicker conductive paste of ceramic and metal, called cermet, onto an alumina
ceramic substrate. The resistive path is drawn like zigzag lines between the terminals of the
resistor. Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and are generally used for
making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one package for PCB’s
and high frequency resistors.
SMD Resistors
So far we have discussed leaded, through-hole mounting resistors. Through-hole mounting refers
to installing electronic components on a PCB (printed circuit board) by inserting their leads through
pre-drilled holes on the board and soldering them in place. To save PCB space and to avoid the
Protective coating

Substrate Resistive material

Complete SMD resistor

SMD wire wound SMD carbon composition

(b) Photographs

(a) Internal construction Fig.1-26: Surface mounted resistors (SMD)

resistors)
nuisance of drilling, surface-mount devices (SMD) are introduced. A surface mount resistor is a tiny
rectangular ceramic body with silver conductive edges on either end. An SMD resistor offers
advantages in saving space on printed circuit boards (PCBs). Solder paste is printed onto the
mounting pads of a PCB, and the resistors are placed automatically onto these pads by pick and
place equipment. The whole board is then passed through a reflow oven which melts the solder
into place, making the contacts.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 21

A surface mount resistor has a lower power dissipation capacity. Surface mount resistors can be
thick film, which is most commonly used, thin film, which offers accuracy and stability, metal strip,
for current sensing, or wire-wound, which is molded construction as opposed to a flat chip [Fig.1-
26].
Surface mount resistors are used in compact PCBs like- telecommunication, automotive, medical
equipment, personal devices, displays, and advanced technology research instruments.
Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are made with such an arrangement that the user can change its resistance if
necessary. The resistance value depends on the position of a wiper (a moveable contact) or other
natural parameters (temperature, light etc.). Variable resistors are used in systems, where the user
has frequent requirement for adjusting the resistance, as in tone, volume, focus, and brightness
control circuits. There are three basic types of variable resistors: Potentiometer (abbreviated as
Pot), preset (also called trimmer), and rheostat. All of them have three terminals, two fixed and
one moveable. Light dependent resistor, thermistors are the examples of variable resistors that
depends on natural parameters.
Potentiometer
Potentiometers (or Pots) are most commonly used variable resistors. They are used in fan-
regulators, variable power supplies, different audio controlling systems, etc. Potentiometers are

Sliding/rotating contact
Carbon/Resistive Rotating shaft
track
Rotation Control Phenollic wafer
(270) shaft/hole (not seen)
Phenollic 1 3
Connecting
wafer terminal
(input) 2
Connecting 3
3 2 1 terminal (GND) 2
Connecting 1 Slider/wiper
terminal Slider/wiper Aluminum terminal
terminal Connecting
(input) box/casing
terminal (GND)
(c) Symbol of a Pot
(a) Internal construction (b) Photograph of a Pot

Fig.1-27: Potentiometer (Pot)

made with either composition or wire-wound resistance elements. The basic components of the
most widely used types of potentiometers are shown in the Fig.1-27. Although the shapes and sizes
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 22

0V 12 V
1 2 3
0-12 V 12 V
(a) (b)
Fig.1-28: Wire wound potentiometer: (a) Construction (b) Application of Pot

of the parts may vary with the wattage rating and with the particular production techniques of
various manufacturers, the general arrangement is nearly the same. The only fundamental
difference is the types of resistance elements used. In potentiometer, there are three terminals
and a rotating shaft which, when rotated, changes the value of resistance. The resistive element
may be a strip of composition materials or wire-wound.
The shaft can be turned so that the contact arm (wiper) can be set to any desired position on the
resistance track. As is the case with fixed resistors, there are a limited number of different wattage
ratings available for potentiometer.
Potentiometers are mainly used as a voltage divider network as shown in Fig.1-28(b). The terminal-
1 is connected to the ground (Zero voltage), the input voltage (or signal) is applied to terminal-3,
and the output is taken from terminal-2. The output can have any value between zero to full input
voltage. Clockwise rotation of the knob will increase the output voltage, and vice-versa.
However, all of these three-terminal Pots can be used as variable resistors. We know that a variable
resistor has two terminals. So we have to use any one of the fixed terminals (1 or 3) and the
variable terminal (3). We can short the variable terminal with the remaining third terminal.

Example 1-3
As shown in Fig.1-29, the wiper of a 10 kΩ potentiometer is set a point 𝐴. The resistance between
terminal 1 and point 𝐴 is 4 kΩ. If a 12 V battery is connected to terminal 3, and the terminal 1 is
grounded, what will be the output voltage at
terminal 2? 2
A
Solution: A 6 kΩ
3 6 kΩ
The total resistance of the potentiometer is 4 kΩ
Vo =
10 kΩ, and the resistance from terminal 1 to 12V 4 k
4.8 V
point 𝐴 is 4 kΩ. Hence, the resistance
between point 𝐴 and terminal 3 will be 0 V 12 3 1
Vo 12 V
10 kΩ − 4 kΩ = 6 kΩ. The voltage at (a) (b)
terminal 2 (wiper) will be same as the Fig.1-29: Circuit for Example 1-3
voltage at terminal 𝐴. Here, the
potentiometer will work as a voltage divider circuit as shown in Fig.1-29(b). Therefore, using
voltage divider rule,
4 kΩ
𝑉𝑜 = 12 V × = 3.6 V
4 kΩ + 6 kΩ
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 23

Comments: The output voltage at terminal 2 can be changed by changing the position of the wiper
(rotating the knob clockwise or anticlockwise).

Slider Potentiometer
A potentiometer which is adjusted by sliding the wiper
along a straight resistance element instead of rotating
shaft is called a slider potentiometer. These types of
pots are used in large systems like sound mixer control
panels, faders, graphic equalizers, etc.
The main advantage of the slider Pot is a large number
of them can be installed side-by-side in a small area. The
main disadvantages of a slider potentiometer is that
they have a long open slot to allow the wiper lug to Fig.1-30: Sliding potentiometer
move freely up and down along the full length of the
resistive tracks (Fig.1-30). This open slot makes the resistive track susceptible to contamination
from dust and dirt, or by sweat and grease from the users hands.
Presets
There are applications, where the required exact resistance in the circuit cannot be predicted
during design. Moreover, some circuits need a precise value of resistance that cannot be achieved
with the fixed value resistors. In such applications, it is helpful to use a variable resistor, called
presets, which can be adjusted to the exact required value when the equipment is aligned (tuned)
after manufacturing, but the users need not to adjust it.
Actually a preset resistor is a smaller PCB mounted
version of a potentiometer.
Different types of preset potentiometers are shown in
Fig.1-31. A screw driver is used to rotate the wiper and Variable resistors (presets)
to change the resistance of these potentiometers.
Rheostat
A rheostat is nothing but a variable resistor. The main
function of a rheostat is to control the flow of current by
Variable resistors (vertical presets)
changing the resistance value. By increasing or
decreasing the resistance value we can increase or Fig.1-31: Different types of presets
decrease the flow of current. Generally, rheostats are
used for high voltage and high current applications.
Rheostat can be used either as a variable resistance (two terminals are used), or a potentiometer
(three terminals are used).
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 24

Metallic path
Moveable Moveable
contact Coil
contact
Coil Connector C

Connectors Connectors
A and B
(b)
Stands
(a) Fig.1-32: Rheostat: (a) Photograph (b) Simplified drawing

As shown in Fig.1-32, a coil is wound on an insulating tube. The two terminals of the coil are
attached to two fixed connectors, A and B. Terminal C (variable connector) is attached to the
metallic path on which the wiper moves. So when we move the wiper, we will get different
resistance values between terminal A and terminal C (also B and C). Remember that this coil is not
insulated. By moving the wiper we mainly increase or decrease the turns. So, increasing the turns
resistance will increase, and decreasing the turns resistance will decrease. Like the any other
potentiometers, if we use this rheostat as variable resistor, we have to use connectors A and C or B
and C. But if we want to use as potentiometer, we have to use all the three terminals.
Non-Linear Resistor
Non-linear resistors are those types of resistors where the electric current flowing through it
changes with the change in applied voltage or temperature and does not change according to
Ohm’s law. There are several types of non-linear resistors, but the most commonly used types are
described below.
Thermistors
Thermistor is a type of variable resistor PTC Thermistor NTC Thermistor
that is very sensitive to temperature.
The sensitivity of thermistors to
temperature is called temperature +t -t
coefficient. There are two types of
temperature coefficients- PTC (Positive Thermistor
+t -t
Temperature Coefficient), and NTC
(a) (b) (c)
(Negative Temperature Coefficient). In
PTC thermistors, resistance increases
with the increase in temperature. As Fig.1-33: Thermistors: (a) Photograph, (b) Symbol of
PTC thermistor, and (c) Symbol of NTC thermistor
shown in Fig.1-33 symbol of PTC
thermistors has +𝑡°. On the other hand,
in NTC thermistors, resistance decreases with the increase in temperature. Symbol of NTC
thermistors has – 𝑡°.
The temperature of thermistors can be changed in two ways. First one is by the change in
atmospheric temperature and the second one is by changing current in the thermistors. By
increasing the current, there will be a heating effect in the resistor and thus it will change its
resistance by its own heat. This is called the self-heating effect.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 25

Thermistors are used as temperature sensors in fire alarms, ovens and refrigerators. They are also
used in digital thermometers and in many automotive applications to measure temperature.
Thermistors are often used in temperature-dependent time delay circuits.
Varistor Resistors
A varistor is a non-linear resistor made of semiconductor. The word varistor comes from two
words: variable resistor. The resistance of a varistor is variable and depends on the voltage applied.
MOV or metal oxide varistor is the most commonly
used form of varistor resistors. Their resistance
decreases when the voltage increases. In case of
excessive voltage rise, their resistance drops
dramatically. This behavior makes them suitable to
protect circuits during voltage surges. Causes of a
surge can include lightning strikes and electrostatic
Varistors
discharges. Non linear resistors
Photoresistors or Light Dependent Resistors (LDR)
Fig.1-34: Photographs of different varistor
Photo resistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors) or
Photo Conductive Cell is a variable resistor whose resistance is changed depending of the light
falling on its surface. Light Dependent Resistors, LDRs are also called photo resistors. These
resistors are made up of high resistance semiconductors which are capable of absorbing photons.
Depending on the intensity and frequency of incident light, bound electrons in the semiconductor
jump into the conduction band, therefore decreasing the resistance. The semiconductors
commonly used to make photo resistors include cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, lead sulfide,
lead selenide, and indium antimonide. Several countries have now banned photo resistors made
from cadmium or lead as these photo resistors may be harmful to the environment. The IEC
standard symbol, and its construction are shown in Fig.1-35.
LDRs are used in light-sensitive applications like in smart street lights, camera, etc.

Electrodes
Photoconductive
material on top
Cold weld of the surface
contact

Ceramic base

Connecting
(a) (b) leads (c)

Fig.1-35: LDR (a) Photograph, (b) Different components, and (c) Symbol

1.11.2 Color Code Marking of Leaded Resistors

 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 26

Larger resistors are usually marked with their numerical resistance value printed directly on the
side of the resistor. However, this type of labeling is not always practical, especially on small
resistors. The resistor color code system
was developed for this purpose. The 4 bands 21 kΩ, 5%
value of resistance of a resistor is
written on it using different colors 5 bands 374 Ω, 0.25%
called color code. The resistance color
code consists of three or four color 6 bands 4590 Ω, 10%, 50 rpm
bands and is followed by a band
representing the tolerance (variation of
resistance). Another color is sometimes Silver 0.01 10%
used which is the temperature Gold 0.1 5%
coefficient band. If provided, it is to the Black 0 0 0 1 200
right of the tolerance band. Thus, the Brown 1 1 1 10 1% 100
total color bands may vary from 4 to 6 Red 2 2 2 100 2% 50
(Fig.1-36). Orange 3 3 3 1k 15
In the resistance color codes, the first Yellow 4 4 4 10k 25
two or three colors give the significant Green 5 5 5 100k 0.5%
figures of the resistance value (in ohms), Blue 6 6 6 1M 0.25% 10
followed by a multiplier color. This is a Violet 7 7 7 10M 1% 5
factor of 10 by which the significant Grey 8 8 8 1
figure must be multiplied (i.e. the White 9 9 9 Tolerance
number of zeros to be added after the
Multiplier Temperature
significant figures) to find the actual Number Coefficient
resistance value. The next color is the
Fig.1-36: Process to read color codes of resistors
tolerance of the resistance. The
tolerance of a resistor is the maximum
difference between its actual value and the written value. For example, If a 1 kΩ resistor has a
10 % tolerance, the resistor’s value can vary by ± 100 Ω. In this case, the resistor can have a true
resistance value of 900 Ω to 1100 Ω. Another color may be added to the right of tolerance band is
the temperature coefficient of resistance
(TCR). TCR tells how much resistance changes
as its temperature changes. It is usually BBROYGood Boy Very Good Worker
expressed in ppm/°C (parts per million per 0 1 234 5 6 7 8 9
degree Celsius) units. Fig.1-37: Process to memorize values of colors
Source
As shown in Fig.1-36, the colors on a resistor
represent a number (decimal digit). We can remember these numbers using a popular sentence: “B
B ROY Good Boy Very Good Worker” [Fig.1-37]. First “B” is black and its value is “0” and the second
“B” is brown = “1”.

Example 1-4
Determine the resistance value of the resistor shown in Fig.1-38.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 27

Solution:
Here, the first three colors are Red (2) – Violet (7) – Yellow
(4). So the significant figure will be 274. The multiplier color Fig.1-38: Resistor for Example 1.4
is Gold = 0.1, and the tolerance is Brown = 1 %. Therefore,
the value of this resistor will be 274 × 0.1 ± 1% = 27.4 Ω ± 1%. Moreover, the Red color on the
rightmost position represents 50 ppm/°C TCR.
Comments: 50 ppm/°C TCR means, its resistance will not change more than 0.00005 ohms
(50/1,000,000) per ohm per degree Celsius temperature change (within the rated temperature
range of −55 to + 145° C, measured from 25° C room temperature.)

1.12 Resistors in Series and Parallel

In building circuits, sometimes we have to connect resistors in series or parallel or both. We
connect resistors to increase or decrease the resistance or to increase the power capacity of the
combination. Here the series and parallel combinations are discussed.
1.12.1 Resistor in Series
When resistors are connected in series, the same current flows through them. But the voltage
dropped across individual resistors will be different. In
fact, the supplied voltage will be divided among the V1 V2 VN
resistors. The total resistance of a number of resistors in
R1 R2 RN I
series is equal to the sum of all individual resistances. I
Mathematically,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ 𝑅𝑁 (1-17) Switch E

Resistors in Parallel Fig.1-39: Series connected resistors:

Resistors are said to be in parallel when one end of some Same current different voltage
resistors (more than one) are connected to one point (or
node) and the other end of the resistors are also
connected to another point as shown in Fig.1-40. The potential drop across each resistor is the
same, but the current through each resistor can be found using Ohm’s law 𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅, where the
voltage is constant across each resistor. The current flowing from the voltage source in Fig.1-40
depends on the voltage supplied by the voltage source and the equivalent resistance of the circuit,
and can be calculated using current divider rule,
𝑅2
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑠 × (1-18)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1
𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑠 ×
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 28

𝐼 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼𝑁

𝐼 𝑅1 𝑉1 𝑅2 𝑉2 𝐼 𝑅1 𝑉1 𝑅2 𝑉2 𝑅𝑁 𝑉𝑁

(a) (b)
Fig.1-40: Parallel connected resistors: Same voltage different
current (a): Two resistors, and (b) N number of resistors
If only two resistors are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance of the combination will be,
1 1 −1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ( + ) = (1-19)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
But if there are more than two resistors (say 𝑁 resistors) the equivalent resistance will be,
𝑁 −1
1 1 1 1 −1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =( + + … … + ) = (∑ ) (1-20)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1

We use resistors in parallel to build a lower value resistance from higher value resistances. In some
cases, it helps us to make a precision resistor. For example, suppose we need a 3.1 K resistor but
the standard available values are 3.0 k and 3.3 k. 6.2 k is also a standard value. So by connecting
two 6.2 k resistors in parallel, we can get a 3.1 k resistor easily.
Equal Resistors in Parallel
Adding 𝑁 number of same-valued resistors (𝑅 is the resistance of each resistor) in parallel gives
us 𝑅/𝑁 . Let’s say we need a 2.5 kΩ resistor, but all we’ve got is a drawer full of 10 kΩ.
Combining four of them in parallel gives us (10 kΩ)/4 = 2.5 kΩ.
Tolerance
Resistor tolerance is the deviation from the nominal resistance value. It is expressed as a ± %,
measured at 25° C with no load applied. Though most common resistors have ±10 % tolerance,
precision resistors are made with tolerance as low as ±0.005 %. When resistors are parallely
connected, the actual value of the resistance will also deviate from the exact calculated value. The
tolerance level will be same as the tolerance of individual resistors. However, if the component
resistors have different tolerance level, the tolerance of the equivalent resistor will have the
maximum tolerance of the component resistors. For example, if three resistors of values 15 kΩ ±
10%, 15 kΩ ± 5%, and 15 kΩ ± 1% are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance will be
5 kΩ ± 10%. This rule is independent of the number of resistors connected in parallel.

Example 1-5
Suppose three resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and 𝑅3 are connected in parallel. The values of the resistors are
15 kΩ ± 10%, 15 kΩ ± 5%, and 15 kΩ ± 1%, respectively. Calculate the value of equivalent
resistor with its tolerance.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 29

Solution:
To calculate the tolerance of the equivalent resistor, we have to consider the two extreme values
of the resistors. That is,
𝑅1 = 15 kΩ ± 10% = 15 kΩ ± 1.5 kΩ = 16.5 kΩ and 13.5 kΩ
𝑅2 = 15 kΩ ± 5% = 15 kΩ ± 0.75 kΩ = 15.75 kΩ and 14.25 kΩ
𝑅3 = 15 kΩ ± 1% = 15 kΩ ± 0.15 kΩ = 15.15 kΩ and 14.85 kΩ
So, the maximum value of the equivalent resistance will be,
1 1 1 −1 1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑒𝑞(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = ( + + ) =( + + ) = 5.26 kΩ
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 16.5 kΩ 15.75 kΩ 15.15 kΩ
and the minimum value of the equivalent resistance will be
1 1 1 −1 1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑒𝑞(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = ( + + ) =( + + ) = 4.726 kΩ
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 13.5 kΩ 14.25 kΩ 14.85 kΩ
The theoretical equivalent resistance should be 15 kΩ/3 = 5 kΩ
Thus, the tolerance level of the equivalent resistor will be,
(5.26 kΩ − 4.726 kΩ)
Toleranceeq = × 100 % = 10.68 %
5 kΩ
Comments: The tolerance of the equivalent resistance is even larger than the maximum tolerance
of the individual resistors.

