CHAPTER THREE

LIMIT AND CONTINUITY

Definition: Let be a function defined at each point of some open interval containing ,
except possibly at itself. Then a number is the limit of as approaches (or is
the limit of at ) if for every there is a number such that
if , then (or whenever .
If is the limit of as approaches , then we write:
If such a number can be found, we say that the limit of at exists, or that has a limit
at , or that exists. Otherwise, the limit does not exist.
Example: 1.Show that
Solution: Using the definition of limit, and .
For every there is a number such that
if , then

.
If , then . Choose . whenever , it

follows that . Therefore,

Example: 2. Show that

Solution: Using the definition of limit, and
For every there is a number such that if , then .

To estimate, choose

(*)

(**)
Choose ,

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 by (*)
by (**)
Whenever , it follows that
Therefore,
Example: 4. Show that
Solution: Let . We must find a such that
if , then

It is enough to choose .

Therefore,
Basic Limit Theorems
Theorem: Let and are both exist. Then

1. exists and

2. exists and

3. exists and

4. exists and
Example: A. Evaluate the following limits
1.
2.
3.
4.

Solution: 1. By the sum theorem

2. by the product rule

3. by the constant multiple theorem

4. by the quotient theorem

Example B. Find

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Solution: Since , we cannot apply the quotient theorem for limits.

But

And

Theorem: Substitution theorem for limits

Suppose that , and for all in some open interval about , with
the possible exception of itself. Suppose also that exists. Then

Example: Find
Solution: Let
as
So, we have
Note: If and , then

Squeezing Theorem
Assume that for all in some open interval about , except possibly

at itself. If , then exists and

Example: Show that

Exercise: Show that

One Sided Limits
Definition: Let be defined on some open interval . A number is the limit of
as approaches from the right if for every there is a number such that
if , then
In this case we write: and say that the right hand limit of at exists.
Similarly, let be defined on some open interval . A number is the limit of as
approaches from the left if for every there is a number such that
if , then . In this case we write: and say
that the left hand limits of at exists.
Example

1. Show that

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 2. Let be the dividing board function, defined by
Then find the left and right hand limits of at
Solution: 1.
For any , let
If , then
Thus,
since
And , since
Theorem: Let be defined on an open interval about , except possibly at itself. Then
exists if and only if both one sided limits, and
exist and .

In this case,
Example
1. Find if

2. Let be the dividing board function, defined by

Then find
Solution

and

2.

And
Therefore, does not exist.
Limit at infinity, Infinity limits and Asymptotes
Definition: Let be defined on some open interval
I. If for every number there is some such that if , then
In this case we say that .
II. If for every number there is some such that
if , then In this case we say that .

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In either case I or II the vertical line is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of ,
and we say that has an infinite right hand limit at

Similarly one can define also and

Example: Show that and . Show also that the line is

a vertical asymptote of the graph of .

Solution: For any if , then

Similarly, for any . if , then

Therefore, the line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of .

Exercise: Let . Find all vertical asymptotes of the graph of

Definition:
1. Let be a function defined on some interval . Then

means that the values of can be made arbitrary close to by taking

sufficiently large.
2. Let be a function defined on some interval . Then

means that the values of can be made arbitrary close to by taking

sufficiently large negative.
3. The line is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve if either

Or
Example: Evaluate the following limits.
1.
2.
Solution:
1.
is a horizontal asymptote of

2.

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 is a horizontal asymptote of
Note:
Example: Evaluate
1.
2.
Solution:
1.

(Since )

2.

(because )
Let , then . And .

(because )
Continuity
The continuity at can be destroyed by any one of the following conditions:
1. The function is not defined at .
2. The limit of does not exist at
3. The limit of exists at , but it is not equal to
If none of the three conditions above is true, the function is called continuous at , as
indicated in the following important definition.

Definition: 1. A function is continuous at a point in its domain if

2. A function is discontinuous at a point in its domain if is not continuous at

Example: Let . Determine the numbers at which is continuous.

