Lab session 1:

“To determine the operating characteristics of a pelton turbine at

various speeds”
1.1 Introduction:
The Pelton turbine (Fig. 1) is the most visually obvious example of an impulse machine. A spear
valve directs a jet of water at a series of buckets which are mounted on the periphery of a
rotor. As the water exiting the spear valve is at atmospheric pressure, the force exerted on the
rotor is entirely due to changes in the direction of the flow of water. The Pelton turbine is
therefore associated with considerable changes in kinetic energy but little change in pressure
energy. The spear valve allows the jet diameter to be varied, which allows the water flow rate
to be varied with a constant jet velocity. Large turbines may include more than one spear valve
around the periphery of the rotor.
The operating characteristics of a turbine are often conveniently shown by plotting torque T,
brake power Pv, and overall turbine efficiency η, against turbine rotational speed n for a series
of volume flow rates Qv, as shown in Fig 2. It is important to note that the efficiency reaches a
maximum and then falls, whilst the torque falls constantly and linearly. The optimum conditions
for operation occur when the required 'duty point' of head and flow coincides with a point of
maximum efficiency.
The basic terms used to define, and therefore measure, turbine performance in relation to
rotational speed include:
i) volume flow rate,
ii) head,
iii) torque, power output and efficiencies.
Each of these is considered in turn.
The flow rate of fluid through the turbine is the volume passing through the system per unit
time.
The term 'head' refers to the elevation of a free surface of water above or below a reference
datum. In the case of a turbine we are interested in the head of the water entering the rotor,
which of course has a direct effect on the characteristics of the unit. In this apparatus the head
of water is generated by the pump on the hydraulics bench rather than an elevated reservoir.

1.1.1 Working principle:

The Pelton turbine operates on the principle of impulse, where the kinetic energy of a high-
velocity water jet is converted into mechanical energy. It is designed specifically for high-head,
low-flow applications. The working process involves the following steps:
1. Water Supply: Water is supplied under high pressure from a reservoir or penstock to a
nozzle. The nozzle converts the pressure energy of the water into kinetic energy,
forming a high-velocity jet.
2. Jet Impact on Buckets: The water jet strikes the buckets (or cups) on the rotor, which
are specially designed with a split in the middle. This design allows the jet to divide and
flow smoothly along the curved surface, transferring its momentum to the bucket
without causing backflow.
3. Energy Conversion: The impact of the water jet causes the rotor to spin. The kinetic
energy of the water is thus converted into rotational mechanical energy.
4. Discharge of Water: After transferring its energy to the buckets, the water exits at
atmospheric pressure, leaving no significant energy behind.
 5. Power Generation: The rotating shaft of the turbine is connected to a generator, which
converts the mechanical energy of the rotor into electrical energy.
The Pelton turbine is highly efficient because it operates with minimal energy losses. It is most
effective when the water flow direction changes completely after striking the buckets, ensuring
maximum transfer of kinetic energy. The turbine's speed and performance can be adjusted by
varying the size and number of nozzles to control the water jet flow.
With respect to the experiment, some velocities are taken into consideration,

v
ᶿ

Vw = whirl velocity Vr = relative velocity

For maximum efficiency, θ is taken 165° .

v = Cv √ ❑
πDN
u = 60

Here Cv is 0.97 to 0.99. The brake power produced by the turbine in creating the Torque,
2 πnT
Pb= 60

T = Fb.r
W = F s (Mechanical work), W = T θ (Shaft work), W = PV (Hydraulic work). So,
W pghV
Power supplied by fluid, Pb =
t
= t = pgHQ

Pb
ηturbine = * 100
Ph

1.1.2 Nomenclature:
Column Uni No
Type Description
Heading ts m.

Volume Flow m 3/ Qv Input Rate at which water flows into the turbine.
Column Uni No
Type Description
Heading ts m.

Rate s

Height of water (potential energy driving the

Head m H Input
turbine).