1.12.2 Power Ratings of Series/Parallel Resistors

Every resistor has a limit to the maximum power level that the resistor can withstand. This
maximum power rating, limits the voltage that can be applied across it, and the maximum current
that can pass through it. Generally speaking, the larger their physical size the higher their power
rating [see Fig.1-41]. It is always better to select a resistor that is capable of dissipating more power
than the calculated power.
When resistors of equal resistance and power ratings are connected in series or parallel, the power
of the equivalent resistance will be just some of the power rating of the individual resistors. But
when we combine resistors of different resistance and power values, the equivalent power will be
less than the sum of the individual powers. However, in some extreme case the power rating of the
equivalent resistance may be just equal to the power rating of the smallest resistance connected in
series/parallel.
The power dissipated in a parallel combination of dissimilar
20 W
values is not split evenly between the resistors because the
currents are not equal. So, we have to pay closer attention 10 W

to what we’re doing when combining resistors of dissimilar 5W

values in parallel. The situation is explain in Fig.1-42(a).
2W
Here, two resistors are connected in parallel. 𝑅1 (= 1 kΩ) is
a fixed value resistor, and 𝑅2 is a variable resistor (= 1W
1
10 kΩ~ 60 Ω). The power rating of 𝑅1 is 1 W and the power 2
W
rating of 𝑅2 is 10 W. The supply voltage has been changed in 1
W
such a way that the power of equivalent resistance is equal 4
1
W
8
Fig.1-41: Physical size of different
resistors of different power
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 30

to the sum of the individual powers. That is, 𝑉𝑠2 × (𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ) = 11 W. For this situation, the power
consumed by the individual resistors for different values of 𝑅2 is shown in Fig.1-42(b). As shown in
this graphs, the resistors get their rated power only when 𝑅1 /𝑅2 = 10, which is the reciprocal of
the power ratio of the resistors. For other values of 𝑅1 /𝑅2 at least one resistor will get over
powered, which is unsafe. Thus, for resistors of different resistance values, the equivalent power
will not be the sum of individual powers. Moreover, from these graphs, it is clear that the actual
power dissipation will increase if the resistance decreases.
Power (W) Power
variation of R2
10
P2=10W
R2 = 8
P 1 = R1 = P2 =
VS 10 kΩ 6
1 W 1 kΩ 10 W P1+P2 = 11W Power
~ 60 Ω 4 variation of R1
2 P1=1W
R1/R2
0
(a) 0 5 10 15
(b)
Fig.1-42: Variation of power consumption of two resistors with
the variation of their relative value
In case of series connected resistors of different values and power, the equivalent power will be
the sum of individual powers, only when the resistors have the same resistance. Here also, for
resistors of different values, we have to pay extra care so that one resistor may not be over
powered. For series connection, the actual power dissipation will increase if the resistance
decreases.

Example 1-6
Suppose 𝑅1 = 10 Ω, 1 W and 𝑅2 = 10 kΩ, 5 W connected in parallel. Will the power capacity of
the combination be the sum of individual powers? Justify your answer.
Solution:
The equivalent resistance will be,
𝑅1 𝑅2 10 Ω × 10 kΩ P1 = R1 = R2 = P 2 =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = = 9.99 Ω Peq = ? 1 W 10 Ω 10kΩ 5 W
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10 Ω + 10 kΩ
Now let us assume that the power rating of the combined
resistance will be the sum of the individual resistors. That
is 𝑃𝑒𝑞 = 1 W + 5 W = 6 W. So, the maximum voltage of Fig.1-43: Resistor for Example 1.6
the equivalent resistance can be calculated as,
𝑉𝑚2
6W= 𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑚 = √6 W × 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = √6 W × 9.99 Ω = 7.74 V
𝑅𝑒𝑞
So, if 7.74 V is applied across the parallel combination, the power dissipated by the smaller resistor
will be,
𝑉𝑚2 (7.74 V)2
𝑃1 = = = 5.99 W ≈ 6 W ‼
𝑅1 10 Ω
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 31

That is, the smaller resistor will consume almost all of the power. Therefore, the power capacity of
the equivalent resistance will be 1 W.
Comments: If the resistors have equal vales, then the power capacity will be summed up. With the
decrease of resistance of one resistor, the power capacity of the equivalent resistance will
gradually get closer to the power capacity of the smaller one.

1.13 Inductors
Inductor (also called coil, choke, or reactor) is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
stores energy in the form of magnetic field when current flows through them. An inductor typically
consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil around a core [Fig.1-44]. When current flows
through an inductor magnetic field is produced inside the coil
as shown in Fig.1-45(a). If the current flowing through the Coil Insulated wire
inductor changes with time, magnetic field also varies with
time, and this time-varying magnetic field induces an
electromotive force or voltage (𝑒 = −𝑁𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡) across the
inductor as described by Faraday's law of electromagnetic Fig.1-44: Inductor
induction [Fig.1-45(c)]. According to Lenz's law, the induced
voltage has such a polarity (direction) that it opposes the
change in current that produces it. As a result, inductors oppose any change in current (AC current)
through them by inducing a voltage (in opposite direction). The ability of an inductor to oppose the
change in current is measured by a parameter called inductance and is denoted by 𝐿. Inductance is
defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to the rate of change of current (𝐿 = 𝑒/(𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡). In SI
system, the unit of inductance is Henry (H). Along with capacitor and resistor, inductor is one of the
three passive linear circuit elements that are used to build up electrical and electronic circuits.

i
I I 𝒗 𝒆

Induced voltage
i opposing the current
⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝝁𝒏𝒍
I I Symbol of 𝒗 𝒆
inductor
(b)
(a) (c)
Fig.1-45: Inductor: (a) Coil with magnetic field, (b) Symbol of
inductor, and (c) Inductors with induced voltage
Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC), electronic equipment, particularly in radio
equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass. Unlike the capacitors, inductors
oppose the AC current flowing through them. The opposing parameter of an inductor to AC current
is called inductive reactance (𝑋𝐿 ) and is directly proportional to the frequency of the AC current
and the value of the inductance. Thus, the reactance is calculated as,
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 (1-21)
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 32

There are various types of inductors available in the market with different values, sizes and shapes.
To be familiar with them, photographs of some common inductors are given in Fig.1-
46.

Inductors with value Resistor and capacitor

written on them as code like inductors
Inductors without value written on them

IFT (intermediate
Inductors with frequency transformer) Solenoid inductors SMD inductors
toroidal core

Fig.1-46: Photographs of various inductors available in the market

1.14 Types of Inductors

Depending on the number of coils, shape, core materials, current capacity, etc. there are various
types of inductors. Some of them are described below.

Inductor

Fixed Variable

Air core Solid core Slug tune Tapped

Iron core Ferrite core Film inductor

Fig.1-47: Classification of inductors

1.14.1 Air Core Inductors
Air core inductors are made winding a coil on either non-magnetic core or no core at all. The use of
an air core results in lower inductance, but also reduces the energy losses associated with core
inductors. As there is no core losses, air core inductors can be operated at very high frequencies.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 33

Air Ceramic
Coil
Coil

Iron
(a) (b)
Fig.1-49: (a) Air core inductor Fig.1-48: Iron core inductors
(b) Ceramic core inductor

As a non-magnetic core materail, ceramic is the most commonly used. Ceramic has very low
thermal co-efficient of expansion, so even for a range of operating temperatures the stability of the
inductor’s inductance is high. The main function of the ceramic core is to give a form for the coil. In
some cases, it will also provide the structure to hold the terminals in place. The main advantage of
these inductors are very low core losses, high quality factor. These are mainly used in high
frequency applications where low inductance values are required.
1.14.2 Iron Core Inductor
The value of the inductance of air core inductors depends on the number of turns, length,
diameter, thickness of the spiral, etc. The air core inductors have limited inductance values. In
order to increase the inductance value of an inductor, an iron core is placed inside it which results
in an iron core inductor. These are applicable in audio
equipments. When compared with other core indictors
these have very limited applications, due to their losses Coil
and frequency limitations. Coil
Ferrite
1.14.3 Ferrite Core Inductors
Ferrite is a very good ferromagnetic material with very
high resistance for electric current. They exhibit
magnetic properties with small hysteresis loss. Ferrites
are made by sintering a mixture of metal oxides and Fig.1-50: Ferrite core inductors
have the general chemical composition MO ∙ Fe2 O3,
where M is a divalent metal such as Mn, Mg, Fe, Zn, Ni, Cd, etc.
Two types of ferrites are mainly used- soft ferrite and hard ferrite. These are classified according to
the magnetic coercivity. Coercivity is the magnetic field intensity needed to demagnetize the
ferromagnetic material from complete saturation state to zero. Soft ferrite materials will have the
ability to reverse their polarity of magnetization without any particular amount of energy. Hard
ferrite are also called as permanent magnets. These will keep the polarity of the magnetization
even after removing the magnetic field.
Ferrite core helps to improve the performance of the inductor by increasing the permeability of the
coil which increases the value of the inductance. The level of the permeability of the ferrite core
used within the inductors will depend on the ferrite material. This permeability level ranges from
20 to 15,000 (relative) according to the material of ferrite. Thus, the inductance is very high with
ferrite core when compared to the inductor with air core.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 34

1.14.4 Toroidal Inductor Toroids

These inductors are made by winding wires on a ring-shaped or

donut-shaped core. Different materials like ferrite, powdered iron,
etc. are used to construct the core. Sometimes depending on the Fig.1-51: Toroidal inductors
applications, more than one coils are used. This inductor has high
coupling coefficient between windings and early saturation. Its arrangement gives minimum loss in
magnetic flux which helps to avoid coupling magnetic flux with other devices. It has high energy
transferring efficiency and high inductance values at low frequency applications. These inductors
mainly used in medical devices, switching regulators, air
conditioners, refrigerators, telecommunications and musical
instruments etc.
1.14.5 Film Inductors
These inductors use a film of conductor on base material. Thus Fig.1-52: Film inductor (SMD)
according to the requirement this film is shaped for conductor
application. As shown in Fig.1-52, film inductors are mainly constructed in SMD forms. For their
very thin size, film inductors are suitable for DC to DC converters that serve as power supplies in
smart phones and mobile devices.
1.14.6 Variable Inductors
The inductance of a variable inductor can be changed by rotating screw, attached to it. The rotation
of screw moves the magnetic core in and out of the inductor windings. By this magnetic core we
can adjust the inductance value. Fig.1-53 shows some ferrite core variable inductors. Sometimes
variable inductors are made by taking tapes at different turns of the coils.
Tuning slug
(Ferrite core)
Coil
former
Coil
winding

Base
Leads Fig.1-53: Molded inductors

Fig.1-54: Variable inductors

These type of inductors are used in radio and high frequency applications where the tuning is
required. These inductors are typically ranged from 10 nH to 100 mH.
1.14.7 Molded Inductors
These inductors or molded by plastic or ceramic insulators. The variable inductors are mainly made
in molded structures. These are typically available in bar and cylindrical shapes with wide option of
windings.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 35

1.14.8 Coupled Inductors

In this arrangements, two coils are constructed in one core to connect them magnatic coupling, just
like a transformer. AC current flowing in one inductor induces voltage in second inductor, and gives
a mutual inductance, M. Some photograpths of this type of inductors are given in Fig.1-53 to 1.5.
Fig.1-55(b) shows its equivalent circuit of a two coils coupled indcutor. From this equivalent circuit,
we can calculate the input impdeance as,
k

L1 L2 RL
Zin
(a) (b)
Fig.1-55: Tapped & Coupled inductors: (a) Photographs, and (b) Equivalent circuit

𝑅𝐿 2 2)
𝜔𝐿2
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = (𝐿1 𝐿2 𝜔 𝑘 + 𝑗 {𝜔𝐿1 − (𝐿 𝐿 𝜔2 𝑘 2 )} (1-22)
𝑅𝐿2 + (𝜔𝐿2 )2 𝑅𝐿 + (𝜔𝐿2 )2 1 2
2

Here, 𝑘 is the coupling coefficient. For 100 % magnetic coupling 𝑘 = 1.

If 𝜔𝐿2 ≫ 𝑅𝐿 , then:
𝐿1 𝑘 2
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 (1 − 𝑘 2 ) (1-23)
𝐿2
Again, if 𝑘 = 1 (ideal case), then:
𝐿1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝐿 (1-24)
𝐿2
These inductors can isolate two circuits
73×0.1=7.3 µH
electrically by transferring impedance from
one coil to the other coil. We know that a 64×1=64 µH10%
transformer (step up or step down) isolates
the primary (coil) circuit from the 27×10=270 µH20%
secondary (coil) circuit. Thus, a transformer
is also one kind of of coupled inductor. 26×10k µH=260 mH20%
Military Device
(Double silver band)
1.15 Inductor Color Code Silver 0.01 10%
Gold 0.1 5%
The value of inductance is written directly Black 0 0 0 1 20%
on the device or using color code. Brown 1 1 1 10
Although, there is variation in number of Red 2 2 2 100 Tolerance
colors, a 4-band color code system is Orange 3 3 3 1k
shown in Fig.1-56. 4-band color coding of Yellow 4 4 4 10k
inductor is same as resistor color code. The Green 5 5 5
Blue 6 6 6
numerical values of the colors are always Multiplier
Violet 7 7 7
same, e.g., Black = 0, Brown = 1 and so on.
Grey 8 8 8
White 9 9 9

Number
Fig.1-56: Process to read color codes of inductor
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 36

Here also, the first two-digit represent a number and the 3rd color is the multiplier. When the value
formed by the first two color is multiplied by the multiplier the inductance will be found in micro
Henry (μH). The 4th color gives the tolerance that is the range of variation of the values
represented by the first three colors. To understand the process, the inductance values of some
inductors are determined from their colors and are shown in Fig.1-56.

Example 1-7
Orange Red
Determine the inductance of the inductor shown in
Fig.1-57. Blue Silver
Solution:
Fig.1-57: Inductor for Example 1
The color code written on the inductor is: Orange, Blue,
Red, and Silver. The value of first two colors is 35. The
third color is red which is the multiplier. The value of the multiplier is 100. The fourth color is the
tolerance. Silver means 10%. Thus, the value of the inductance will be, 35 × 100 ± 10%.
Comments: Actually, the use of color codes in inductors is not as frequent as in resistors.

1.16 Series and Parallel Connection of Inductors

Like the resistors, inductors are also used in series and parallel combinations. Here also, the series
combination increases the inductance and parallel combination decreases it, but for inductor the
calculations may be different, because of the mutual
L1 L2 L3
coupling of two or more inductors. The theories related to
these combinations are discussed below. I v v I
v1 2 3

1.16.1 Inductors in Series vs

Inductors are connected together in series, when they are
daisy chained together sharing a common electrical Fig.1-58: Series connected inductors
current (Fig.1-58). In series connection, inductances are
simply added because the number of coil
turns is effectively increased. The total (or
equivalent) inductance 𝐿𝑒𝑞 is equal to the Dot for +M
sum of all individual inductances added
S N S N
together in series. For 𝑛 number of inductors Co L1 L2
connected in series, the equivalent L1 re L2 I
inductance is calculated as, I
E

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛 E
(1-25)
Fig.1-59: Cumulatively coupled series connected
As shown in Fig.1-58, the current flowing inductors: (a) Inductors with similar magnetic
through all the inductor is 𝐼. However, the field (b) Inductors with dot notations
voltage across them will be different and will
be directly proportional to their individual inductance.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 37

However, the above equation [Equ.(1-25)] only holds true when there is no mutual inductance or
magnetic coupling among the inductors. Two inductors will be mutually coupled if the magnetic
field of one inductor affects the other inductor.
When inductors are connected in series in
such a way that the magnetic field of one
Dot for -M
links with the other, that is, there is magnetic
coupling between the coils. In this case, the S N N S
inductance of the individual inductors will be L1 L2
changed due to this mutual effect which is L1 L2 I
called mutual inductance (𝑀). The value of I E
this mutual inductance depends on the E
coupling coefficient (𝑘). Fig.1-60: Differentially coupled series connected
Mutual inductance can be either additive or inductors: (a) Inductors with opposite magnetic
subtractive. If the direction of magnetic flux field (b) Inductors with dot notations
produced by the current through the coils is
in the same direction (as shown in Fig.1-59), then the coils are said to be Cumulatively Coupled, but
if the direction of flux is in opposite directions (as shown in Fig.1-60) then the coils are said to
be Differentially Coupled.
When two series connected inductors are cumulatively coupled the resultant inductance will be,
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀 (1-26)
Here 𝑀 is called the mutual inductance.
But, when the series connected inductors are oppositely coupled the resultant inductance will be,
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀 (1-27)

Example 1-8
Find the equivalent inductance of the following circuit. Assume, 𝐿1 = 2.5 H, 𝐿2 = 3.5 H, 𝐿3 = 5 H,
𝑀12 = 1.5 H, 𝑀23 = 1 H, and 𝑀13 = 0.5 H.
M13
Solution: M12 M23
The mutual inductance between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 is additive, other
L1 L2 L3
two mutual inductance is subtractive (found from the dot
notation). Thus, the effective value of inductances will be,
Fig.1-61: Series connected
𝐿′1 = 𝐿1 + 𝑀12 − 𝑀13 = 2.5 H + 1.5 H − 0.5 H = 3.5 H
inductors for Example 1-8
𝐿′2 = 𝐿2 + 𝑀12 − 𝑀23 = 3.5 H + 1.5 H − 1 H = 4.0 H
𝐿′3 = 𝐿3 − 𝑀13 − 𝑀23 = 5 H − 1H − 0.5 = 3.5 H
Using Equ(1-), the equivalent inductance of the combination will be,
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿′1 + 𝐿′2 + 𝐿′3 = 3.5 H + 4.0 H + 3.5 H = 11 H [Ans. ]
Comments: The type (additive or subtractive) of mutual inductance is determined from dot
notation. The equivalent inductance can also be calculated as 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + 2𝑀12 −
2𝑀23 − 2𝑀13
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 38

1.16.2 Inductors in Parallel

Inductors are said to be connected in parallel when one terminal of all inductors are connected to a
common point, and all the opposite terminals are connected to another point as shown in Fig.1-62.
The voltage drop across all the inductors in parallel will
be the same, but current following through the
individual inductor will be different. I I1 I2 I3

The equivalent (𝐿𝑒𝑞 ) or total inductance for 𝑛 number vs v L1 v L2 v L3

of inductors in parallel is calculated as,

Fig.1-62: Parallel connected inductors

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+ (1-28)
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑛
The above equation only holds true when there is no mutual inductance or magnetic coupling
between the inductors, (magnetically isolated from each other). Like series connected inductors,
when there is coupling between the coils, the total inductance is also affected by the amount of
magnetic coupling.
When inductors are connected in parallel in such a way that the magnetic field of one inductor links
with the other then a mutual inductance (𝑀) is developed. The value of this mutual inductance
depends upon coupling coefficient.
Depending of the direction of flux, the mutual inductance can increase or decrease the equivalent
inductance. In case of series connected inductance the
coupling process is explained using the flux direction. But I I1 I2
in case of parallel connections, this is represented using
dot notation. Mutually coupled parallel coils can be vs v L1 v L2
+M
shown as either connected in an aiding or opposing
configuration by the use of polarity dots or polarity
markers as shown in Fig.1-63 and 1-64. Fig.1-63: Parallel connected inductors
The equivalent inductance, 𝐿𝑒𝑞 for two parallel connected
inductors with aiding mutual inductance (both dots on upper sides) given as,
𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = (1-29)
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
Where, 2𝑀 represents the influence of coil 𝐿1 on 𝐿2 and
likewise coil 𝐿2 on 𝐿1.
If one of the two coils was reversed with respect to the I I1 I2
other, we would then have two parallel inductors with vs v L1 v L2
opposing mutual inductance (𝑀) as shown in Fig.1-64.
-M
Then the equivalent inductance (𝐿𝑒𝑞 ) for two parallel
connected opposing inductors can be calculated as,
Fig.1-64: Parallel connected inductors
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 39

𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = (1-30)
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
An important thing to notice that if the two inductances are equal in value (let 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 = 𝐿) and
the magnetic coupling is perfect between them (𝐾 = 1), the equivalent inductance and also the
self-induced emf across the inductors will be zero as the inductors cancel the flux each other. This
is because the two currents, (𝑖1 and 𝑖2 ) flowing through each inductor will be same and the same
amount (in magnitude) of flux will be produced by each inductor but in opposite directions. As
there is perfect mutual coupling, one flux will completely cancel the flux in the other. Then, the two
coils effectively become a short circuit to the flow of current so the equivalent inductance, 𝐿𝑒𝑞
becomes
𝐿2 − 𝑀2 (𝐿 + 𝑀)(𝐿 − 𝑀) 𝐿−𝑀
using equ.(1-10) 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = = = (1-31)
2𝐿 + 2𝑀 2(𝐿 + 𝑀) 2
Again for perfect coupling, 𝐿 = 𝑀, and hence, 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 0.