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Solution: is a rational function. The denominator is for and . Then is
defined for all except at and .
Therefore, is continuous at every number except at and .
Theorem: 1. If and are continuous at and is any number, then and
are continuous at If , then is continuous at

2. If is continuous at and is continuous at , then . So

that is continuous at
Example: Let . Show that is continuous at
Solution: Let and . Then . Since is continuous at
and is continuous at . Because the square root function is continuous at every
positive number.
Therefore, is continuous at
One Sided Continuity
Definition: 1. A function is continuous from the right at a point in its domain if

2. A function is continuous from the left at a point in its domain if

Example: Show that the dividing board function, defined by

is continuous from the right at but not continuous from the left at
Solution: Since , is continuous from the right at
But, , then is not continuous from the left at
Continuity on Intervals
Definition: 1. A function is continuous on an open interval if it is continuous at
every point in
2. A function is continuous on a closed interval if it is continuous at every point in
, and is also continuous from the right at and continuous from the left at
Example: Let . Then show that is continuous on .
Solution: Since is defined for , and since if and only if .
Then domain of is .
if
Therefore, is continuous on

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Therefore, is continuous from the left at

Therefore, is continuous from the right at

Hence, is continuous on .
Note: A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at each number in the
interval. If is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we understand
continuous at the endpoint mean continuous from the right or continuous from the left.
Example: Show that the function is continuous on the interval

Solution: If , then using the limit laws, we have

Thus, by definition, is continuous at if .

Similar calculations show that

and
So, is continuous from the right at and continuous from the left at . Therefore,
according to the above definition, is continuous on
Intermediate value Theorem
Suppose is continuous on a closed interval . Let be any number between
and , so that or . Then there exists a number in
such that
The intermediate value theorem states that a continuous function takes on every
intermediate value between the function values and . It is illustrated by the
following figure. Note that the value can be taken on once (as in part ) or more than
once (as in part ).

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 Example: Show that there is a root of the equation: between
and .
Solution: Let . We are looking for a solution of the given
equation that is, a number between and such that Therefore, we
take , and in the above theorem. We have

and
Thus, ; that is, is a number between and . Now, is
continuous since it is a polynomial, so the intermediate value theorem says, there is a
number between and such that
Review Exercise
1. Let Then find

a. c.
b.

2. Let Find the limits

a. c.
b.
3. Find the limits
a. c.

b.

4. Let and , then find the limits

a. c.

b. d.

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 5. Let Then find the limits

a. c.

b. d.

6. Let and , then find

a. c.
b. d.

7. Find the limit (if it exists)

a. g.

b. h.

c. i.

d. j.

e. k.

f.

8. Find if

a. c.
b. d.
9. Use the squeeze theorem to find

a.
b.

10. Prove that

a. if , then

b. if , then

c. if , then

11. Let , then find each limit (if possible)

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 a. c.
b.

12. Determine the intervals on which the function is continuous

a.
f.
b.
g.
c.
h.
d. i.

e.

13. Use the intermediate value theorem to show that

has a zero in the interval

14. Determine the value of such that the function is continuous on the entire real line

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 CHAPTER FOUR
DERIVATIVES
1. The Concept and Geometrical Interpretation

Definition and Notation

Definition. For a function f defined in a neighborhood of a real number c, the ratio
f ( x ) f (c )
xc
is called the difference quotient of f at c.
For instance, if f(x) = 6x2 + 3, then
f ( x)  f (1) 6 x2  6
= x1 is the difference quotient of f at 1,
x 1
Definition. Suppose f is a function with domain D and c  D. We say that f is differentiable (has
derivative) at c iff
f ( x ) f (c )
lim xc
x c
is a real number. If the limit of the difference quotient of f at c is a real number, then this value is
denoted by f '(c) and call it the derivative of f at c.
In other words,
f ( x ) f (c )
f ' (c) = lim xc ,
x c
f ( x ) f (c )
whenever it is a real number, is called the derivative of f at c. If lim xc does not exist or is not
x c
a real number, then we say that f is not differentiable (has no derivative) at c.
Using our knowledge of limits, f is not differentiable at c means that at least one of the following holds:
f ( x ) f (c )
(i) lim xc does not exist
xc 
f ( x ) f (c )
(ii) lim xc does not exist
xc 
f ( x ) f (c ) f ( x ) f (c )
(iii) lim x c  lim xc
xc xc 
f ( x ) f (c )
(iv) lim xc exists but it is either  or -  .
x c
For instance, if f(x) = mx+b, with fixed m and b, then for any real number c,
f ( x ) f (c ) (mxb)(mcb)
f ' (c) = lim  = lim
x c x c x c xc
m( x  c )
= lim = lim m = m.
x c x  c x c
Hence, at each real number c, f ' (c) = m.
Thus f ' (c) = m is simply the slope of the line y = mx+b.