Measure
Torque Nm T Torque exerted on the turbine shaft.
d

Rotational rp Measure
N Speed of turbine rotation.
Speed m d

Calculat Power available at the turbine input, calculated

Input Power W Pi
ed using Pi = ρgQvH

Brake Power Measure Power output at the turbine shaft, calculated as

W Pb
Output d Pb = T⋅ω where ω = 2πn/60

Turbine Calculat Ratio of output power to input power, calculated

% Η
Efficiency ed as η=Pb/Pi×100

1.1.3 Applications:
1. Hydropower Generation:
Pelton turbines are widely used in hydropower plants to generate electricity, especially
in areas with high head and low flow rates.
2. Remote Power Supply:
These turbines are ideal for providing electricity in remote and mountainous regions
where rivers or waterfalls with a significant head are available.
3. Industrial Power Needs:
Industries requiring sustainable and renewable energy sources, like mining or heavy
machinery operations, use Pelton turbines as reliable power sources.
4. Pumped Storage Plants:
Pelton turbines are used in pumped storage plants, where water is pumped to a
reservoir at higher elevation during low-demand periods and then used to generate
electricity during peak demand.
5. Irrigation and Water Distribution:
By using the flow of water in irrigation canals or pipes, Pelton turbines can generate
electricity and offset operational costs.
 6. Research and Testing:
Pelton turbines are often used in laboratories and educational institutions to study
turbine performance and fluid mechanics under varying operational conditions.
7. Off-Grid Electricity:
Micro Pelton turbines are employed in small-scale applications, like rural homes or small
businesses, to generate electricity from natural water streams.

1.2 Literature review:

1.2.1 Analytical method:
Derivation Using Eulerian Description:

Continuity Equation (Mass Conservation):

For an incompressible and steady flow:
∇⋅V⃗=0
Expanding in Cartesian coordinates:
∂u
∂x
+ ∂∂ vy + ∂∂wz = 0

Where u, v, w are velocity components along x, y, z, respectively.

Eulerian Equation of Flow (Momentum Conservation):
The Euler equation neglects viscous forces:
∂ V⃗
ρ ∂ t + ρ(V⃗⋅∇) V⃗ = −∇p + ρg⃗

∂ V⃗
In steady flow ( = 0):
∂t

ρ(V⃗⋅∇) V⃗= −∇p + ρg⃗

Using cylindrical coordinates for rotational systems (radial r, azimuthal θ, axial z):
Radial Momentum Equation:
∂ur uθ ∂ u r u .u θ ∂ρ
ρ (ur ∂ r + r ∂θ
− r
) = − ∂r
+ ρgr

Azimuthal Momentum Equation:

∂ uθ uθ ∂ uθ u r . u θ 1 ∂ρ
ρ (ur ∂ r + r ∂θ
+ r ) = − ∂r ∂θ
Energy Equation:
The Bernoulli equation applies along a streamline:

p 1 2
+ V + gz = constant
ρ 2

At the nozzle:
Vj = √ ❑
Torque on the Turbine:
The force due to momentum exchange between water jet and turbine bucket:
F = m˙ (Vj − Vb)
The torque on the turbine runner:
T = F⋅r = m˙ ( Vj − Vb)r
Where:

● r is the radius of the runner.

● m˙ = ρ A Vj is the mass flow rate.

Power Transferred:
P = T⋅ω = m˙ ( Vj − Vb)r ⋅ ω
Efficiency:
Efficiency in terms of jet and bucket velocity:

Power Transferred 2(Vj−Vb)Vb

η= =
Jet Power Vj . Vj

1.2.2 Modelling and simulation:

[6] A 2024 study utilized the MPS method, a meshless approach, to simulate Pelton turbine
operations. This technique effectively handled the free-surface flows characteristic of Pelton
turbines, providing detailed insights into the interaction between water jets and turbine
buckets.
The first test case focuses on the ‘falaise’ effect, which corresponds to a sharp drop in efficiency
from 0.9 to values below 0.6. This effect is observed when the peripheral speed coefficient 𝑘𝑚,
defined as 𝑈𝑚/√2gH with 𝑈𝑚 the peripheral speed, g the gravitational acceleration and H the
head, reaches a value above approximately 0.55 (its value at the nominal operating condition is
around 0.48). This phenomenon has been measured on site during the SmallFlex project, by
emptying partially the headrace tunnel, which consequently leads to a decrease in the available
head. For a variation of the speed coefficient 𝑘𝑚 from 0.48 to 0.6 (i.e. a head lowered by 52%),
the efficiency drops from 0.88 to 0.5.
The second test case considers the drop in efficiency due to the erosion of the splitter for which
a theoretical formula validated against experimental data is available in the literature. The
erosion process of the splitter is modelled by removing material from the splitter, which
increases the ratio b/B (with b the splitter width and B the bucket width) from almost 0% to
approximately 3% in the present study (Figure 1b).