Example 1-9
The values of two mutually coupled inductors are 𝐿1 = 5 H, 𝐿2 = 8 H. If they are connected like i)
Fig.1-63 and ii) Fig.1-64 determine the equivalent inductance. Assume, 𝑀12 = 1.5 H.

Solution:
Given, 𝐿1 = 5 H, 𝐿2 = 8 H, and 𝑀12 = 1.5 H
i) When the inductors are connected as in Fig.1-63, the mutual inductance will be additive.
Therefore,
2
𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀12
Using Equ.(1-29) 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 2
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀12
5 H × 8 H − (1.5 H)2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = ≈ 3.78 H [Ans. ]
5 H + 8 H − 2 × 1.5 H
ii) When the inductors are connected as in Fig.1-64, the mutual inductance will be subtractive.
Therefore,
2
𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀12
Using Equ.(1-30) 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 2
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀12
5 H × 8 H − (1.5 H)2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = ≈ 2.36 H [Ans. ]
5 H + 8 H + 2 × 1.5 H
Comments: The additive (dots in the similar terminals) mutual inductance increases the equivalent
inductance whereas, subtractive (dots in the opposite terminals) mutual inductance decreases it.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 40

1.17 Capacitors and Capacitance

A capacitor (originally called condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to
store electrostatic energy (or charge). Though the shapes and sizes of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all capacitors contain two electrical conducting plates separated by a dielectric (i.e.,
insulator) material [Fig.1-65]. The conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminum foil (rolled
cylindrically) or disks, etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in combination
with many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy.
Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of electric field (in dielectrics) between its plates.

Connecting lead Plate area (A)

-Q
Electric field d Q E d
(E)
+Q Plate
separation (d) (b)
(a)
Fig.1-65: Components of a parallel plate capacitor with charge
and field: (a) 3-D view, and (b) 2-D view
When potential difference is applied across a capacitor, negative charge accumulates on one palate
and positive charge on the other plate as shown in Fig.1-65. Due to these opposite charges between
the dielectric film (or air), an electric field is developed, where the energy is stored. The ability of a
capacitor to store charge is called capacitance and is denoted by C. The SI unit of capacitance is Farad
(F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). The capacitance of a capacitor will be 1 F, if the
capacitor can store 1 Coulomb charge for 1 V potential difference applied to its plates. Farad is a very
large unit, so the practical unit of capacitance is microfarad (1 μF = 10−6 F).
In practice, the dielectric between the plates has an electric field strength limit, known as the
breakdown voltage. This voltage is called the tolerance voltage of the capacitor. The maximum
voltage up to which the capacitor can withstand (before dielectric breakdown) is called working
voltage or tolerance voltage of the capacitor. In some capacitors (e.g. electrolytic capacitors), the
tolerance voltage is written on the capacitor [Fig.1-70 or 93]. The applied voltage to a capacitor
must be equal or less than the tolerance voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In
resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems
they stabilize voltage and power flow.
Already we have discussed that a capacitor can store charge. In DC (direct current) circuits
capacitors store charges, but in AC circuits capacitors work just like a resistor. The obstacle
produced by a capacitor to the AC current is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by 𝑋𝐶 . The
reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to its capacitance and the frequency of the AC
current. Mathematically,
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = (1-32)
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 41

where, 𝑓 is the frequency of AC current and 𝐶 is the capacitance of the capacitor.

For AC voltage, the capacitor behaves as a linear device, i.e., if the frequency and the capacitance
are constant, the capacitor current will increase linearly with the increase in AC voltage. But for DC
circuit, we get the transient response of the capacitors.
The shapes and sizes of practical capacitors vary widely according to their applications. A number
of capacitors are available in markets. Some of the common capacitors are shown in Fig.1-67.

Nonpolar (fixed) Preset (variable)

Electrolyte (polar)

Nonpolar Preset (variable) Gang capacitor SMD capacitors

Fig.1-66: Photographs of different types of capacitors

1.18 Classifications of Capacitors

The types of capacitors range from a very small delicate trimming capacitors, used in an oscillator
or radio circuits, up to large power metal-can type capacitors used in high voltage power factor
correction and filtering circuits. Capacitors are classified depending on shapes, constructions,
materials, applications, and so on.
According to mechanical structure, capacitors are classified as:
 Fixed Capacitors
 Variable Capacitors
According to polarization, capacitors are classified as:
 Polarized (or polor) Capacitors
 Nonpolarized (or nonpolor) Capacitors
According to the dielectric materials:
 Electrolytic Capacitors
 Ceramic Capacitors
 Film Capacitors
 Tantalum Capacitors
 Paper Capacitors
 Power Film Capacitors
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 42

Capacitors

Variable
Fixed Capacitor
Capacitor

Polor Capacitor

Non-polor Gang Trimmer Electrical

Electrolytic Super Capacitor Capacitor Capacitor Control
ly
Capacitor Capacitor Cap.
Trimmer

Aluminum Niobium Tantalum EDLC Pseudo Ceramic Mica Film

E-Capacitor E-Capacitor E-Capacitor Super Cap. Super Cap. Capacitor Capacitor Capacitor

Solid Al Wet Al Solid Tan Wet Tan Other Polyester Polycar- Polypro-
bonate pylene
E-Cap E-Cap E-Cap E-Cap Misc. Cap. Film-Cap Film-Cap Film-Cap

Fig.1-67: Classifications of capacitors

Though not all, Fig.1-68 shows the classifications of major capacitors. A polarized capacitor is an
important component of the electronic circuit and often termed as an electrolytic capacitor. The
electrolytes are used to achieve high capacitive density. The positive and negative terminals are
fixed in these capacitors, so, they can be used in a DC circuit, but not in AC circuits.
On the other hand, nonpolarized capacitors have no polarity in their terminals. So these capacitors
can be used in both DC and AC systems. Nonpolarized capacitors are preferred over polarized
capacitors because they are destroyed by reverse voltage. The nonpolar capacitors have very small
leakage current and can work in very high frequency.
1.18.1 Electrolytic Capacitors
In an electrolytic capacitor metallic anode coated with an oxidized layer used as a dielectric. These
capacitors are polarized. They are able to offer high capacitance values – typically above 1 μF.
These capacitors are most widely used for low-frequency applications – power supplies decoupling,
and audio coupling applications as they have a frequency limit around 100 kHz. Electrolytic
capacitors are categorized based on their dielectric.
 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors – Aluminum Oxide (Dielectric)
 Niobium Electrolytic Capacitors – Niobium Pentoxide (Dielectric)
 Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors – Tantalum Pentoxide (Dielectric)
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are polarized electrolytic capacitors whose anode electrode is
made of a pure aluminum foil with an etched surface. By anodization a very thin aluminum oxide is
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 43

Lead wire (terminals)

Lead wire (terminals)

Rubber sealing
Anode aluminum foil
Paddle tab
Al2O3 dielectric
Separating paper
Aluminum can (c) Symbols of
Electrolyte polar capacitors
Inner aluminum Cathode aluminum foil
connection Multi-turn coil

Fig.1-68: Construction of aluminum electrolytic capacitors

made that acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. A non-solid electrolyte covers the rough surface of
the oxide layer, serving as the second electrode (cathode) of the capacitor. A second aluminum foil
called cathode foil is placed in contact to the
electrolyte and serves as the negative terminal of the
capacitor. The construction process is illustrated in
Fig.1-69. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are divided
into three subfamilies by electrolyte type:
• Non-solid (liquid or wet) aluminum
electrolytic capacitors,
Fig.1-69: Electrolytic capacitors
• Solid manganese dioxide aluminum
electrolytic capacitors, and
• Solid polymer aluminum electrolytic capacitors.
Applications of Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
 Electrolytic capacitors are used when a large capacitance is required.
 They are used as filtering devices that lower the ripple voltage.
 They are used in audio amplifiers to reduce the electrical noise that is induced by the main
supply.
 Electrolytic capacitors are used in smoothing the input and output signals in a DC signal
that has a weak AC component.
1.18.2 Niobium Electrolytic Capacitors
The construction of niobium electrolytic capacitor is same as aluminum electrolytic capacitor. The
main difference is instead of aluminum (Al), niobium (Nb) is used. Here, the anode is made of
passivated niobium metal or niobium monoxide, on which an insulating niobium pentoxide layer
(Nb2O5) is made that acts as a dielectric. A solid electrolyte on the surface of the oxide layer serves
as the capacitor's cathode. The dielectric constant of Nb2O5 is higher, but the tolerance voltage is
low. So, niobium-based capacitors have significantly lower maximum rated voltage compared to
tantalum capacitors. Niobium capacitors are most commonly constructed in cylindrical structures
and SMD structures.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 44

Niobium capacitors are used for their high reliability, long term operation, safety circuits, with
standard ESR requirements. They show high mechanical robustness against shocks and vibrations
and stable electrical performance.
1.18.3 Tantalum Capacitors
Tantalum capacitors are also electrolytic capacitors and have polarity. They offer a very high
capacitance per volume. Tantalum capacitors are constructed using tantalum for at least anode
material. Tantalum material tends to naturally form a non-conductive oxide surface layer which
functions as the capacitor's dielectric.
Because this layer is thinner and
lighter than dielectric materials such
as paper and plastic, tantalum Dipped epoxy Sintered tantalum
capacitors can be manufactured as coating pellet (anode)
very small components with excellent Graphite
Tantalum wire welded
capacitance to size ratio. to tantalum pellet Silver
Tantalum metal is ground into a fine Tantalum
Weld pentoxide
powder, and sintered into a pellet at (dielectric)
high temperatures. This forms a very Nickel lead Manganese dioxide
porous anode with a high surface (positive) Weld (solid electrolyte)
area that yields higher capacitance Nickel lead
per volume. The anode is then (negative) Cathode lead soldered
covered with a layer of insulating to silver electrode
oxide, which acts as a dielectric. This
step is precisely controlled to ensure Fig.1-70: Solid tantalum capacitors (dip type)
required voltage tolerances, and
capacitance values as the extent of oxide growth determines the dielectric thickness. Electrolyte is
added to the anode by means of pyrolysis in the case of solid tantalum capacitors. Solid tantalum
capacitors are then dipped into a special solution and baked in an oven to produce a manganese
dioxide coat. The process is repeated until a thick coating is produced on all internal and external
surfaces of the pellet. Finally, the pellet used in solid tantalum capacitors is dipped into graphite
and silver to provide a good cathode connection.
Fig.1-71 (dipped tantalum) shows a cutaway view of a solid tantalum capacitor. Note that the
coatings around the tantalum core (manganese dioxide cathode, carbon, silver paint) are very thin.
This results in a higher capacitance value per volume, superior frequency characteristics compared
to many other types of capacitors and excellent stability over time.
In contrast to solid tantalum capacitors, wet tantalum capacitors use a semi-liquid electrolyte paste
as a second electrode. After the anode is sintered and dielectric layer is grown, it is dipped into a
liquid electrolyte within an enclosure. The enclosure and electrolyte together serve as the cathode
in wet tantalum capacitors.
Tantalum capacitors are made with capacitance values ranging from 1 nF to 72000 μF and they
are much smaller in size than other capacitors of the same capacitance. The voltage rating for
tantalum capacitors varies from 2 V to 500 V. They have an equivalent series resistance (ESR) ten
times smaller than the ESR of aluminum electrolytic capacitors which allow for larger currents to
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 45

pass through the capacitor with less heat generated. They are very reliable when handled properly
and their shelf life is virtually unlimited.
Applications using tantalum capacitors take advantage of their low leakage current, high capacity
and long term stability and reliability. For example, they are used in sample and hold circuits,
power supply filtering on computer motherboards and cell phones due to their small size and long
term stability. Tantalum capacitors are also available in military versions, which offer better
tolerances and a wider operating temperature range. Medical electronics also rely on them
because of their high stability. Audio amplifiers sometimes use tantalum capacitors where stability
is a critical factor.
While aluminum electrolytic capacitors, which are polarized as well, might survive a short-time
reverse voltage, tantalum capacitors are very sensitive to reverse polarization. If a reverse polarity
voltage is applied, the dielectric oxide breaks down, sometimes forming a short circuit. This short
circuit may later cause thermal runaway and destruction of the capacitor.
Nowadays, these capacitors are mostly comes in the form of surface mounted devices (SMD) [Fig.1-
84]. These surface mount tantalum capacitors claim much less space on the printed circuit board
and allow for greater packing densities.
1.18.4 Super Capacitors
Supercapacitors are electrolytic capacitors with huge charge storing capaicty. They are also known
as Electric Double-layer Capacitors (EDLC) or ultracapacitors. Instead of using a conventional
dielectric, supercapacitors use two mechanisms to store electrical energy: double-layer
capacitance and pseudocapacitance. Double layer capacitance is electrostatic in origin, while
pseudocapacitance is electrochemical. The capacitance of super capacitor can be as high as 12000
F. But the super capacitors have very small operating voltage range. Typical maximum voltage lies
between 2.5 V to 2.7 V. Supercapacitors have such properties that they may be used as storage
devices in places of batteries. Some important features of these capacitors are described below:
Charging time
Supercapacitors can be charged and discharged very quicly. Batteries usually take up to several
hours to reach a full-charge-state, while supercapacitors can be brought to the same charge state
in less than a couple of minutes.
Specific power
The specific power of a battery or supercapacitor is defined as the maximum power output per unit
mass of the device. Supercapacitors have a specific power 5 to 10 times greater than that of
batteries. For example, while Li-ion batteries have a specific power of 1~3 kW/kg, the specific
power of a typical supercapacitor is around 10 kW/kg.
Life-cycle and safety
Supercapacitors can be charged and discharged millions of times and have a virtually unlimited
cycle life, while batteries have only cycle life of about 500. This makes supercapacitors very useful
in applications where frequent storage and release of energy is required. Supercapacitors are safer
than ordinary batteries.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantage of super capacitor is a relatively lower specific energy. The specific energy is
defined as the amount of energy stored per unit mass of the device. While Li-ion batteries
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 46

commonly used in cell phones have a specific energy of 100~200 Wh/kg, supercapacitors may
have only 5 Wh/kg.
Another disadvantage is a linear discharge voltage. For example, a battery rated at 2.7 V, when at
50 % charge would still output a voltage close to 2.7 V, while a supercapacitor rated at 2.7 V at
50 % charge would output exactly half of its maximum charge voltage, 1.35 V.
Cost is the third major disadvantage of currently available supercapacitors. The cost per Wh of
supercapacitors is more than 20 times higher than that of Li-ion batteries.
Safety vent Porous Permeable
Terminals Terminals carbon Separators

Sealing disc Current

collector (Al
sheet)
Aluminum
Separator can

Porous carbon
Positive coated on
electrode (Al electrode
with Carbon
coating)
Negative electrode (Al Electrolytes
Separator with Carbon coating)
(b)
(a)
Fig.1-71: (a) Construction of a super capacitor, and (b) Charge stored
on the pores of carbon granules