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In particular,
the derivative of f(x) = 2x – 1 at any point c is 2,
the derivative of g(x) = 1 x + 4 at any point c is 1 ,
3 3
the derivative of h(x) = -5x – 4 at any point c is -5, etc.
In short, for a linear function f(x) = mx+b, we have f ' (c) = m at any real number c.
Suppose f(x) = x2 + 1. Then, for any c  R,
f ( x ) f (c ) ( x2 1)(c2 1) ( x  c)( x  c)
f ' (c) = lim  = lim
xc
= lim = lim (x+c) = 2c.
x c x c x c x c x c x c
Hence, f ' (c) = 2c at each real number c. In particular
f ' (0) = 2(0) = 0,
f ' (1) = 2(-1) = -2,
f ' (2) = 2(1) = 2, etc.
Consequently, the derivative of f(x) =x2+1 at any real number x is 2x
i.e., f(x) = x2 + 1  f ' ( x) = 2x.
It follows that the derivative of f at x varies as x varies.
Example . Find the derivative of g(x) = x3 + 2x + 3 at c = 1
g ( x) g (1)
Solution. By definition, g ' (1) = lim x1 .
x 1
But the difference quotient of g(x) at 1 is
g ( x)  g (1) x 3  2 x  3 (1 2  3) x 3  2 x  3
= = .
x 1 x 1 x 1
Since 1 is a root of x3 + 2x - 3 = 0, x3 + 2x – 3 can be factorized.
Indeed: x3 + 2x - 3 = (x – 1)(x2 + x + 3).
( x 1)( x 2  x  3)
Hence, x  2 x  3 =
3
= x2 + x + 3, x  1.
x 1 x 1
g ( x)  g (1)
It follows that g ' (1) = lim = lim (x2 + x + 3) = 5.
x 1 x 1 x 1
Therefore, g '(1) = 5.
The Derivative as a Slope, Tangent Lines.
f ( x ) f (c )
Clearly, the difference quotient of f at c, i.e., x c can be seen as the slope of the line
passing through the fixed point (c, f(c)) and an arbitrary point (x, f(x)), x  c. Both of these points are on
the graph of y = f(x). For a better understanding consider the following diagram.

f ( x ) f (c )
If f is differentiable at c (i.e., f ' (c) = lim x c is
x c
a real number), then the slope of the line through the
fixed point (c, f(c)) and the variable point (x, f(x))

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(on the graph of f ) approaches f ' (c) as x approaches c.
This means the angle between the two lines
approaches zero as x approaches c. In other words, f ' (c) is the slope of the line tangent to the
graph/curve y = f(x) at (c, f(c)).
In this case the point-slope form of the equation of the line through (c, f(c)) with slope f ' (c) is given by
y - f(c) = f ' (c )( x - c ) … Equation of the tangent line at (c, f(c)).
Hence, the last equation is the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at (c, f(c)). For simplicity,
this line is called the tangent line to f at (c, f(c)).
Examples . Let f( x ) = x 4  1 . Find
a.The slope of the tangent line to f at (2, 15).
b. The equation of the tangent line to f at (2, 15).
Solution. a. From the above discussion, the slope of the tangent line to f at (2, 15) is f '(2). But, by
f ( x )  f ( 2) ( x 4 1) 15 x 4 16
definition, f ' (2) = lim x 2 = lim = lim
x 2 x 2 x2 x 2 x  2
( x2)( x2)( x2 4)
= lim x  2 = lim (x + 2)( x 2 + 4) = 32.
x 2 x 2
Hence f ' (2) = 32 is the slope of the tangent line to f(x) = x  1 at (2, f(2)) = (2, 15).
4

b. It follows that equation of the tangent line to f at (2, 15) is given by

y – 15 = 32(x – 2)  y = 32x – 49
Equation of the Normal Line
Definition. Suppose the graph of function f has a tangent line at (c, f(c)). Then the line perpendicular to
the tangent line of f at (c, f(c)) is called the normal line to the graph of f at the point.
If the graph of f has a line tangent to it at (c, f(c)), then we know that the slope of the tangent line
is f ' (c) . Then, to find the equation of the normal line to the graph of f at the point, we consider two
exclusive cases.
Case 1. Suppose f ' (c) = 0. Then the line tangent to the graph of f is horizontal and passes through (c,
f(c)). Hence the equation of the tangent line is y = f(c). It follows that the normal line to the graph of f
at (c, f(c)) is the vertical line given by x = c.
Case 2. Suppose f ' (c)  0. Then the line tangent to f at (c, f(c)) has non-zero slope f ' (c) . Hence, the
equation of the normal line to the graph of f at (c, f(c)) has slope  1 and passes through the
f ' (c )
point (c, f(c)). Thus, the slope-point form of the normal line at (c, f(c)) is
y – f(c) =  1 (x – c) … Equation of the normal line at (c, f(c))
f ' (c )
Examples . Consider the polynomial function g(x) = x 2  1 .
Find the equations of the line tangent and the normal line to the graph of g at (0, -1).
Solution. To find the equation of the line tangent to g at (0, -1), we need to find its slope. However, we
know that its slope g ' (0). But, by definition,