Figure 1. (a) Computational domain considered for the simulations; (b) schematic
representation of the splitter erosion investigated.
Seven simulations are carried out for heads corresponding to 100%, 84%, 75%, 66%, 60%, 55%
and 50% of the nominal head. On-site measurements are available only for the four first heads.
Two runner revolutions are computed, which requires approximately 24 h on a NVIDIA Quadro
RTX 5000 graphic card. The time-history of the torque (𝑻) is shown in Figure 2a, where the first
0.2×𝑛 runner revolution correspond to the start up of the turbine. The average torque is
computed over the last 1.5 revolutions and is used to computed the efficiency. An illustration of
the complexity of the flow is shown in Figure 2b after two runner revolutions. The free surface
is reconstructed using the surface mesh generator available in Particleworks.
Figure 2. (a) Torque history as a function of the number of runner revolution n; (b) visualization
of the flow through the Pelton runner after two runner revolutions. Simulation of the non-
eroded bucket at the nominal head.
Figure 3a shows the variation of the efficiency in function of the peripheral speed
coefficient 𝑘𝑚. At 100% and 84% of the nominal head, i.e. for values of 𝑘𝑚= 0.48 and 0.53, the
Particleworks simulations underestimate the efficiency by 8% and 12% respectively. For the
next two heads, the simulations match the measurements. The efficiency drop is therefore
captured at least qualitatively by the simulation.
Figure 3. (a) Efficiency versus peripheral speed coefficient; (b) loss in efficiency versus the
dimensionless splitter width at nominal head.

1.2.3 Experimental method:

Pelton turbines, renowned for their efficiency in converting high-head, low-flow water sources
into mechanical energy, have been the subject of extensive research aimed at optimizing their
performance and understanding their operational characteristics.
A critical aspect of Pelton turbine performance is the efficiency characteristic, which
describes the relationship between the turbine's hydraulic efficiency and its specific
peripheral velocity. Zhang and Müller (2007) investigated this relationship, highlighting that
the real efficiency characteristic deviates from the conventional symmetric form, especially
in the upper range of specific peripheral velocities. They introduced the concept of jet
reaction degree to quantify this distortion, providing a more accurate estimation of both
theoretical and real runaway speeds of Pelton runners [1].
The design and optimization of Pelton turbine components, such as the casing, have also
been areas of significant research. A comprehensive review by researchers in 2021
organized the state-of-the-art design and research of Pelton turbine casings into three main
areas: hydraulics, mechanics (including vibrations and weight), and aeration. They discussed
the preliminary design procedures in light of recent scientific findings and identified open
questions and research challenges in the field [2].
Energy loss mechanisms within Pelton turbines have been another focal point. A study
published in 2023 aimed to provide a better understanding of the operating characteristics
 and internal flow loss characteristics of Pelton turbines. The research characterized energy
losses in the jet mechanism, contributing to the optimization of turbine performance [3].
The impact of sediment erosion on Pelton turbines has also been investigated. A study from
2023 analyzed sediment and water flow, as well as erosion characteristics, providing
guidance for sediment erosion analysis and predicting the utility of large Pelton turbines [4].
Furthermore, the number of nozzles in a Pelton turbine has been studied for its effect on
performance. Research published in 2023 investigated the characteristics of Pelton
turbines, particularly the effect of the number of nozzles on turbine performance, unveiling
the power of three-nozzle configurations [5].

1.3 Methodology:
1.3.1 Experimental setup:
Apparatus:
In order to complete the demonstration, we need a number of pieces of equipment.

● The F1-10 Hydraulics Bench measures flow through timed volume collection.
● The F1-25 Pelton Turbine Apparatus is used for the experiment.
● A stopwatch measures the water flow rate.
● A non-contact tachometer measures rotor speed.

The Pelton wheel apparatus is a device used to demonstrate the principles of impulse
turbines. It consists of a base plate that provides a stable foundation, a nozzle inlet to
direct water into the nozzle, and a nozzle adjustment to control the direction and flow
of water. The nozzle valve regulates the water flow by opening or closing the nozzle. The
 Pelton wheel, the rotating component, has buckets that receive the water jet. The
turbine housing encloses the Pelton wheel and provides a space for water to flow. The
manometer measures the pressure of the water entering the nozzle, while the
adjustable breaking device simulates real-world conditions by applying a load or
resistance to the Pelton wheel. Finally, the spring balance measures the torque
generated by the Pelton wheel, and the outlet through the open housing allows the
water to exit the apparatus after interacting with the Pelton wheel. In essence, this
apparatus demonstrates how water flowing through a nozzle at high pressure can
generate rotational energy through the Pelton wheel.