Construction and properties of supercapacitors

The construction of supercapacitor is similar to the construction of electrolytic capacitors in that
they consist of two foil electrodes, an electrolyte and a foil separator [shown in Fig.1-72]. The
separator is sandwiched between the electrodes and the foil is rolled or folded into a shape, usually
cylindrical or rectangular. This folded form is placed into a housing, impregnated with electrolyte
and hermetically sealed. The electrolyte used in the construction of supercapacitors as well as the
electrodes, are different from those used in ordinary electrolytic capacitors.
In order to store electrical charge, a
supercapacitor uses porous materials as
separators in order to store ions in those
pores at an atomic level. The most
commonly used material in modern
supercapacitors is activated carbon. The 1 F button type
supercapacitors
fact that carbon is not a good insulator
3000 F 200 F
results in a maximum operating voltage
limited to under 3 V. Fig.1-72: Photographs of various super capacitors
One of the most exciting materials used in
supercapacitor research is graphene. Graphene is a substance consisted of pure carbon, arranged
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 47

in a planar sheet only one atom thick. It is extremely porous, acting as an ion sponge. Energy
densities achievable using graphene in supercapacitors are comparable to energy densities found in
batteries. However, even though prototypes of graphene supercapacitors have been made as a
proof of concept, graphene is difficult and expensive to produce in industrial quantities, which
postpones the use of this technology.
Applications for supercapacitors
Due to high life-cycle and fast chargind/discharging time, supercapacitors are used in some systems
instead of batteries. One interesting application is the storage of energy in KERS (Kinetic Energy
Recovery System), or dynamic braking systems in automobile industry. Another example is low-
power applications where a high capacity is not essential, but a high life cycle or quick recharging is
important. Such applications are photographic flash, static memories (SRAM) which need a low
power constant voltage source to retain information and so on.
1.18.5 Ceramic Capacitors
A ceramic capacitor is considered to be one of the most commonly used capacitors. Ceramic is used
in this capacitor as dielectric [Fig.1-74]. Ceramic capacitors are non-polar device so they can be
used in any direction in the circuit. Values of ceramic capacitors range from a few picofarads to

Ceramic disc
(dielectric)
Protective
coating Protective
coating
Metal electrode

(b) Photographs of some (c) Symbol of non-

Connecting polar capacitor
leads ceramic disc capacitors
(a) Internal construction

Fig.1-73: Ceramic disc capacitor

around 0.1 microfarads. Ceramic capacitors are cheap and reliable and their loss factor is
particularly low. Depending on the physical connection of the capacitor on the circuit board,
ceramic capacitors are classified into three groups:
 Leaded disc ceramic capacitors
 Surface mount multi-layered ceramic capacitors
 Microwave bare lead-less disc ceramic capacitors
Depending on the temperature range, temperature drift, and tolerance, ceramic capacitors are
classified into the following classes:
 Class 1 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors are considered to be the most stable
capacitors with linear characteristics.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 48

 Class 2 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors perform better for volumetric efficiency but
their accuracy and stability are at stake. They find applications in coupling and decoupling
circuits.
 Class 3 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors have high volumetric efficiency with low
accuracy and low dissipation factor. They are used in decoupling.
1.18.6 Mica Capacitor
Mica capacitors are made by sandwiching mica sheets coated with metal on both sides that work
as the plates of the capacitor [Fig.1-75]. This assembly is then encased in epoxy in order to protect
it from the environment. Sometimes, the mica dielectric is silvered to produce the electrodes or
plates of the capacitor. This variety is called Metal
silver mica capacitor. They offer very high foil/plates
levels of stability, high precision, low loss, and
accuracy. Though are not widely used these
days, they were frequently used for high
frequency RF applications. They are available Mica
dielectric Fig.1-74: Mica/Silver mica
in small values and limited to maximum values capacitors
of approximately 1000 pF.
1.18.7 Film Capacitors
Film capacitors are also known as polymer film, plastic film, or film dielectric capacitors. The
advantages of film capacitors are- they are inexpensive and come with limitless shelf life. The
typical voltage range of these capacitors is from 50 V to 2 kV.
Film capacitors are made out of two pieces of plastic films covered with metallic electrodes, wound
into a cylindrical/rectangular shaped winding, with terminals attached, and then encapsulated
[Fig.1-76]. The dielectric

Molded plastic
Molded
case Self-extinguishing resin
Double-sided metalized plastic case
polyester film (4th layer)
Margin Polypropylene
film (3rd layer)

Double-sided metalized Four layer

polyester film (2nd layer) films

Polypropylene
Metal layer film (1st layer)
Margin
Margin
Connecting leads
Connecting leads
Fig.1-6: Construction of film capacitor

films, depending on the desired dielectric strength, are made in a special process to be extremely
thin. The electrodes of film capacitors may be metallized aluminum or zinc applied directly to the
surface of the plastic film, or separate metallic foils. These conductive layers or sheets are wound
into a cylinder shaped winding, usually flattened to reduce mounting space requirements on a
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 49

printed circuit board [Fig.1-77], or layered as multiple single layers stacked together, to form a
capacitor like body [Fig.1-84].

In general, film capacitors are not polarized, so the two terminals are interchangeable. There are
two different types of plastic film capacitors, made with two different electrode configurations:
 Film/foil capacitors or metal foil capacitors and
 Metalized film capacitors
Film/foil capacitors or metal foil capacitors are made with two plastic films as the dielectric, with
usually aluminum as the electrodes. Advantages of this construction are- easy electrical connection
to the metal foil electrodes, and its ability to handle high current surges.
Metalized film capacitors are made of two metalized films with plastic film as the dielectric. A very
thin (~ 0.03 μm) vacuum-deposited aluminum metallization is applied to one or both sides to serve
as electrodes.
The structure of film capacitor results in very low ohmic loss and a very low parasitic inductance,
which makes them especially suitable for applications with very high surge currents (snubbers) and
for AC power applications, or for high frequency applications.
Another feature of film capacitors is the possibility of choosing different film materials for the
dielectric layer to select desirable electrical characteristics, such as stability, temperature range, or
ability to withstand very high voltages. So depending on the dielectric materials, there are various
types of film capacitors. Some of them are discussed here.
Polystyrene Film Capacitor
Polystyrene capacitors are a relatively cheap capacitor but
offer a good tolerance. They are tubular or rectangular in
shape. To make them, plate and dielectric sandwich is rolled
together which adds inductance, limiting their frequency
response to a few hundred kHz. They are generally available Fig.1-75: Polystyrene film
as leaded components. capacitor
Polyester Film Capacitor

Fig.1-77: Metalized
polypropylene film capacitor
Fig.1-77: Polyester film capacitor
Polyester film capacitors are used where cost is a consideration as they do not offer a high
tolerance. Many polyester film capacitors have a tolerance of 𝟓 % or 𝟏𝟎 %, which is adequate for
many applications. They are also available as leaded components [Fig.1-78].
Metalized Polyester Film Capacitor
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 50

This type of capacitor is essentially a form of polyester film capacitor where the polyester films
themselves are metalized to form the conducting plates of the capacitor. This process results thin
electrodes, and hence, the overall capacitor can be contained within a relatively small package. This
variety of capacitor is generally only available as leaded components [Fig.1-79].
Polycarbonate Capacitor
The polycarbonate capacitors have been used in
applications where reliability and performance
are critical. It enables us to make high tolerance
capacitors. These capacitors will hold their
capacitance value over time. In addition, they
have a low dissipation factor, and they remain Fig.1-78: Polycarbonate capacitors
stable over a wide temperature range, many
being specified for −55 °C to
+125 °C. However, the manufacture of polycarbonate dielectric has been very limited [Fig.1-80].
Polypropylene Capacitor
The polypropylene capacitor is sometimes used when a
higher tolerance type of capacitor is necessary than
polyester capacitors offer. As the name implies, this
capacitor uses a polypropylene film for the dielectric. One of
the advantages of the capacitor is that there is very little
change of capacitance with time and voltage applied. This
type of capacitor is used for low frequencies to 100 kHz. Fig.1-79: Polypropylene capacitors
They are generally available as leaded electronics
components [Fig.1-81].
Power Film Capacitors
These capacitors are used for high power applications. Construction process and materials, used in
power film capacitors, are similar to that of ordinary film capacitors but the thickness of the
dielectric material is higher. Polypropylene film is more
commonly used as a dielectric in power capacitor. Power film
capacitors are designed for different high power applications-
like induction heating, plasma generation, medical equipment,
magnetizers, wireless electric vehicle chargers, auxiliary power
supplies, resonant circuits, etc. These capacitors are designed to
work over a wide frequency range 5 kHz to 1 MHz. Other
salient features of these capacitors are- current ratings 200 to
1250 Arms, voltage ratings 400 V to 1200 Vrms and power Fig.1-80: Power film capacitors
ratings 150 to 1000 kVAR [Fig.1-82].
Paper Capacitor
Paper capacitor is a fixed capacitor in which paper is used as the dielectric material. The amount of
electric charge stored by the paper capacitor is fixed. It consists of two metallic plates and paper is
placed between these plates, which works as a dielectric material.
Applications of Paper Capacitors
 These capacitors are used in noise filtering, coupling, and decoupling systems.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 51

 They are also used for blocking the DC signals so that AC signals are passed through.
 Sensors such as humidity sensors, fuel level sensors.
 Paper capacitors are used in audio systems of cars as they provide extra power to the
amplifiers.
Glass Capacitors
These capacitors are made using glass as the dielectric. Glass
capacitors are generally expensive. Although expensive, these
capacitors offer extremely low loss, high RF current
capability, no piezoelectric noise, and some other good
features. Typically a glass capacitor will have a relatively low
capacitance value ranging from a fraction of a picofarad up to
1000 picofarads.
In particular, glass capacitors are applicable for very high-
performance RF applications. Glass capacitors have a low-
temperature coefficient. Some forms of capacitor exhibit
hysteresis in their temperature characteristic but glass Fig.1-81: Glass capacitors
capacitors follow the same characteristic with temperature
rising and falling. Glass capacitors do not exhibit aging effect
and retain their original value over a long period of time.
SMD Capacitors
At present, the most frequently used capacitors are SMD capacitors as they are leadless, small size
and simple to arrange on a printed circuit board (PCB). The performance of these capacitors is very
good, particularly at radio frequency. The
designing of this capacitor can be done using
metallic plates separated by the dielectric
material as shown in Fig.1-84. SMD capacitors are
classified into different types based on the
dielectric material used. Some very common types (a) Photographs of SMD capacitor
are:
 Multilayer Ceramic Capacitor Connecting
Ceramic layers
terminal
 Tantalum Capacitor (dielectric)

 Electrolytic Capacitor
In multilayer ceramic capacitor, ceramic is used as Electrodes
a dielectric material [Fig.1-84]. In ceramic
capacitors, different ceramic dioxides are used Protective coating Connecting
such as barium strontium, barium titanate & terminal
titanium dioxide, etc. as two conducting films. (b) Multi layer ceramic SMD capacitor
Generally, the electrodes of these capacitors are
Fig.1-82: SMD capacitors
covered with silver so that it gives a premium
soldering property.
As discussed before, tantalum capacitors are used widely to give high values of capacitance. So
they are also manufactured as SMD forms.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 52

Silver paint (3rd layer)

Molded
case Washer
Polarity
Negative bevel (+)
lead Tantalum wire Fig.1-85 (b): Photographs of
solid tantalum SMD capacitors
Tantalum
Weld
oxide (Ta2O3)

MnO2 dioxide Tin positive lead

coat (1st layer) Silver paint
Graphite (3rd layer)
(2nd layer)
Fig.1-85 (a): Construction of solid Fig.1-85 (c): Photographs of
tantalum SMD capacitor electrolytic SMD capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are also used in SMD designs due to the high value of capacitance and low
cost. These capacitors are frequently marked with voltage and its value. In this type, two kinds of
methods are used. The first method is to include µF values whereas another method is to utilize
code. In the first method, when the capacitor is marked with 33, 6 V then the value of the
capacitance is 33 µF and the tolerance voltage level is 6 V.
1.18.8 Variable Capacitors
The capacitors, whose capacitance can be changed within a certain range, are called variable
capacitors. The capacitance can be varied either mechanically or electronically. Here, only the
mechanical variable capacitors are described. Basically, there are two most common types of
(mechanical) variable capacitors: i) Tuning capacitors (also called rotor-stator capacitors, or gang
capacitors) and ii) Trimmers.
Gang or Tuning Capacitors
The rotor-stator type capacitors are mainly used for tuning of radio receiver or TV. For this reason
they are called tuning capacitors.
The rotor-stator type capacitor Connector
Rotor plates Overlap
comprises of two metallic plate sets
[Fig.1-88]. The moving plates are Stator plates
Rotor plates
attached conjointly on the shaft and
make the rotor, whereas the fixed
Air dielectric Stator plates
plates are linked together and
constitute the stator. Capacitance is Plastic box
Rotor
altered by turning out the shaft in a Spindle movement
way that the rotor plates and stator
plates overlap with one another Fig.1-86: Construction of gang/tuning/rotor-stator capacitor
while air acts as a dielectric.
Trimmer Capacitor
A trimmer capacitor is a variable capacitor used for initial calibration and recalibration of
equipment. Trimmer capacitors are almost always mounted directly on the PCB (Printed Circuit
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 53

Board), so the user does not have access to them, and set during manufacturing using a small
screwdriver. The trimmer capacitors may provide capacitance in the range of 0.5 pF to 120 pF with
tolerance voltage upto ≈ 300 V.
1 2
Plastic cover 3
Adjustment screw
Separators
(Dielectric )

Stator plates
Rotor plates 1. Maximum common area (Max. capacitance)
2. Medium common area (Medium capacitance)
(a) Construction of trimmer 3. Minimum common area (Min. capacitance)
Terminals (variable capacitor) (b) Variation of capacitance of trimmer

Fig.1-87: Variable (trimmer) capacitor

There are two types of trimmer capacitors: i) Air trimmer capacitor, and ii) Dielectric trimmer
capacitors. The first one uses air as dielectric and
provides very large tolerance voltage. On the other
hand the second one uses different materials (glass,
quartz, polytetrafluoro-ethylene etc.) as the
dielectric and hence provides lower tolerance Solder seal Metal piston
voltage. Both types use rotating action to change
the capacitance. Trimmer capacitors can be made of Fixed Turning
metal screw
semi-circular metal plates [Fig.1-89]. One is fixed, plate
while the other can be rotated using a screwdriver.
The user changes the capacitance by rotating the
Metal shell
shaft and increasing or decreasing the overlap Sapphire dielectric Ceramic sleeve
between the two plates. Gear mechanisms may be Fig.1-88: Cylinder type variable capacitor
used to improve the precision by allowing multiple
turns between the lowest and highest settings.
Another way to make a trimmer capacitor is shown in Fig.1-90. Inside a non-conducting cylinder a
fixed metal plate, a dielectric and a moveable plate are placed. By rotating a screw, the distance

Gang capacitor Double gang

capacitor Trimmer capacitors Trimmer capacitors
(through hole) (SMD)

Fig.1-89: Photographs of various variable capacitors

 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 54

between the two plates can be varied which results in a change of capacitance. This construction
provides very precision adjustment of capacitance. Photographs of different variable capacitors,
commonly used in electronic equipment, are shown in Fig.1-91.
Equivalent Model of a Capacitor
Fig.1-92 shows the most common electrical model of a capacitor. It is a fairly good model to
understand how capacitors will behave under most common conditions. Actually real capacitors
are a bit more complicated. The model given here does not show the temperature and frequency
dependence of the various elements. Also, the model does not show all the parasitic elements that
may be important in RF and microwave applications. Here, 𝑪 is the primary capacitance, that is, the
capacitance printed on the capacitor. 𝑹𝒑 is
the leakage resistance. 𝑬𝑺𝑹 (represented
RS LS C
as 𝑅𝑠 ) is the equivalent series resistance.
ESR of a capacitor is generally made up of RP RS LS C
three components, the lead and end-
Rda Cda Simplified model
termination resistances, the electrode
resistance, and dielectric loss. The model Fig.1-90: Equivalent model of a capacitor
implies that ESR is constant with
frequency. Actually, the skin effect can be a factor in high frequency applications, while the
dielectric loss is frequency and temperature dependent for most materials. 𝑬𝑺𝑳 is the equivalent
series inductance (represented as 𝐿𝑠 ), mostly of interest to RF and microwave applications. 𝑹𝒅𝒂
and 𝑪𝒅𝒂 combinedly represent the dielectric absorption.
A more realistic equivalent circuit is an infinite series of 𝑅𝑑𝑎 − 𝐶𝑑𝑎 networks, all in parallel. In each
succeeding network, the 𝑅𝑑𝑎 would get larger and the 𝐶𝑑𝑎 smaller. The sum of the 𝐶𝑑𝑎 capacitors is
substantial, somewhere on the order of magnitude of the primary capacitance.
Reading Capacitor Values
Different types of capacitors have different ways of representing the capacitance values and the
maximum operating voltage (or tolerance voltage). Some most commonly used methods are
described here.
+ve terminal
Electrolytic capacitors, non-polar
Capacitance (470 µF)
capacitors, large AC paper -ve terminal
capacitors have capacitance, and
voltage tolerance values written on -ve sign indicates
Tolerance
0µF 400V 10µF 400V

its body in the form of –ve terminal

voltage
alphanumeric characters. For Capacitance (450 V)
example, look at the electrolytic Tolerance voltage
(10 µF)
capacitor in Fig.1-93. Here, the (400 V)
st
capacitance of the 1 capacitor is
(a) Electrolytic capacitor
10 μF and the tolerance voltage is
400 V. Similarly, the capacitance of Fig.1-91: Values written on electrolytic capacitors
nd
the 2 capacitor is 470 μF and the
tolerance voltage is 450 V.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 55

In non-polar capacitors (like ceramic, miller, tantalum etc.) the value of the capacitance is either
written as a code number or using colors (Fig.1-94). In coding system, generally the code consists of
2 or 3 numbers and an optional tolerance letter code to identify the tolerance. In case of two-
number code, only the value of the capacitor is given in picofarads. For example, a code ‘47’ =
47 pF and a code 100 = 100 pF etc. But in case of a three-digit code, the first 2 digits give the
Code 104
Code 103 represents Color represents
represents 0.02 µF
0.02 µF value (0.3 µF)
104
1 KV 104 203

(a) Photographs of some ceramic (b) Photographs of some ceramic

disc capacitors with code disc capacitors with color

Fig.1-92: Numeric code and color code on capacitors

value and the 3rd digit is the multiplier that is used as a power of 10 and the value will be in picofarad
(pF). For example, the code number written on a ceramic capacitor is 203 [Fig.1-94(a)]. Its value will
be 20 × 103 pF = 20000 pF = 0.02 μF or 20 nF. Three-digit codes are often accompanied by an
additional tolerance (variation of capacitance) letter as given below.

Example 1-10
Determine the value of capacitance of the capacitor shown in Fig.1-66. 104
Calculate the value of reactance (𝑋𝐶 ) if the capacitor is used for 50 Hz
AC voltage.

Solution:
The code number written on the capacitor is 104. So, the value of Fig.1-93: Ceramic capacitor
capacitance will be 10 × 104 pF = 100000 pF = 0.1 μF or 100 nF. for Example 1-2
The reactance can be calculated using Equ.(1-2).
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = ≈ 32 kΩ [Ans. ]
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋(50 Hz)(0.1 × 10−6 )
Comments: In Bangladesh, the frequency of AC supply voltage is 50 Hz. Hence, here we have
considered 𝑓 = 50 Hz.

Capacitor Tolerance Letter Codes

Capacitance
Letter B C D F G J K M Z
Range
C < 10 pF ± pF 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 2
Tolerance
C > 10 pF ± % 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 +80-20
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 56

When the value of the capacitance, written on the body of the capacitor, is of a decimal value
problems arise with the marking of the “Decimal Point” as it could easily not be noticed resulting in
misreading of the actual capacitance value. Therefore, letters
such as p (pico) or n (nano) are used in place of the decimal point
to identify its position and the weight of the number. For
example, a capacitor can be labeled as, n47 = 0.47 nF, 4n7 =
4.7 nF or 47n = 47 nF and so on. Also, sometimes capacitors
are marked with the capital letter K to signify a value of one
thousand picofarads, so for example, a capacitor with the Fig.1-94: Values written on
markings of 100 K would be 100 x 1000 pF or 100 nF. non-polor capacitors
To reduce the confusion in reading letters, numbers, and decimal
points, an International Color Coding Scheme is used to identify capacitor values and tolerances. It
consists of color-bands (in spectral order) known commonly as the Capacitor Color Code system.
The color coding system for capacitors is illustrated below:

A A A A
B B B B
D D D D
V T T
V

A B D
Digit Digit Digit T>10pf T<10pf
Black 0 0 1 20% 2.0pf TC
Brown 1 1 10 1% 0.1 pf -33x* V
Red 2 2 100 2% 0.25pf -75x* 250V
Orang 3 3 1k 3% -150x*
eYellow 4 4 10k 4% -220x* 400V
Green 5 5 100k 5% 0.5pf -330x* 100V
Blue 6 6 1M -470x* 630V
Violet 7 7 -750x*
Grey 8 8 0.01 +80%-20%
Max.
White 9 9 0.1 10% 1.0pf Voltage
Gold 0.1 5% Temp.
Silver Values (pF) 0.01 10% Coefficient
*=10-6
Multiplier Tolerance

Fig.1-95: Color coding system for capacitors

The capacitor color code system was used for many years on non-polarized capacitors. Nowadays,
small capacitors such as film or disk types the colors have been replaced by a letter or number
coded system. There are some capacitor types, whose tolerance voltage is represented using
colors. The maximum operating voltage represented by the color is different for different types of
capacitors [Fig.1-97].
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 57

Color Tolerance Voltage

Band Type J Type K Type L Type M Type N

Types of Capacitor for Tolerance Volta Black 4 100 10 10

Brown 6 200 100 1.6
Type J – Dipped Tantalum Capacitors
Red 10 300 250 4 35
Type K – Mica Capacitors Orange 15 400 40

Type L – Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors Yellow 20 500 400 6.3 6

Green 25 600 16 15
Type M – Electrolytic 4-Band Capacitors
Blue 35 700 630 20
Type N – Electrolytic 3-Band Capacitors Violet 50 800
Gray 900 25 25
(a)
White 3 1000 2.5 3

Fig.1-96: Color represents tolerance Golden 2000

voltage for different types of capacitors Silver (b)

Example 1-11
For the polyester film capacitor of Fig.1-98, determine the value of the capacitance.

Solution:
The capacitance of the capacitor is written by
Brown = 1
a five-band color code. The first two colors Value = 10 pF
Black = 0
indicate the value in pF. Here, the first two Multiplier = Yellow 10 k
colors are: Brown = 1, and Black = 0. Thus, the Tolerance = Red = 2%
value represented by these colors is 10 pF. The Voltage = Orange = 250 V
third color is yellow that is the multiplier.
Form Fig.1-96, we find that the multiplier
value for yellow color is 10 k. The fourth color
is red that is the tolerance. Form Fig.1-96, we Fig.1-97: Polyester film capacitor with color code
find that the tolerance value for red color is
2%. The last color is orange that indicates the
voltage rating of the capacitor is 250 V. Putting
all together, the value of capacitance of this capacitor will be:
𝐶 = 10 pF × 10 k ± 2%, 250 V
𝐶 = 100 nF ± 2%, 250 V [Ans. ]
Comments: For three to five-band color code, 𝑇𝐶 will not be used. 𝑇𝐶 will be used only for six-band
color codes.

1.19 Series and Parallel Connection of Capacitors

Like resistors, we can combine capacitors in series or parallel. But the value of the equivalent
capacitance will be just opposite to resistance. That is, if capacitors are connected in series, the
equivalent capacitance will decrease. This happens due to the division of the applied voltage across
the capacitors. For example, if we connect three capacitors in series and a current of 1 mA flows
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 58

through that series path, then all the capacitors will accumulate 1 mC of charge every second. If
the capacitors are of equal values, the voltage of individual capacitor will increase at the same rate.
Thus, the voltage across the combination will increase
3 times faster than it would have been increased for a V1 V2 VN
single capacitor. We know for a certain amount of
charge, the voltage will increase faster in a lower value I C1 C2 CN I
capacitor as 𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐶. Therefore, the series
combination will be equivalent to a single capacitor
Switch E
with a capacitance of one-third the capacitance of a
single capacitor. Fig.1-98: Series connected capacitors:
In fact, by placing the capacitors in series, we've Same current different voltage
effectively spaced the plates farther apart because the spacing between the plates of the two
capacitors adds together. So, the reciprocal methods are valid for adding capacitors in series.
Mathematically,
1 1 1 1
= ( + +⋯+ ) (1-33)
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑁
Though the capacitance decreases, when we put capacitors in series the tolerance voltages add up,
just like batteries. However, in series combination of capacitors of different values, the voltage will
not simply add up. So, we have to pay extra care in determining the tolerance voltage.

Example 1-12
Suppose three capacitors have the ratings as 𝐶1 : 10 μF, 16 V; 𝐶2 : 33 μF; 20 V; 𝐶3 : 47 μF, 35 V.
Determine the equivalent capacitance and tolerance voltage when the capacitors are connected in
series.

Solution:
The equivalent capacitance of the series connected capacitors can be calculated using Equ.(1-33).
1 1 1 1
= + + = 10 × 104 + 3.03 × 104 + 2.13 × 104 = 15.16 × 104
𝐶𝑒𝑞 10 μF 33 μF 47 μF
1
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = ≈ 6.6 μF
15.16 × 104
When capacitors are connected in series, the charging current (𝐼𝐶 ) flowing through the capacitors
will be the same. Therefore, each capacitor will store the same amount of charge, 𝑄, but the
voltage across the capacitor will be inversely proportional to its capacitance. Here, the voltage of
the smallest capacitor (𝐶1) will be the maximum. But the tolerance voltage of this capacitor is 16 V.
So, the maximum amount of charge 𝐶1 can store will be,
𝑄 = 𝐶1 𝑉𝐶1 = 10 μF × 16 V = 160 μC
For the series connection, all other capacitors will store the same amount of charge (160 μC).
Therefore, the voltage across them will be
𝑄 160 μC
𝑉𝐶2 = = ≈ 4.45 V
𝐶2 33 μF
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 59

𝑄 160 μC
and, 𝑉𝐶3 = = ≈ 3.4 V
𝐶3 47 μF
Therefore, the total voltage across the three capacitors will be,
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶1 + 𝑉𝐶2 + 𝑉𝐶3 = 16 V + 4.45 V + 3.4 V = 23.85 V
This is the maximum voltage that can be applied across the combination. So the tolerance voltage
of the series combination will be 23.85 V [Ans. ]
Comments: Tolerance voltage increases when capacitors are connected in series. If the
capacitances are same, the equivalent tolerance voltage will be just sum of the individual
tolerances, but not for different capacitance values.

Adding capacitors in parallel is like adding resistors in series. Putting them in parallel effectively
increases the size of the plate-area without increasing the distance between them. The equivalent
capacitance of parallel connected capacitors will be,
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 … + 𝐶𝑁 (1-34) 𝐼 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼𝑁
Unlike the series combination, the tolerance voltage 𝐶1 𝑉1 𝐶2 𝑉2 𝐶𝑁 𝑉𝑁
E
will not increase, rather it will remain same. But if
capacitors of different voltage ratings (tolerance) are
connected in parallel, the equivalent voltage rating will
be the smallest voltage rating of the combination [see Fig.1-99: Parallel connected capacitors:
Example 1-13]. Same voltage but different current

Example 1-13
Repeat Example for parallel combination of the capacitors.

Solution:
For parallel connected capacitors, we know,
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 … + 𝐶𝑁
Here, 𝐶1 = 10 μF, 16 V; 𝐶2 = 33 μF; 20 V, 𝐶3 = 47 μF, 35 V.
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 10 μF + 33 μF + 47 μF = 90 μF
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the charging current (𝐼𝐶 ) will be different but the
voltage across them will be same. If we try to apply 35 V (the maximum tolerance of the
combination), 𝐶1 will explode, as it can withstand only 16 V. Thus the maximum voltage capacity
of the combination will 16 V, i.e., the minimum tolerance of the combination.
Comments: In parallel combination of capacitors, the tolerance voltage will be the minimum
tolerance of the individual capacitors!
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 60

1.20 Use of Multimeter

There are various types of instruments used to measure voltages and currents in circuits. Among
them the oscilloscope is the most versatile one. An oscilloscope displays the levels of voltage versus
time at one or more points in a circuit. Logic probes and logic analyzers are special purpose
instruments used for trouble shooting digital circuits. As these instruments are costly, low-cost
instruments like multimeters are commonly used in laboratories.

Display
Indicator Scale
needle V
V 200V OFF 750 ~ +ve, -ve
50V 200
A
20V 200µ probes
50m
1m
Selector 100k
200m
Selector 10k
10A
1k hFE
Ω 100
10A
VΩmA

-ve terminal +ve terminal COM

Analog multimeter Digital multimeter

Fig.1-100: Analog and digital multimeters

A multimeter is an electronic (or electrical) instrument that is used to measure voltage, current,
resistance etc. Actually a multimeter is
a combination of voltmeter, ammeter,
Don’t touch.
and ohmmeter and so on. Being a Risk of shock!!
versatile instrument, it is most Measured
voltage is AC voltage
commonly used for measuring V 200V OFF 750 ~
V
200
different components (resistors, 219 V 50V A
20V
200µ
50m
inductors, capacitors, diodes, Selector 1m

transistors etc.) and parameters placed on 100k

200m
10k
750 V AC 10A
(voltage, current, power etc.) of 1k h FE
Ω 100
electronic (and electrical) circuits. It is 10A
VΩmA
also used for continuity testing
COM
purpose in servicing electrical and
electronic circuits. There are mainly
two types of multimeters- Analog Fig.1-101: Digital multimeter measuring line voltage
multimeter, and Digital multimeter.
The photographs of an analog and a digital multimeter are shown in Fig.1-101.
The main difference between them is: the analog multimeter has an indicating needle that moves
on a scale to indicate the value of the measured parameter. On the other hand, the digital
multimeter has a display unit, that directly shows the value (numerically) of the measured
parameter. The analog multimeter consist of a d'Arsonval galvanometer and other components. A
galvanometer can measure only milliampere but can be converted into a voltage meter and Ohm
meter. As the analog meter can mainly measure voltage, Ohm, and milliampere they are widely
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 61

known as VOM. On the other hand digital multimeters consist of digital circuits and LCD/LED type
display. In addition to measure current, voltage and, resistance, digital meters can measure diode’s
barrier voltage, transistor’s current
gain, frequency and so on. Both R2 R2
multimeters have a selector that has i i
C
C
to be set to appropriate position
R1 𝒗 R1
(type of parameter and values 𝒗 L L
written on the dial) before using. We
have to be careful to use these
meters. The selector switch has to
be set to the lowest range of the
meter but sufficient enough to V A
measure the values. The lower (a) Voltmeter connected (b) Ammeter connected
ranges give better accuracy of the in parallel in series
measurement. For example, if we Fig.1-102: Meter connection methods: (a) Voltage
want to measure line voltage measurement, and (b) Current measurement.
(220 V AC) using a digital
multimeter, the selector has to be set in the voltage range 750 V AC not in 200 V AC. But if we
want to measure the line voltage in U.S.A. [110 V AC] we have to set the selector in 200 V AC.
Fig.1-102 shows how to measure the supply voltage in our house using a digital multimeter. As
there is risk of shock so we must not touch the metallic portion of the meter probes.


Ω
Ω
HOLD MNMX RANGE

This process is not mV Ω

This process is
HOLD MNMX RANGE

Ω
Hz V mV
correct. We should Hz V mAHz correct. We may Hz V

not touch both OFF A Hz

touch one terminal.
Hz V mAHz

terminals. OFF A Hz

400 Ω
mA V
! 600V 400 Ω
mA mA V
10A COM ! 600V
mA
10A COM
mA

mA

Fig.1-103: Measuring/testing method of components using multimeter

Measuring process of different parameters and elements in circuits are shown in Fig.1-103. To
measure voltage the voltmeter has to be connected across two points or across the components
[Fig.1-103(a)]. Whereas, to measure current the meter has to be connected in series, that is, the
current measuring point has to be opened and then connect the ammeter [Fig.1-103(b)].
Moreover, to measure resistance, capacitance, inductance etc. the meter has to be connected in
parallel to those components [as shown in Fig.1-104]. As human body has a finite resistance, we
should not hold the components’ both terminals by hands (holding one terminal is OK) while
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 62

measuring these components. If we hold both terminals, our body resistance will work in parallel to
the components, so the reading may not be accurate. The situation is illustrated in Fig.1-104.

1.21 Different Types of Signals

In the field of electronics and telecommunications, signal is defined as any time-varying voltage,
current, or electromagnetic wave that carries information. In other words, a signal is a function
that conveys information about a phenomenon. In that context, any quantity that varies in
magnitude over space or time can be used as a signal to share messages between observers. The
most common examples of signals are audio, video, speech, image, sonar, and radar signals. A
signal may also be defined as any observable change in a quantity over space or time (a time
series), even if it does not carry information. Signals may have various shapes in waveforms. Some
most common signals are described here.
1.21.1 Sinusoidal signals
Sinusoidal signals are the most popular signals as most of the natural periodic parameters (like
sound, light, vibrations, swings etc.) follow this sinusoidal shape. If someone says something like
"take a 10.0 V signal at 1 kHz," they mean a sine wave. The AC voltage available in the supply line is
sinusoidal (or sine wave). Mathematically, this signal can be represented as,
𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑓𝑡) (1-35)
where, 𝐴 is called the amplitude, 𝜔 is the angular frequency in radian/s, and f is the frequency in
Hertz (cycles per second). A sine wave looks like the wave shown in Fig.1-105. Sometimes it is
important to know the value of the signal at some arbitrary time, say, 𝑡 = 0, in which case we may
see a phase 𝜙 in the expression:
𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 𝜙) (1-36)
The great merit of sine waves is the fact that they are the solutions to certain linear differential
equations used to describe many phenomena in nature as well as the properties of linear circuits. A
linear circuit has the property that its output when driven by the sum of two input signals, equals
the sum of its individual outputs when driven by each input signal in turn. That is, if 𝜗(𝑎)
represents the output when driven by signal 𝑎, then a circuit is linear if 𝜗(𝑎 + 𝑏)) = 𝜗(𝑎) + 𝜗(𝑏). A
linear circuit driven by a sine wave always responds with a sine wave, although in general, the
phase and amplitude are changed. No other
periodic signal can make this output. It is standard
v(t)
practice, in fact, to describe the behavior of a 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡)
circuit by its frequency response, by which we +A 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
mean the way the circuit alters the amplitude of an
applied sine wave as a function of frequency. A 𝜋 3𝜋
0 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
stereo amplifier, for instance, should be
𝜙
characterized by a "flat" frequency response over
the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz, at least. The sine wave -A
frequencies we usually deal with range from a few
hertz to a few tens of megahertz. Lower Fig.1-104: Sinusoidal signals
frequencies, down to 0.0001 Hz or lower, can be
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 63

generated with carefully built circuits, if needed. Higher frequencies, up to say 2000 MHz (2 GHz)
and above, can be generated by using special transmission-line techniques.
Signal Amplitudes and Decibels
In addition to its amplitude, there are several other ways to characterize the magnitude of a sine
wave or any other signal. We sometimes see it specified by peak-to-peak value (pp value), which is
just twice the amplitude. The other method is to give the root-mean-square (RMS) value, which is
calculated as 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴/√2 for sine wave only, that is, 𝐴/𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √2. The ratio of amplitude to RMS
value will be different for different waveforms. The nominal voltage across the terminals of a wall
socket (in Bangladesh) is 220 V (RMS), 50 Hz. Thus, the amplitude is 𝐴 = 220 × √2V ≈ 311 V.

Example 1-14
An AC voltage is represented as 𝑣𝑠 = 24 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (100𝑡 + 20°).
Determine the amplitude, peak-to-peak value, frequency, and phase angle. Draw the graph for this
AC voltage.

Solution:
The general equation of an AC voltage is 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
where, 𝑣(𝑡) is the instantaneous value of the AC voltage, 𝑉𝑚 is the peak value or amplitude, 𝜔 is
the angular frequency. Comparing this equation with the given equation, we get,
The amplitude 𝑉𝑚 = 24 V [Ans. ], the phase angle 𝜙 = 20° [Ans. ], and angular frequency 𝜔 =
100 [Ans. ]. But we know, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔 100
∴ 𝑓= = ≈ 16 Hz [Ans. ]
2𝜋 2𝜋
Comments: At 𝑡 = 0, the instantaneous value of this AC voltage will be 𝑣𝑠(𝑡=0) = 24 sin(20°) ≈
8.21. This voltage is due to the leading phase angle 𝜙.