The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If
required these values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with
your own measurements.

Radius of brake drum r = 0.030 m

1.3.2 Procedure:
● Ensure the Pelton turbine is correctly installed with the hydraulic bench providing a
steady water flow. Connect the turbine to the hydraulic bench, which will act as the
flow rate measuring device. Make sure the bench's flow meter is calibrated and
functioning properly to record the flow rate accurately. Set up the tachometer to
 monitor the speed of the Pelton wheel. Measure head by the mano meter. Connect
the generator or load bank to the turbine to measure power generation.
● Start the turbine at the lowest possible speed, ensuring that the system is stable.
Measure and record the water flow rate from the hydraulic bench. Use the
tachometer to verify the actual speed at which the turbine is operating.
● Set the initial operating conditions by adjusting the speed to the lowest value (e.g.,
500 RPM or based on the experiment setup). Record the speed, flow rate from the
hydraulic bench, torque, and power output (if connected to a generator). Measure
other relevant parameters, such as head and pressure, if necessary.
● Gradually increase the operating speed by steps (e.g., increase by 100 RPM
increments). For each speed increment, measure the following: speed of the turbine
(RPM), torque and/or power produced, efficiency (if an electrical generator or load
bank is used), flow rate (measured by the hydraulic bench), and pressure and head .
● For each speed step, record all the observed parameters such as RPM, torque,
power output, and efficiency. Allow the system to stabilize before recording
measurements at each speed setting.

1.4 Results and discussion:

1.4.1 Calculations:

Rotor
Flow
Radiu spee Volu Inp Turbin
W Tim Rate Tor
s of d W1 me ut e
No. of 2 e que Pb
brake Hea Q Ph (W) Efficie u/v
Obs N (N) V (N (W)
drum (N) t (s) d (m³/s) ncy
m)
(m) (rpm (m³) (m) (%)
10-4
)

0.00 16. 0.0 6.126 30.296 20.220 0.693

1 0.03 1500 2.4 1.1 10 3.0883
5 19 39 1 2 7 7

0.00 16. 0.0 6.566 30.296 21.672 0.508

2 0.03 1100 3.1 1.2 10 3.0883
5 19 57 0 2 7 7

0.00 16. 0.0 6.267 30.296 20.687 0.439

3 0.03 950 4.1 2 10 3.0883
5 19 63 5 2 4 3

0.00 16. 0.0 5.277 30.296 17.421

4 0.03 800 4.2 2.1 10 3.0883 0.37
5 19 63 9 2 0
 Rotor
Flow
Radiu spee Volu Inp Turbin
W Tim Rate Tor
s of d W1 me ut e
No. of 2 e que Pb
brake Hea Q Ph (W) Efficie u/v
Obs N (N) V (N (W)
drum (N) t (s) d (m³/s) ncy
m)
(m) (rpm (m³) (m) (%)
10-4
)

0.00 16. 0.0 5.654 30.296 18.665 0.277

5 0.03 600 5.3 2.3 10 3.0883
5 19 9 8 2 0 5

0.00 0.0 25.004 0.850

6 0.03 1300 2 1 15 5 3.33 4.084 16.333
5 3 1 2

0.00 0.0 3.769 21.013 17.940 0.716

7 0.03 1200 2 1 14 6 3.57
5 3 9 0 8 4

0.00 0.0 3.298 10.403 31.707 0.580

8 0.03 1050 2 1 33 7 1.515
5 3 7 5 6 4

0.00 0.0 3.141 17.815 17.634 0.517

9 0.03 1000 2 1 22 8 2.27
5 3 6 0 6 0

0.00 0.0 2.827 12.616 22.410 0.438

10 0.03 900 2 1 35 9 1.429
5 3 4 6 2 7

Note: First five values are for constant head and next five are for constant load.

1.4.2. Graphs:
Graph 1:
At constant head: At constant load:
Graph 2:
At constant head:
At constant load:

Graph 3:
At constant head: At constant load:

Graph 4:
At constant head: At constant load:

Discussions:
Graph 1: Rotor Speed vs brake power:
At constant head: The graph shows that brake power fluctuates with rotor speed, peaking
around 1100 rpm before decreasing at lower speeds. This suggests an optimal operating range
where brake power is maximized.
At constant load: The graph shows that brake power decreases as rotor speed decreases,
indicating a direct relationship between the two. This suggests that higher rotor speeds lead to
greater brake power output.
Graph 2: Rotor Speed vs Torque:
At constant head: The graph shows that torque increases as rotor speed decreases, indicating
an inverse relationship. This suggests that at lower speeds, the system generates higher torque,
which may be crucial for load handling.
At constant load: The graph shows a constant torque of 0.03 Nm across all rotor speeds,
indicating no variation with speed. This suggests that the system maintains a steady torque
output regardless of speed changes.
Graph 3: Rotor Speed vs Efficiency:
At constant head: The graph shows that turbine efficiency peaks around 1100 rpm and then
decreases at lower speeds. This suggests an optimal operating speed for maximum efficiency,
beyond which performance declines.
At constant load: The graph shows fluctuations in turbine efficiency with rotor speed, peaking
at 1050 rpm. This suggests that turbine performance varies non-linearly, with an optimal
efficiency point around this speed.
Graph 4: u/v vs Efficiency:
At constant head: The graph shows that turbine efficiency increases as the U/V ratio
decreases, indicating an inverse relationship. This suggests that a lower U/V ratio may
contribute to improved turbine performance.
At constant load: The graph shows that turbine efficiency decreases as the U/V ratio
decreases, except for a peak at 0.5804. This suggests a non-linear relationship, indicating an
optimal U/V ratio for maximum efficiency.

1.5 Conclusion:
1.5.1 Improvements:
1. Instrumentation Precision:
Use more accurate and calibrated instruments for flow rate, speed, and torque
measurements to minimize experimental errors.
Ensure proper calibration of the hydraulic bench and tachometer before starting the
experiment.
2. Enhanced Data Collection:
 Increase the number of data points, particularly around the peak efficiency range, to
better understand the trends and performance variations.
Perform multiple trials for each operating condition to reduce variability and improve
reliability.
3. Optimized Experimental Setup:
Inspect and address any leaks, vibrations, or inconsistencies in the water flow that
could affect measurements.
Use a Pelton turbine model with adjustable nozzles or bucket configurations to
explore design optimizations.
4. Data Analysis Techniques:
Use advanced curve-fitting or spline interpolation methods to refine graph
smoothness and interpret trends more accurately.
Employ software like MATLAB or Python for data visualization and trend analysis.
5. Environmental Control:
Conduct the experiment in a controlled environment to ensure consistent water
pressure, temperature, and other conditions.

1.5.2 Generalized trend:

The experiment provided valuable insights into the operational characteristics of a Pelton
turbine, validating its theoretical principles. The key findings include:

● Efficiency Behavior: The turbine efficiency peaked at an optimal u/v ratio of

approximately 0.6, indicating the best operating condition. Efficiency decreased
significantly at higher or lower u/v values due to hydrodynamic factors.

● Torque and Brake Power Trends: Torque initially increased with speed but later
stabilized, while brake power showed a non-linear relationship with speed, influenced
by load and system constraints.

● Practical Implications: The results confirmed the Pelton turbine's effectiveness in high-
head, low-flow scenarios, emphasizing its efficiency in converting water’s kinetic energy
into mechanical energy.
Overall, the experiment demonstrated the turbine's capabilities and identified areas for further
optimization, such as nozzle design and operational speed adjustments. These findings
reinforce the Pelton turbine's importance in hydropower generation, especially in remote or
high-elevation regions.

References:
1. Zhang and Müller. "Efficiency and runaway characteristics of a Pelton turbine."
ResearchGate. Available at:
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319095497_Efficiency_and_runaway_charac
teristics_of_a_Pelton_turbine
2. Review on Pelton turbine casing design. "State-of-the-art design and research of Pelton
turbine casings." PMC, 2021. Available at:
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8665341
3. Characterization of energy losses in Pelton turbines. "Energy loss in the jet mechanism
of Pelton turbines." AIP Journals, 2023. Available at:
https://pubs.aip.org/hgmri/ijfe/article/1/3/033502/3308254
4. Sediment erosion in large Pelton turbines. "Sediment and erosion characteristics in
Pelton turbines." MDPI Processes, 2023. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2227-
9717/11/4/1011
5. Effect of nozzle configurations on Pelton turbine performance. "Nozzle configurations in
Pelton turbines." EXTRICA Journal, 2023. Available at:
https://www.extrica.com/article/23966
6. Decaix, J., Mettille, M., & Münch-Alligné, C. (2024). Simulation of a Pelton turbine
using the moving particle simulation method: application to two challenging situations.
Journal of Hydraulic Research, 62(4), 365–369. DOI: 10.1080/00221686.2024.2371300