1.21.2 Other signals

Ramp
The ramp is a signal that looks like the one shown in Fig.1-106. It is simply a voltage, rising (or
falling) at a constant rate. But, it can't go on forever. It is sometimes approximated by a finite ramp
[Fig.1-106(b)] or by a periodic ramp also known as a saw-tooth wave [Fig.1-106(c) and (d)].
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡)
+ve slope -ve slope

0 𝑡 0 𝑡 0 𝑡 0 𝑡
T T
Steep fall Steep rise
(a) Ramp voltage (b) Ramp voltage (c) Positive (d) Negative saw-
with no limit with limit saw-tooth tooth wave
wave
Fig.1-105: Different types of ramps
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 64

Triangular wave
The triangle wave is a periodic or symmetrical ramps [Fig.1-107(a)]. A triangular wave or triangle
wave is a non-sinusoidal waveform named for its triangular shape. It is a periodic, piecewise linear,
continuous real function.
Square wave
A square wave is a signal that has only two states- HIGH and LOW. The variation of the states is
shown in Fig.1-107(b). Like the sine wave, it is characterized by amplitude and frequency (and
perhaps phase). A linear circuit driven by a square wave rarely produces a square wave as the
output. For a square wave, the peak amplitude and the RMS amplitude are the same.
The edges of a square wave are not perfectly square. In typical electronic circuits the rise time, 𝑡𝑟 ,
ranges from a few nanoseconds to a few microseconds. The rise time is conventionally defined as
the time required for the signal to go from 10 % to 90 % of its final value, as shown in Fig.1-107(c).

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡)
100%
A A
T T 90%
𝑡 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 0 𝜋 2𝜋 10%
-A -A 0
𝑡𝑟
(a) Triangle waveform (b) Square waveform (c) Rise time of a step
waveform
Fig.1-106: Triangular and square waveforms
Pulses
A pulse is a signal that is single square wave as shown in Fig.1-108(a) and (b). It is defined by
amplitude and pulse width. We can generate a train of periodic (equally spaced) pulses, in which
case we can talk about the frequency, or pulse repetition rate, and the duty cycle. Duty cycle is
defined as the ratio of pulse width to repetition period (duty cycle ranges from zero to 100 %).
Pulses can have positive or negative polarity, in addition, they can be positive-going or negative-
going. For instance, the pulse in Fig.1-108(b) is a negative-going pulse of positive polarity.
Steps and Spikes
Steps and spikes are signals that are talked about a lot but are not so often used. They provide a
nice way of describing what happens in a circuit. If we could draw them, they would look
something like the example in Fig.1-108(c) and (d). The step function is part of a square wave; the
spike is simply a jump of vanishingly duration.

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) 𝛿 𝛿 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡)

𝑡 𝑡

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝛿 𝛿 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) 𝛿
𝛿≈0
+ve going -ve going +ve going -ve going (c) Step waveform (d) Spike waveform
(a) Positive pulses (b) Negative pulses

Fig.1-107: Different pulses

 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 65

1.22 Breadboard
Breadboards are one of the mostly used devices in electronics laboratory. Breadboards are used
for making temporary circuits and prototyping, and they require absolutely no soldering. Another
common use of breadboards is testing out new parts, such as Integrated Circuits (ICs).

(a) A portion of a (b) Backside of a (c) Plastic frame of a (d) Metal sockets of a
breadboard breadboard without breadboard (metal breadboard
back cover sockets removed)

(e) Metal sockets of a (f) A resistor inserted into

breadboard two metal sockets
Fig.1-108: Solderless breadboards

A Breadboard is simply a board for prototyping or building circuits on it. It allows us to place
components and connections on the board to make circuits without soldering. The holes in the
breadboard take care of the connections by physically holding the parts or wires where we put
them and electrically connecting them inside the board. The ease and speed of use are great for
learning and quick prototyping of simple circuits. More complex circuits and high frequency circuits
are less suited to breadboarding. Breadboard circuits are also not ideal for long term use like
circuits built on perfboard (or protoboard) or PCB (printed circuit board). To understand the
function of breadboard, the internal construction and component holding process is illustrated in
Fig.1-109.

1.23 Noise in Electronic Circuits

The unwanted signals in any circuit which are not derived or related to the input signals are called
noises. Most of the noises are random in nature and are combined with the circuit signal to affect
the overall performance of a system [Fig.1-110]. However, there are some periodic noises too.
Actually, noise is unwanted signal
whether periodic or random in nature.
Signal
Random noise cannot be predicted and Signal

represented by any equation.

In the context of generating source, Signal +Noise
noise may be divided into two types:
Noise

Fig.1-109: Waveforms of signal and noise

 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 66

i) External Nose and

ii) Internal Noise
1.23.1 External Nose
The external noise is induced with the signal when it travels through the medium or free space. The
main types of external noises are: man-made noise, atmospheric noise and space noise.
Man-made Noise
It is often produced by spark-producing mechanisms such as engine ignition systems, fluorescent
lights, and commutators in electric motors. This noise is actually radiated from its generating
sources through the atmosphere. Another common source of man-made noise is contained in the
power lines that supply the energy for most electronic systems. AC power lines contain surges of
voltage caused by the switching ON and OFF of electrical motors, harmonics, produced by the non-
linier electronics load connected to the power line. All of these produce noises that appear to our
circuit through the DC power supply. Man-made noise occurs randomly at frequencies up to
around 500 MHz. This is also called industrial noise.
Atmospheric Noise
Atmospheric noise is caused by naturally occurring disturbances within the earth’s atmosphere.
Lightning discharges is the most prominent contributor of atmospheric noise. The frequency
content is spread over the entire radio spectrum, but its intensity is inversely related to frequency.
It is therefore most troublesome at the lower frequencies. This noise is insignificant for frequencies
above about 20 MHz.
Space Noise
This noise arrives from outer space, i.e., above the atmosphere. So, this noise is also called
extraterrestrial noise. The noise originating from the sun is termed solar noise. Other stars also
generate the space noise which is termed as cosmic noise. Since they are much farther away than
the sun, their effects are very small. Space noise occurs at frequencies from about 8 MHz up to
1.5 GHz.
1.23.2 Internal Noise
On the other hand, the internal noises are generated in the
circuits. There produce various types of noises in circuits. The
following are some most common types of internal noises: R
 Thermal noise E RL
 Shot noise En
 Flicker noise
 Transit-time noise Fig.1-110: Noise source
Thermal noise equivalent circuit
Due to the temperature electrons and ions of any resistor or
coductor vibrate randomly about their normal positions and produce continuous collisions. This is
the source of resistance in a conductor or resistor. This random of movements of electrons give rise
to a voltage which is called thermal noise. Thus, noise generated in any resistance due to random
motion of electrons is called thermal noise or white noise or Johnson noise. The power of thermal
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 67

noise is proportional to temperature. Noise power is also proportional to the bandwidth over
which the noise is considered. Mathematically,
𝑃𝑛 ∝ 𝑇𝐵 = 𝐾𝑇𝐵 (1-37)
where, 𝑃𝑛 is the noise power, 𝐾 is Boltzmann constant, 𝑇 is absolute temperature, and 𝐵 is
bandwidth.
Fig.1-111 shows an equivalent circuit of a resistor with noise voltage. Here, 𝑅 is a noise free
resistor, 𝐸𝑛 is RMS value of noise voltage and 𝑅𝐿 is the load resistance. Therefore, the noise power
at the load will be 𝑃𝑛 = 𝐸 2 /𝑅𝐿 . For maximum power transfer, 𝑅𝐿 will be equal to 𝑅. So, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛 /2.
Thus,
𝑃𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛2 /4𝑅 (1-38)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝑃𝑛 𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑛 = √4𝑅𝑃𝑛 (1-39)

Using Equ.(1-37), 𝐸𝑛 = √4𝑅𝐾𝑇𝐵 (1-40)

Equ.(1-40) gives the RMS value of the noise voltage of a resistor with resistance 𝑅.

Example 1-15
An amplifier has a bandwidth of 5 MHz with 4.7 kΩ of input resistance. Determine the RMS value
of the thermal noise at room temperature, 𝑇 = 25 °C.

Solution:
Here given: Bandwidth 𝐵 = 5 MHz, Resistance 𝑅 = 4.7 kΩ, and temperature 𝑇 = 25 °C = 298 K.
Thus, using Equ.(1-40),

𝐸𝑛 = √4(4.7 × 103 )(1.38 × 10−23 )(298)(5 × 106)

≈ 19.66 μV

Comments: The effect of this noise will remain in the entire bandwidth (5 MHz). This represents
the limit for the smallest voltage we can resolve across this resistor in this bandwidth.

Shot Noise
The most common type of noise is referred to as shot noise. Shot noise, in electronic circuits,
consists of random fluctuations of the electric current which originate due to the fact that current
actually consists of a flow of discrete charges (electrons). Because the electron has such a tiny
charge, however, shot noise is of relative insignificance in many (but not all) cases of electrical
conduction. For instance, 1 A of current consists of about 6.24 × 1018 electrons flowing per second
equivalently 6.24 × 109 electrons per nano-second. But, if we measure the number of electrons
flowing per nanosecond it will fluctuate due to its discrete and random nature [as shown in Fig.1-
112]. Thus, with very small currents, particularly when measuring on short time scales (thus wider
bandwidths), shot noise can be significant.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 68

Shot noise is particularly noticeable in semiconductor devices, such as tunnel junctions, Schottky
barrier diodes and PN junctions. Unlike thermal noise, this noise is dependent on the current and
independent of operating temperature. It is not white noise
in the sense that it tends to diminish at higher frequencies. I (t)
At high frequencies and low temperatures shot noise may
become the dominant source of noise.
Shot noise normally occurs when there is a potential barrier
(voltage differential). PN junction diode is an example that Idc Mean DC Fluctuations
current ishot
has potential barrier. When the electrons and holes cross
t
the barrier, shot noise is produced. For example, a diode, a
transistor, and vacuum tube will all produce shot noise. On Fig.1-111: Shot noise in DC current
the other hand, a resistor normally does not produce shot
noise, since, there is no potential barrier built within a resistor. Current flowing through a resistor
will not exhibit any fluctuations. However, current flowing through a diode produces small
fluctuations. This is due to electrons (in turn, the charge) arriving in quanta, one electron at a time.
The current flow is not continuous, but limited by the quantum of the electron charges.
Transit-time Noise
Transit-time is defined as the duration of time that it takes for a current carrier such as a hole or
electron to move from input to the output. Transit-time noise is similar to shot noise in that it
affects systems more as they get smaller due to the
quantized nature of charge. Transit-time noise
results when the time period of a signal is t t
comparable as the time an electron takes to travel Device/
from input to output. Transmitted System Received
In PN junction diodes, if the time taken by the Signal Transit Signal
electrons to travel from cathode to anode, or in -time
transistor from emitter to collector, becomes Fig.1-112: Effect of transit-time noise
comparable to period of the signal being processed,
transit-time effect takes place. So the shape of the
signal is changed as shown in Fig.1-113. Transit-time noise is directly proportional to the
frequency of the signal.
Flicker Noise
Flicker noise is found in all active electronic components as
well as some of the passive devices. Like shot noise, flicker
noise is associated with a DC current flow. A characteristic
property of this noise is that its magnitude decreases with (a)
frequency, and therefore, is sometimes referred to as 1/f
noise.
1.23.3 White Noise
White noise is a signal that has its energy evenly distributed
over the entire frequency spectrum, within the frequency
range of interest. White noise, therefore, is a combination of (b)
various noise frequencies. For example, in acoustics, white Fig.1-113: White noise in (a)
Image signal, and (b) Sound signal
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 69

noise has the same amplitude, or intensity, throughout the entire audible frequency range 20 Hz
to 20 kHz, that is heard as a hiss sound from the speaker. White noise is so named because it's
analogous to white light, which is a mixture of all visible wavelengths of light. A pure white noise
signal may only be produced by a generator called a white noise generator and is often used as a
sound source in sound synthesis. However, many sounds in nature and industry resemble white
noise, such as steady rainfall, wind, storm etc. Although in electronics, any noise is harmful and
unwanted, white noise is sometimes used for better night-sleep by masking environmental or
outside noises that disturbs sound sleeping. Fig.1-114 shows the white noise in image signal and in
sound signal.
1.23.4 Interference
Usually, interference comes from another electronic system such as an interfering radio sources.
The name given to any predictable, periodic signal that occurs in an electronic circuit in addition to
the signal the circuit is designed to process. This is distinguished from a noise signal by the fact that
it occupies a relatively small frequency range, and because it is predictable it can often be filtered
out. The source of interference can be both internal or external.

1.24 SNR and Noise Figure

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering to compare the
level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. The ratio is typically expressed as a single
numeric value in decibels (dB). Mathematically,
𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑠
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 𝑜𝑟, 𝑆𝑁𝑅 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) (1-41)
𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛
where, 𝑃𝑠 is the power of useful signal and 𝑃𝑛 is the power of noise signal.
The ratio can be zero, a positive number or a negative number. A signal-to-noise ratio over 0 dB
indicates that the signal level is greater than the noise level. The higher the ratio, the better the
signal quality [H_E_atn]. For example, a Wi-Fi signal with S/N of 40 dB will deliver better network
services than a signal with S/N of 20 dB.
Noise factor (F) is a figure of merit that indicates degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
caused by the components of a system. This figure of merit is used to evaluate the performance
mainly of an amplifier or a radio receiver. Lower values noise factor indicate better performance.
The noise factor is defined as the ratio of the input SNR to the output SNR. Mathematically,
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑖 𝑃𝑠𝑖 /𝑃𝑛𝑖
𝐹= = (1-42)
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜 𝑃𝑠𝑜 /𝑃𝑛𝑜
where, 𝑃𝑠𝑖 is the power of input signal and 𝑃𝑛𝑖 is the power of input noise signal and 𝑃𝑠𝑜 , 𝑃𝑛𝑜 are
corresponding values at the output.
Noise figure (𝑁𝐹) is a similar parameter by which the noise performance of a radio receiver,
amplifier, mixer or other circuit can be specified. The noise figure uses a logarithmic scale and is
simply the noise factor expressed in decibels. The lower the value of the noise figure, the better the
performance of the system [H_E_atn].
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 70

𝑃𝑠𝑖 /𝑃𝑛𝑖
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log ( ) (1-43)
𝑃𝑠𝑜 /𝑃𝑛𝑜

Example 1-16
The input signal power of an amplifier is 200 μW and that of noise power is 2.5 μW. If the signal
power at the output is 3 W, and the noise power is 200 mW, calculate the noise factor and noise
figure of the amplifier.

Solution:
Here given: Input signal power, 𝑃𝑠𝑖 = 200 μW, input noise power, 𝑃𝑛𝑖 = 2.5 μW.
Output signal power, 𝑃𝑠𝑜 = 3 W, output noise power, 𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 50 mW.
𝑃𝑠𝑖 200 μW
Signal to noise ratio at input: 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑖 = = = 80
𝑃𝑛𝑖 2.5 μW
𝑃𝑠𝑜 3W
Signal to noise ratio at output: 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜 = = = 60
𝑃𝑛𝑜 50 mW
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑖 80
Noise factor: 𝐹= = ≈ 1.33 [𝐴𝑛𝑠. ]
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜 60
Noise figure: 𝑁𝐹 = 10 log(1.1) ≈ 1.25 dB [𝐴𝑛𝑠. ]
Comments: The value of 𝑁𝐹 is comparative small. It means that, in terms of noise, the amplifier’s
quality is good.

1.25 Electro-Mechanical Switches (Relays)

Relays are basically electromechanical switches used to turn ON or OFF a circuit with the help of
electromagnets. Relays are one of the most important electromechanical devices highly used in
Armature
Normally
Closed (NC)
Spring Pole or supply
Normally
Open (NO)

Solenoid/coil
(a) Photograph Connecting leads
(b) Internal construction

Fig. 1-114: Electromagnetic relays: (a) Photograph, (b) Internal components

industrial applications, specifically in automobiles. A relay can be used to switch ON or OFF

electrical circuits operating at high AC voltage, using a low DC control voltage. It provides electrical
isolation between the controlling circuit (DC circuit) and the controlled circuit (AC circuit). Relays
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 71

were used as constructive parts of some early calculators and computers. US scientist Joseph Henry
(1797–1878) invented the relays in 1835.
Relays have basically three main parts. These are: (i) Electromagnetic coil (solenoid), (ii) Contacts-
Normally Open (NO) and Normally Closed (NC), and (iii) A movable Contact or Pole fitted with a
spring [as shown in Fig.1-115].
An electromagnetic coil is made up of a copper wire wound on a ferromagnetic core in the shape of
a solenoid. When voltage is applied to this electromagnetic
NO NO
coil, current flows through the coil and a magnetic flux is NC
produced in the core. Thus, the core works a bar magnet. Coil Coil
There are two types of contacts in the electromagnetic relay.
These are: Normally Open (NO), and Normally Closed (NC) Pole Pole

contacts. Normally open contact is connected to the pole when SPST SPDT
the coil is energized. Normally closed contact remains NO NC NC
connected to the pole, when the coil is not energized.
Generally the supply voltage is connected to the pole, which is Coil Coil
supplied through the NO or NC terminals.
Pole Pole Pole
The NO and NC contacts are also called throws and the
DPST DPDT
moveable contact (attached to armature) is called the pole.
Mostly used relays have one pole and two throws. So these Fig.1-115: Symbols of
different types of relays
types of relays are called SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw)
relays. On the other hand, an SPST (Single Pole Single Throw)
relay has only one pole and one throw
(ON). There are some other types of relays. Coil Common
NO
The schematic symbols of different types of Coil NC
relays are shown in Fig.1-116 and Fig.1-117 Normally Coil
shows the pin-connection of a common connected Normally
relay. (NC) open (NO) Pole
(common)
1.25.1 Operation of Electromagnetic
Relays Fig.1-116: Pin-configuration of a common relay

Fig.1-118 2.25 shows the working principle of a relay. The line voltage (phase) is connected to the
pole (pin 1), a bulb is connected to NO (pin 2) terminal and a fan is connected to NC terminal (pin 3)
of the relay. A DC voltage (batteries) is connected to the solenoid of the relay through a switch.
When the batter switch is OFF [Fig.1-118(a)] the relay is not energized. So the AC voltage will be
connected to the fan through NO (pin 3) terminal. So the fan will run but the bulb will remain OFF.
On the other hand, when the DC voltage is applied to the coil, the coil is energized and a magnetic
field is set up in the core, which attracts the armature downward. So the pole will be connected to
NO (pin 2) contact. Thus, the bulb will be ON, but the fan will be OFF. In this way the power of the
loads are controlled by energizing and de-energizing the relay coil. Look at the figure, the DC circuit
and the AC circuits are completely isolated.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 72

ON OFF

Neutral Neutral

OFF ON
(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3)

Phase Phase
220 V 220 V Neutral
Neutral
(a) Battery is disconnected, coil is not energized, (b) Battery is connected, coil is energized,
phase is supplied to the fan through NC (pin 3) phase is supplied to the light through NO (pin 2)

Fig.1-117: Controlling loads using relay

1.26 Wire Gauge and Ampacity

Wire gauge is a measurement of wire diameter. This determines the amount of electric current the
wire can carry safely, as well as its electrical resistance and weight. Two standards are mainly used
to represent the wire size and ampacity (carry capacity to current). These are British Standard Wire
Gauge (SWG dropping the British part) and American Wire Gauge (AWG). These two are actually
not equivalent in size. In general, an SWG wire would have larger diameter (though not for all) than
an AWG wire of the same gauge. AWG is widely used in electrical wires while SWG is not so much.
AWG is a logarithmic stepped standardized wire gauge system used since 1857. In AWG, there are
40 gauge numbers (1, 2 upto 40). The higher the AWG numbers (like 14, 16, 20, 40), the thinner the
wire. The biggest 4/0 wire is the thickest and can carry the maximum amps (230 A). The thicker
wire sizes are represented with multiple zeros as number of zeros or number of zeros/0 as shown
in Table 2. Different AWG wires have different diameters, cross-sections, and current capacity to
flow through them.
AWG wire gauge chart for a standard copper wire is shown in Table 1-2 (full chart is given in
Appendix-H_C_atn). We can read the diameter (in inches or mm), cross-section (in mm2 ), and
ampacity, ie, the amount of amps a wire can handle. From this chart it can be observed that if the
gauge number of a wire is increased by 3, the resistance (/km) becomes double and if it is
increased by 10 the resistance (m/ft) will also be double. To understand it, look at the AWG
chart in Table 1-2. The resistance of 1 AWG wire is 0.1239 m/ft and the resistance of 4 AWG
(increased by 3) is 0.2485 m/ft.
In addition to the ampacity, the AWG Table, gives the maximum frequency. This data is useful for
high frequency AC applications. When high frequency AC is conducted by a wire there is a tendency
for the current to flow along the outside of the wire- called skin-effect. Skin-effect increases the
effective resistance. The frequency listed in the table shows the frequency at
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 73

3/0 1/0 3
Gaug Gaug Gaug 6
Gauge
e e e

55 Amps
200 Amps 150 Amps 100 Amps

8
SWG 10 SWG 12 SWG 14 SWG
AWG = 1 AWG = 5
15 Amps
(b) (c)
30 Amps 20 Amps
40 Amps
(a)
Fig.1-118: (a) AWG of different wire (b) AWG measuring disc, and (c) AWG measuring process

which the calculated skin depth is equal to the radius of the wire, and is an indication that above
this frequency we must consider the skin effect when calculating the wire resistance.
Table 1-2: AWG and Their Related Parameters
Max.
Diameter Diameter Resistance Resistance Max. Frequency
AWG Area (mm2)
(inches) (mm) (m/ft) (/km) Current (A) for 100%
skin depth
0000(4/0) 0.46 11.684 107 0.049 0.16072 302 125
000(3/0) 0.4096 10.40384 85 0.0618 0.202704 239 160
00 (2/0) 0.3648 9.26592 67.4 0.0779 0.255512 190 200
0 (1/0) 0.3249 8.25246 53.5 0.983 0.322424 150 250
1 0.2893 7.348 42.409 0.1239 0.406392 119 325
2 0.2576 6.544 33.632 0.1563 0.512664 94 410
3 0.2294 5.827 26.671 0.197 0.64616 75 500
4 0.2043 5.189 21.151 0.2485 0.81508 60 650
5 0.1819 4.621 16.774 0.3133 1.027624 47 810
6 0.1620 4.115 13.302 0.3951 1.295928 37 1100
7 0.1443 3.665 10.549 0.4982 1.634096 30 1300
8 0.1285 3.264 8.366 0.6282 2.060496 24 1650
9 0.1144 2.906 6.634 0.7921 2.598088 19 2050
10 0.1019 2.588 5.261 0.9989 3.276392 15 2600

The gauge number can be measured using different instrument, the most easy way is to use gauge
disks [Fig.1-119(b),(c)]. We have to place the wire into different grooves until we find the best fit.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 74

The fit should be snug but not too tight. The AWG value of the wire will be the size of the smallest
gauge groove through which it barely slides into.
For a given AWG, the diameter of the wire can be calculated using the following Equ.(1-44)
36−𝑛
𝐷𝑛 = 0.127 mm × 92 39 (1-44)
For example, the diameter of a 30 AWG will be,
36−30
𝐷30 = 0.127 mm × 92 39

𝑜𝑟 𝐷30 = 0.127 mm × 92(6/39)

𝑜𝑟 𝐷30 = 0.127 mm × 92(0.153846)
𝑜𝑟 𝐷30 = 0.127 mm × 2.005
∴ 𝐷30 = 0.254635 mm
Similarly, the cross-sectional area of a wire can be calculated using the following equation,
36−𝑛
𝐷𝑛 = 0.012668 mm2 × 92 19.5 (1-45)

According to the number of cores, wires are categorized

as stranded wire and solid wire. As shown in Fig.1-120
stranded wire is formed by twisting thin strands of wires Stranded wire
and bundled together to form a cable-like solid wire. On Solid wire
the other hand, a solid wire is madeup of a single strand.
The main advantage of a stranded wire is its flexibility. Fig.1-119: Stranded and solid core wire
So, stranded wire can be configured to meet the needs
of a wide variety of applications. It is ideal for joining electronic circuit components in confined
limited spaces. As shown in Fig.1-119(c), the AWG of stranded wire is also measured by the AWG
disk in the same way.

Example 1-17
A variable voltage source is connected to a 2 km long wire. If the wire number is 10 AWG, calculate
the maximum voltage that can be applied to the wire. To verify the formula of Equ.(1-44), also
calculate the diameter of the wire.

Solution:
From the AWG table [Table 1-2], we find that a 10 AWG wire has 3.276392 Ω/km and its ampacity
is 15 A. Total resistance of the wire will be,
𝑅10 = (3.276392Ω/km) × (2 km) ≈ 6.55 Ω
Maximum voltage
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼10 𝑅10 = (15 A) × (6.55 Ω) = 98.25 V [Ans. ]
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 75

36−10
Using Equ.(1-44) 𝐷10 = 0.127 mm × 92 39

∴ 𝐷10 ≈ 2.588 mm [Ans. ] same as given in the AWG table

Comments: AWG and SWG numbering are different. So, give attention in using the wire gauge
number.

1.27 Neon Lamp

A miniature gas discharge lamp in which the electrical discharge takes place through a mixture of
gases containing a large proportion of
neon gas is known as neon lamp.
Electrons are emitted from cathode by
subjecting the surface of the cathode to Pip
Neon gas
very high electric voltage so that the
Glass Neon gas
electrons are forcibly ejected from the envelop
orbits of the atoms against the nuclear Electrodes
centripetal forces. Electrodes
Pinch
Construction of Neon Lamp
The construction of a typical neon lamp Leads
is shown in Fig.1-121.
The neon lamp has two closely spaced
electrodes, but not touching each other, Fig.1-120: Construction of neon lamp
in the form of thick parallel wire or flat
plates sealed within a soft glass
envelope. The glass envelope is filled with the neon gas at a pressure of about 8 torr. Also, a series
resistance of about 2 kΩ is mounted inside the glass envelop.
Working of Neon Lamp
When a high electric power supply is connected to the neon lamp, the cathode terminal starts
emitting electrons. These electrons get accelerated by the electric field and collide with the neon
atoms. On collision, a part of the energy is transferred from the electrons to the neon atoms and
the neon atoms get excited. When the excited neon atoms and ions come to their ground state,
they give off light. VS
In the neon lamps, the cathode is heated for emission Breakdown
Townsend
of electrons. For this purpose, these require a very regime voltage Glow to arc
high voltage depending on the distance between the transition
electrodes. In order to start discharging through neon
gas, it requires 1.5 to 2 times voltage of the normal
operating voltage. Saturation Normal Abnormal
regime glow glow
A very small lamp current will give flickering of the gas
discharge and a high lamp current will give a bright
Current density (A/m2)
stable discharge, but life will be shorter and blackening
Fig.1-121: Characteristics of neon lamp
of the envelope will occur. Therefore, the lamp current
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 76

for a standard neon lamp is less than 1 mA or for a high brightness it is up to 2.5 mA.
When AC supply is used, each electrode will turn positive and negative alternatively. Hence, a
continuous glow from the lamp is achieved. Therefore, these types of neon lamps are suitable for
high operating voltage and low current applications. The V-I characteristics of a typical neon lamp is
shown in Fig.1-122.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The main advantages of neon lamps are: miniature configuration, less expensive, consumes less
amount of electricity, long life (~5000 hours) and so on.
The main disadvantages of the neon lamps are: low efficiency, cannot be used for lighting
purposes, small range of color spectrum.
Applications of Neon Lamps
Neon lamps as used as- indicators, advertising purposes, decorative purposes etc.
1.28 Vacuum Tube to Semiconductor Devices
A vacuum tube is a type of glass tube from which all gaseous substances are expelled and the flow
of electrons inside it is controlled by placing multiple electric grids in it [see Fig.1-123(a)]. In early
electronic systems like- radio receivers, televisions, computers, etc. vacuum tubes were used as
switches and amplifiers.
The journey of electronics began with the discovery of the Edison Effect. The Edison effect was the
name given to a phenomenon that Edison observed in 1875 and refined later, in 1883, while he was
trying to improve his new incandescent lamp. The effect was that, in a vacuum, electrons flow from
a heated element like the filament of an incandescent lamp, to a cooler metal plate. Edison found
no special value in the effect, but he patented it anyway. Today we call the effect the more
descriptive term, Thermionic Emission.

Heater
Cathod Anode
eGlass terminal
tube
Plate (Anode) Anode
Heater Emitted
electrons
Heater
Socket To heater
(Base) supply
Cathode
(a) Connecting pins terminal (b)

Fig.1-122: (a) Inner view of a vacuum tube, (b) Schematic symbol of a vacuum tube

Fleming, a British physicist, invented the first vacuum tube in 1904 using the Edison Effect.
Fleming's vacuum tube acts as a rectifier (AC to DC converter). It had two electrodes [see Fig.1-
123(b)], hence it was named Vacuum Diode or simply Diode. Then Forest invented another vacuum
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 77

tube called the triode, which had three electric grids. Many other scientists invented more vacuum
tubes. The photographs of different types of vacuum tubes are shown in Fig.1-125.
In vacuum tubes, there was a heating arrangement at one end which heated the metal. The metal
absorbed heat and emitted electrons. In the first half of the 20th century, radio broadcasting, long-
distance telephone services, televisions, and the earliest electronic digital computers, all these
technologies were implemented using vacuum tubes. Electronic computers, in particular, were the
largest system made of vacuum tubes.
Electrons flow
In the second half of the 20th century, in almost Anode
mA
all practical cases, vacuum tubes were replaced terminal
Current flow
by semiconductor devices called transistors.
Even then, the use of vacuum tubes in image Electrons flow Anode
display devices such as televisions and through space supply
voltage
computer monitors continued. These were
called cathode ray tubes (CRT). CRTs are also To heater
supply
used today as high-frequency transmitters in Cathode
microwave reactors (a machine used for terminal
chemical reaction enhancement) and artificial Fig.1-123: A circuit using vacuum
satellites in space. tube
The birth history of semiconductor devices can be traced back to the invention of the rectifier (AC-
DC converter) in 1874. Decades later, Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Laboratories in the US invented
the point-contact transistor in 1947, and Shockley invented the junction transistor in 1948. This
heralded the arrival of the transistor era. In 1946, the University of Pennsylvania in the US built a
computer using vacuum tubes. The computer was so large that its vacuum tubes occupied the
entire building, and it consumed a huge amount of electricity and produced a lot of heat. Later, the
innovative transistor-calculator (computer) was developed, and since then computers have grown
by leaps and bounds. In 1956, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Shockley, Bardeen,
and Brattain for their contribution to semiconductor research and the development of the
transistor.

Fig.1-124: Photographs of different types of

vacuum tubes
The semiconductor industry grew rapidly following the invention of the transistor. In 1957, it
already exceeded the scale of 100 million dollars. In 1959, the bipolar integrated circuit (ICs) was
invented by Kilby of Texas Instruments and Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor in the US. This
invention had a major impact on the history of semiconductors, and it marked the dawn of the IC
era. Being small in size and light in weight, the IC was widely used in a variety of electric appliances.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 78

In 1967, Texas Instruments developed the electronic desktop calculator (the calculator) using IC. In
Japan, electronic equipment manufacturers released calculators one after another, and fierce
calculator wars continued until the end of the 1970s. IC integration advanced even further, and the
large-scale integrated circuit (LSI) was developed. The technologies continued to advance. The VLSI
(from 100 thousand to 10 million electronic components per chip) was developed in the 1980s, and
the ULSI (more than 10 million electronic components per chip) was developed in the 1990s. In the
2000s, the system LSI (a multifunction LSI with
multiple functions integrated into a single chip) was
put into full-scale production. As IC progresses
toward high performance and multiple functions, its
field of application is expanding broadly.
Semiconductors are now used in every corner of our
society and support everyday life.

1.29 What is Electronics Fig.1-125: Magnetic effect of Loadstone

Electronics is a branch of electrical engineering that

deals with the flow of electrons through vacuum tubes or semiconductor devices. Currently, the
functions of all vacuum tubes can be done using very small semiconductor devices, so relatively
larger vacuum tubes are not used.
Among the semiconductor devices used in electronics are diodes, transistors, JFETs, MOSFETs,
SCRs, and various types of ICs. The main goal of electrical and electronics engineering is to make all
kinds of circuits and devices using these semiconductor components. We know that the
contribution of computers, mobile phones, cars, etc. to the betterment of modern civilization is
immense. On the other hand, computers, mobile phones are the contribution of electronics.
Electronics has a special contribution to build cars, launches, steamers, factories, homes, etc.

1.30 History of Electronics:

The electronic world was not just the effort of some years or
decades; rather it is the results of hard working of a number of
great men since hundreds of years and more.
The formal beginning of electrical engineering goes back to 600
BC through the discovery of electrostatic attraction. Thales of
Miletus, a Greek philosopher rubs together lodestone
(naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite) and Fig.1-126: Amber (A hard translucent
amber (Amber is fossilized tree resin that has been appreciated fossilized resin originating from
for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times) and he extinct coniferous trees)
found that they attract.
In 1600 AD, an English scientist William Gilbert coined a new Latin word “electricus” from the
Greek word for Amber “elektron” from which later we got the two the English words “Electric” and
“Electricity” .
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 79

Fig.1-127: Otto von Guericke's electrostatic generator

In 1663 AD, German scientist Otto Van Guericke invented the first electric generator, which
produced static electricity by applying friction against a revolving ball of sulfur (see Fig.1-128).
In 1750 AD, American scientist Benjamin Franklin proposed that flow of charges takes place during
thunder and lightning.

Fig.1-129(b): Torsion balance

Fig.1-129(a): Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806)

In 1785 AD, a French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb

explained the interaction between electrically charged particles
using a torsion balance (see Fig.1-130 ), which is now called,
“electrostatic force" and the theory he proposed is named as
"Coulombs Law”.
Luigi Aloisio Galvani, an Italian physician, physicist, biologist,
and philosopher, discovered animal electricity. In 1780, he
discovered that the muscles of a dead frog’s legs twitched
when struck by an electrical spark.
In 1800 AD, an Italian physicist Alessandro Volta invented the
first electric battery known as a galvanic pile (Fig.1-132). He
discovered the existence of "potential difference" and charge
flow occurs when there is a potential difference. The
terminologies of "Voltage" for the potential difference and Fig.1-130: Luigi Galvani (1737-1798)
"Volts" for its unit are coined after his name.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 80

In 1820 AD, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish physicist and chemist discovered that electric current
in a wire can deflect a magnetized compass needle and hence laid the foundation of
"Electromagnetism". In 1820 AD, André-Marie Ampère proposed the "Ampere Force Law" which
describes the interaction between electricity and magnetism. The unit of current is named after
him.
In 1827 AD, German physicist George Simon Ohm stated that every material has a certain kind of
"resistance" that prevents the flow of charges through them. He proposed that the current flowing
through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference
between the points- which is known as Ohm's Law after his name.
In 1831 AD, an English scientist Michael Faraday discovered "Electromagnetic Induction" which is
the basic working principle of generators, motors and transformers. He proposed the "Law of
Electrolysis" which is the basis of "Batteries" in 1834.
In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell obtained the patent for the first form of "Telephone". In 1879, an
American inventor Thomas Alva Edison invented the most stable and reliable form of the electric
bulb and patented it in the USA. Edison also invented the "Edison effect" presently the "Thermionic
effect" (discussed earlier).
In 1887, German physicist
Henry Hertz generated
electromagnetic waves in his
laboratory as postulated by
Maxwell. He also proposed
methods to transmit and Zn
receive electromagnetic wave NaCl.H2O
Cu
which is used for radio,
television, satellite, and
telecommunication (a)
engineering.
In 1897, Italian physicist (b)
Guglielmo Marconi invented Fig.1-131 (a): Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)
the first form of the radio and (b): Galvanic pile, the first battery
obtained a patent. He also
used an "Antenna" for the transmission of radio waves. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose also worked on
radio, microwave optics, and wireless signaling.
From 1880 to 1943, a Serbian American inventor, Nikola Tesla developed "Alternating Current"
which is much cheaper to produce and transmit as compared to "Direct Current".
Electronics with Vacuum Tubes
When the "Alternating Current" or AC became popular scientists began to think about converting
AC to DC rather than generating DC which is expensive. Already we have discussed that, in 1904,
English Physicist James Ambrose Fleming, invented the first vacuum tube (or vacuum diode) which
is used as a rectifier, i.e. to convert AC to DC using the principle known as the "Edison Effect". And
the History of Electronics begins here with the invention of this vacuum tube. In 1906, American
inventor Lee De Forest and Robert von Lieben independently invented a three-terminal vacuum
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 81

device called "triode" for first time which is used as an amplifier. Within 10 years, the device was
used in radio transmitters and receivers as well as in systems for long-distance telephone calls.
Though the development of television was the result of work by many inventors, many historians
credit John Logic Baird, a Scottish engineer, to produce a live, moving, grayscale television image.
In 1928, Philo Farnsworth made the first public demonstration of a purely electronic television.
During the 1930s, several countries began broadcasting, and after World War II it spread to millions
of receivers, eventually worldwide. Since then, televisions and video displays have evolved from
bulky electron tube technology to use more compact devices, such as plasma, LCD, and LED
displays. Recently even lower power devices such as the organic light-emitting diode (OLED)
displays, and it is most likely to replace the LCD and plasma technologies.

Fig.1-133(a): A replica of the first transistor, Fig.1-133(b): The same

invented at Bell Labs on 23 December 1947 transistor, without glass cover

The German inventor, Christian Hülsmeyer, was the first to use radio waves to detect the presence
of distant metallic objects. In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog,
but not yet its distance from the transmitter.
Beginning of Modern Electronics
The discovery of the P-N junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Shoemaker Ohl
of Bell Laboratories in 1939. However, Vadim Evgenievich Lashkaryov, a prominent soviet
experimental physicist reported discovery of P-N junctions in cuprous oxide (Cu2O) and silver
sulphide (Ag2S) photocells and selenium rectifiers in
1941.
ln 1947, three researchers of Bell Labs at the USA-
John Bardeen, William Brattain, and William
Shockley discovered that when two gold point
contacts were applied to a germanium crystal, an
amplified signal is produced with greater power. In
fact, it was the first bipolar transistor (Fig.1-134).
"Transistor" term is coined by John R. Pierce. For their
invention of transistor, they won the Nobel Prize in Fig.1-134: Photograph of the world first
Physics in 1956. Microprocessor (Courtesy of the Intel Cop.)
Though were not able to practically build the device,
the concept of a field-effect transistor (FET) was first
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 82

patented by Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925 and by Oskar Heil in 1934.
The transistor effect of a field-effect transistor (FET) was observed and explained by John Bardeen
and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947.
In 1958, an American inventor Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments made the first Integrated Circuit (IC)
that is a complete circuit in a single package. The MOSFET was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and
Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and first presented in 1960. It is the basic building block of
modern electronics.
In 1968, Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce co-founded a new company- "lntel Corporation" to work
in the field of micro electronics. In 1971, they invented the world's first microprocessor 4004
comprising of 2300 transistors in a single Si chip. The invention of microprocessors accelerated the
revolutionary product
“Computer” and
“Computer Industry”
around the globe.
Micro Instrumentation
and Telemetry Systems
(MITS) developed the
Altair 8800 [Fig.1-136(a)] (a) (b)
personal computer that
Fig.1-135: Photograph of the (a) First Altair
used the new Intel 8080
8800 PC (b) Apple PC
microprocessor in 1975.
Bill Gates and Paul Allen write software for Altair using
BASIC language. On 12 August 1981, IBM built the
𝑉𝑑𝑐 /2
world first personal computer which could easily be
Drain
used by new users and businesses.
Steve Jobs and his friend Steve Wozniak manufactured Tunnel
Gate QD junctions
handmade personal computer Apple I in 1976 and they
Source

gave birth to a new computer industry “Apple Inc.”. vg Gate

capacitanc
Intel launched the world's first 16-bit microprocessor e
named 8086 in 1978. The world was revolving around −𝑉𝑑𝑐 /2
8-bit microprocessors till then. Intel 8088, released in
1979, was a slightly modified chip with an external 8-bit
data bus (allowing the use of cheaper and fewer Fig.1-136: Schematic diagram of a
supporting ICs). Intel also introduced its first single-electron transistor
"Microcontroller" as Intel 8048 with a RAM and ROM
added along with a processor on a single chip. Since then, a number of semiconductor device
manufacturers developed different microprocessors, microcontrollers, and other integrated circuits
that shift the electronics from discrete components to IC-based circuits.
1.31 Current Research on Electronics
For high-speed computation, it requires high-speed devices and hence high-speed transistors. Thus,
the electronics industry is downscaling the sizes of the contemporary transistors constantly. This
also saves power, cost, and chip size as well as enhances the functionality of the device. If the size
of the MOSFET goes below 10 nm then MOSFET will be at its basic limits of operation. At this size,
many physical complexities will arise. This leads to the development of single electron transistors
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 83

(SET). The single electron transistor is a new type of switching device that uses controlled electron
tunneling to amplify current. A tunnel junction consists of two pieces of metal separated by a very
thin (~1 nm) insulator. The first semiconductor SET was fabricated accidentally in 1989 by Scott-
Thomas et al. in narrow Si field effect transistors. Shortly thereafter Meirav et al. made controlled
devices.

Bridge
Power
Resistors Capacitors rectifier LEDs
diodes

Wirewond res
Zener diodes
Gang Cap Trimmers SMD
Rectifier
diodes

Ceramic resistors

Variable ressistors Transistors

Switches
UJTs
Crystals
LDRs

Inductors

Photo diode

7-Seg. display

Data ICs
Transformers Relay module switch
Relays
Batteries
Fig.1-137 : Photographs of the components used in analog electronics lab
Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 84

Analog oscilloscope

DC power supplies

Digital oscilloscope Function generator

Fig.1-138: Photographs of some common equipment used in the electronics lab

Digital meters Analog meters

Resistance box
IC testers

Heat sink

Bread / Vero boards Soldering lead

Connecting Variac
wires Rheostat
Soldering
Different types of pliers instruments
Screw drivers

Fig.1-139: Photographs of different tools and meters used in Analog Electronics Lab
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 85

Fixed Fixed Variable Air Iron Ferrite Fixed Fixed Variable

Tapped Solenoid Chesis Ground
(1) core(2) core core Polor Nonpolor
(3) (4) D
A

Photo LDR Thermistor Variable Variac Preset Variable rol Analog Digital
Electrolyte Trimmer Earth+ Ground Ground
VCC

Rectifier LED Zener Schottky Tunnel Photo

Air Iron core Ferrite Auto Air
Diode Triode Tetrode Pentode Variable (7)
cor core cor
(5) (6) e
e
H V Varactor SCR Diac Triac Bridge
Glow Photo Tr. with Three Variable Current Centre-
CRT Tube Tube polarity winding core Trans. tapped

AND OR NOT Schmitt-

Wire Terminal SB trigger

NPN PNP N-chnl P-chnl N-chnl P-chnl J Q

BJT (8) JFET EMOSFET NAND (10) NOR CLK
Connection No Push button
Connection Switch K Q
(9)
XNOR J-K Flip-Flop
XOR
N-chnl P-chnl Darlington Photo Power Fuse
DMOSFET Transistor Transistor MOSFET Switch Switch

Batteries AC sources DC Current AC Current

(11)
+VCC SPST SPDT DPST DPDT
Photo transistor +VCC
Single cell (12) Independent G
+VDD
A XXX
C
-VEE (14) Other ICs
Solar Cell Opto- (13) LASCR
Multi cell Dependant coupler Op-amp Op-amp

220 V Male 220 V Male Femal Male Chassis mount

e
Neutral CTIA
220 V Neutral 220 V Neutral 220 V Left Single Double Capa-
(15) Right
GND GND GND GND GND MIC GND button button citor
Coaxial connections (16)
2-conductor 3-conductor 2-conductor Interrupting 3-conductor

Phone plugs Phone jacks Male Female Dynamic Velocity Crystal

G
(1) Resistors (11) Relays
A C MT2 MT1 A C
(2) Inductors (12) Sources
SCR (17) Diac Shockley GK Neon lamp Buzzer
Speaker (3) Capacitors (13) Opto device
(AC)
G B1 MT2 MT1 (4) Ground (14) Op-amps
A C A C E (5) Tubes (15) Connectors
GA SCS Light Antenna Crystal
LASCR (6) Transformers (16) Microphone
GTO UJT B2 M (7) Diodes (17) sThyristors
G G
Motor (18)
GK (8) Transistors (18) Miscellaneous
MT2 MT1 MT2 MT1 MT2 MT1
(9) Switches
* 3-pin ceramic
Triac Opto-triac GA SCS *= V, A, W, Ω resonator (10) Logic gates

Fig.1-140: Symbols of some common components used in electronics

 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 86

1.32 Sample Questions

1. Explain different kinds of formulas
2. What is approximation in electronics? Describe different types of approximations.
3. What is potential difference? Explain water tank analogy for potential difference.
4. What is AC and DC current?
5. Describe different types of voltage sources.
6. Describe different types of current sources.
7. What is stiff voltage source and stiff current source?
8. Describe different mechanisms of charge carriers movement.
9. What is displacement current? How displacement current is produced in a capacitor?
10. Give the classifications of resistors.
11. Describe carbon composition resistors.
12. Describe ceramic composition resistors.
13. Describe wire wound resistors.
14. Explain how film resistors are made.
15. What are the differences between metal film and metal oxide film resistors?
16. What are the advantages of SMD resistors?
17. Describe the construction and working procedure of a potentiometer.
18. Describe the working principle of a light dependant resistor.
19. Explain how color code is used to represent the value of resistance.
20. Explain how to determine the equivalent resistance of series connected resistors.
21. What will be equivalent power ratings of series/parallel connected resistors.
22. What is self inductance and mutual inductance?
23. Describe the construction of toroidal inductor and mention the advantages of this type of
inductors.
24. What are the advantages and disadvantages of iron core and ferrite core inductors?
25. Describe the construction and working process of slug type variable inductors.
26. Describe the color coding method to represent the values of inductors.
27. Explain how to determine the equivalent inductance of series connected inductors.
28. Explain how to determine the equivalent inductance of parallel connected inductors.
29. Explain how to determine the equivalent inductance of series connected inductors with
mutual coupling.
30. Explain how to determine the equivalent inductance of parallel connected inductors with
mutual coupling.
31. Describe the theory of coupled inductors. Derive the expression for the input impedance
when a load resistance is connected at the output coil.
32. Describe the construction and operation process of a parallel plate capacitor.
33. Give the general classifications of capacitors.
34. Describe the construction of Al electrolytic capacitors.
35. Why electrolytic and tantalum capacitors have polarity?
36. Describe the construction of tantalum electrolytic capacitors.
37. Describe the construction of super capacitors. Write some major applications of super
capacitors.
38. What are the advantages of super capacitor as storage device over batteries?
39. What are the main disadvantages of super capacitors?
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 87

40. Describe the construction of ceramic capacitors. What are the main advantages of ceramic
capacitors?
41. Describe different types of film capacitors.
42. Describe the construction of multi-layer SMD capacitor. What are the advantages of SMD
capacitors?
43. Explain the working principle of variable capacitors.
44. What is trimmer capacitor? Describe its construction and operation process.
45. Draw the equivalent model of a capacitor.
46. Describe numeric coding system for representing the values of non-polar capacitors.
47. Describe color coding system for representing the values of non-polar capacitors.
48. Describe how to calculate the equivalent capacitance of series connected capacitors.
49. Describe how to determine the equivalent capacitance of parallel connected capacitors. Why
the equivalent capacitance increases when connected in parallel?
50. What are the differences between analog and digital multimeter?
51. Explain how to measure the voltage and current in a circuit using a multimeter.
52. Explain how to measure the resistance of a resistor using multimeter.
53. What is sinusoidal signal? Define amplitude, frequency, and phase for this signal.
54. What is ramp voltage? Describe different types of ramp voltage.
55. What is saw-tooth wave? Describe different types of saw-tooth waves with figures.
56. What is triangular wave? Describe different types of triangular waves.
57. What is square wave? Describe different types of square waves.
58. Describe different types of pulses- steps and spikes? Describe with diagrams.
59. Describe the construction and working procedure of breadboard.
60. What is noise? What are internal and external noises? Describe different types of external
noises.
61. What is thermal noise? Draw the equivalent circuit of thermal noise and describe.
62. What is internal noise? Describe different types of internal noises.
63. What is shot noise? Explain with a diagram.
64. What do you mean by transit-time noise? Explain the effect of transit-time on a signal.
65. What is white noise? Why is it called so? Is there any applications of white noise-explain.
66. Describe the terms: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), Noise Figure, and Noise Factor.
67. What is electromagnetic relay? Describe the construction and working principle of an
electromagnetic relay.
68. Describe about the classifications of electromagnetic relays.
69. What is wire gauge? What are the types of standard used for measuring the ampacity of
wire?
70. What is stranded and non-stranded wire? Compare their advantages and disadvantages.
71. Describe the construction and operation of a neon lamp.
72. Write some important applications of neon lamp.
73. Draw the characteristics of a neon lamp and describe different regions.
74. What is vacuum tube? Describe the construction and operation of a simple diode vacuum
tube.
75. What is electronics? Write a brief history of electronics.
 Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 88

1.33 Exercises
1. The open circuit (output) voltage of a voltage source is 16 V. If a 120 Ω load is connected
at the output the voltage falls to 15.4 V. Determine the internal resistance of the voltage
source.
2. The open circuit (output) voltage of a voltage source is 24 V. If the internal resistance of
the source is 10 Ω, what will be the output voltage when a 220 Ω load is connected at the
output.
3. The rated current capacity of a current source is 3 A, but when a 30 Ω load resistance is
connected at the output, 2.95 A current flows through it. Determine the internal
resistance of the current source.
4. 1.2 A current flows through a 330 Ω load resistance when connected at the output. The
inter internal resistance of the current source is 10 kΩ. Calculate the short-circuit current
of the current source.
5. 10 mA current is flowing a Cu conductor. For this current, determine the drift velocity of
electrons flowing through the conductor. Assume, one mole of Cu has a mass of 63.5 ×
10−3 kg, Avogadro’s number 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023, and the density of copper 𝜌 =
8920 kg m−3.
6. A parallel plate capacitor of plate area 50 cm2, and plate separation of 0.1 mm, is
connected to a voltage source. In 1 μs, the voltage across the capacitor rises to 200 V.
Calculate the displacement current. Assume the dielectric constant of the capacitor is 𝜖0 =
8.85 × 10−12. [Ans. 88.5 mA]
7. The resistivity of Nichrome wire is  = Ω ∙ m. Calculate the resistance of a 2 km long
Nichrome wire with the diameter 2 mm2. A
8. As shown in Fig.1-142, 16 V is applied at terminal 3 of a
potentiometer with terminal 1 grounded. The output
voltage, at terminal 2, becomes 6 V when the wiper
(terminal 2) is placed exactly at the middle of the
resistive track. If the resistance of the pot is 20 kΩ, 12 3
determine the individual resistances of the two halves of 0V Vo = 6 V 16 V
the potentiometer. Is the resistive tract is linear?
Fig.1-141: Figure for Ex.8
9. For the following resistors, determine the value of
resistance.

Silver White Yellow

Yellow Violet Silver Red Violet
Red
Brown Silver Orange Red Yellow Silver

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1-142: Resistors for Ex. 9

10. Suppose three resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and 𝑅3 are connected in series. The values of the resistors
are 4.7 kΩ ± 10 %, 3.3 kΩ ± 5 %, and 2.2 kΩ ± 2 %, respectively. Calculate the value of
equivalent resistor with its tolerance. Also calculate the equivalent power of the
combination.
Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 89

11. Suppose three resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and 𝑅3 are connected in parallel. The values of the
resistors are 10 kΩ ± 5 %, 7.4 kΩ ± 2 %, and 12 kΩ ± 1 %, respectively. Calculate the
value of equivalent resistor with its tolerance. Also calculate the equivalent power of the
combination.
12. Suppose 𝑅1 = 100 Ω, 1 W and 𝑅2 = 20 kΩ, 2 W. If the resistors are connected in parallel,
what will be power capacity of the combination?
13. Repeat Ex.12 for series combination.
14. Determine the inductance value of the inductor shown in Fig.1-144.
Orange Double Blue Black
Yellow Black
White band silver

Blue Silver Green Yellow Yellow Silver

Fig.1-143: Inductors for Ex. 14

15. Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit of Fig.1-145. Assume, 𝐿1 = 1.5 H, 𝐿2 = 2.2 H,
𝐿3 = 5.5 H, 𝑀12 = 1.2 H, 𝑀23 = 1 H, and 𝑀13 = 0.75 H.
M13 M13
M12 M23 M12 M23

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

(a) (b)
Fig.1-144: Series connected inductors for Ex.15 and 16
16. The values of two mutually coupled inductors are 𝐿1 = 3 H, 𝐿2 = 6 H. If they are
connected like i) Fig.1-145(a) and ii) Fig.1-145(b) determine the equivalent inductance.
Assume, 𝑀12 = 2.5 H.

I I1 I2 I I1 I2 I I1 I2 I3

vs v L1 v L2 vs v L1 v L2 vs v L1 v L2 v L3

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1-145: Parallel connected inductors

17. In Fig.1-146(c) the values of mutually coupled inductors are 𝐿1 = 4 H, 𝐿2 = 2 H, and 𝐿3 =

2.5 H. Assuming, 𝑀12 = 1.5 H, 𝑀23 = 2.0 H, and 𝑀23 = 0.5 H, determine the equivalent
inductance.
Chapter 1: Basics for Electronics 90

Brown Brown Yellow

Orange
Red Orange

Blue Green Violet

Orange White White
Red Red
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1-146: Series connected inductors for Ex. 18

18. Determine the value of capacitance of the capacitor shown in Fig.1-147. Calculate the
value of reactance (𝑋𝐶 ) of each of them if the capacitors are used for 60 Hz AC voltage.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.1-147: Series connected inductors for Ex. 19

19. Determine the value of capacitance of the capacitor shown in Fig.1-147. Calculate the
reactance (𝑋𝐶 ) of each capacitors if they are used for 1 kHz AC voltage.
20. Suppose three capacitors have the ratings as 𝐶1 : 47 μF, 25 V, 𝐶2 : 33 μF, 16 V,
𝐶3 : 22 μF, 50 V. Determine the equivalent capacitance and tolerance voltage when the
capacitors are connected in series.
21. Suppose three capacitors have the ratings as 𝐶1 : 10 μF, 16 V, 𝐶2 : 33 μF, 20 V,
𝐶3 : 47 μF, 35 V. Determine the equivalent capacitance and tolerance voltage when the
capacitors are connected in parallel.
22. An AC voltage is represented as 𝑣𝑠 = 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (100𝜋𝑡 + 30°). Determine the amplitude,
peak-to-peak value, frequency, and phase angle. Draw the graph of this AC voltage.
23. An AC current is represented as 𝑖𝑠 = 110 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (120𝜋𝑡 + 60°). Determine the amplitude,
peak-to-peak value, frequency, and phase angle. Draw the graph for this AC current.
24. An amplifier has a bandwidth of 200 kHz with 2.2 kΩ as the input resistance. Determine
the RMS value of the thermal noise at 𝑇 = 27 °C.
25. The input signal power of an amplifier is 150 μW and that of noise is 1.5 μW. If the signal
power at the output is 2.5 W, and the noise power is 120 mW, calculate the noise factor
and noise figure of the amplifier.
26. A variable voltage source is connected to a 2 km long wire. If the wire number is 10 AWG,
calculate the maximum voltage that can be supplied by the wire. Also calculate the
diameter of the wire and check it from Table 1-2.