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 g ( x )  g ( 0) ( x 2 1)  ( 1)
g '(0) = lim x 0 = lim = lim x = 0.
x 0 x 0 x x 0
Therefore, the tangent line to the graph of g at (0, -1) has slope 0. It follows that it is a horizontal line
passing through (0, -1). Thus, y = -1 is the equation of the tangent line of g at (0, -1).
By definition, the normal line to the graph of g at (0, -1) is the line perpendicular to the tangent
line at the point. Hence, the normal line is vertical through (0, -1). It follows that x = 0, i.e., the
y-axis is the normal line to the graph of g at (0, -1).
The Derivative as a Rate of Change.
f ( x ) f (c )
We interpret the difference quotient xc as the average rate of change of f(x) with
respect to the independent variable x. If x represents time and the function f(x) corresponds to distance
covered, then the average rate of change is nothing but the average velocity; if x represents time and
f(x) is the velocity function, then the difference quotient is the average acceleration; etc.
f ( x ) f (c )
If f is differentiable at c, then the derivative of f at c i.e., f '(c) = lim xc
x c
is called the (instantaneous) rate of change of f with respect to the variable x at c.
Examples The distance covered by an object is given by d(t) = t 2 + 2, in meters, with t representing time
in seconds.
a. Find the average velocity of the object over the time interval 2 and t seconds.
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the object at 2 seconds.
Solution. a. The average velocity of the object over the time interval 2 and t seconds is equal to
d (t )d ( 2) (t 2  2)  (6) t 2  4
t 2 = = = t + 2, t  2.
t 2 t 2
Therefore, the average velocity for the given time interval is (t+2) m/sec.
b.The instantaneous velocity of the object at 2 seconds is equal to
d (t )  d ( 2)
d '(2) = lim = lim (t + 2) = 4.
t 2 t 2 t 2
Hence, the instantaneous velocity of the object at time 2 seconds is 4 m/sec.
Alternative Notations of the Derivative.
The difference quotient of f at c can be written in different forms. Put x = c + h for some h  R.
f ( x ) f (c ) f (c  h)  f (c )
Then xc = .
h
f ( x ) f (c ) f (c  h)  f (c )
Notice that as x  c, then h  0. Hence f '(c) = lim xc = lim .
x c h0 h
f (c  h)  f (c )
Hence, for any c, f '(c) = lim .
h0 h
f (t  h)  f (t )
If we use t for c, we get f '(t) = lim .
h0 h
In fact, we can also use any other letter, say x, instead of t. If we do so, we get

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 f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f '(x) = lim ,
h0 h
which is the derivative of f at any real number x. This last format of the definition of the derivative
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
of f at x i.e., f '(x) = lim
h0 h
gives us additional tool to obtain derivatives of some other functions. Moreover, f '(x) is now a function
with the independent variable x.
Examples . Let f(x) = sin x.
a. Find the derivative of f at x.
b. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at (  , 1).
2
Solution. a. For any real number x,
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) sin( xh)sin( x)
f '(x) = lim = lim
h0 h h0 h
But, sin(x+h) = sin x cos h + sin h cos x. Hence
sin( x  h)  sin( x)
lim = lim sin x cos hsin h cos xsin x
h0 h h0 h
sin x(cos h1) cos x sin h 
= lim   
h0  h h 
We recall from a discussion in Chapter 1 that
cos h 1 sin h
lim = 0 and lim =1
h0 h h0 h
Hence,
sin x(cos h1) cos x sin h 
lim   
h0  h h 
cos h 1 sin h
= sin x lim + cos x lim
h0 h h0 h
= (0) sin x + cos x = cos x.
Therefore, the derivative of sin x is given by
f '(x) = (sin x)' = cos x.
b. Using the result in (a), the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) = sin x at (  , 1) is f '(  ) and
2 2

f '(  ) = cos  = 0.
2 2

Hence the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at (  , 1) is horizontal and thus it is given by
2
y = 1.

For further details, refer the

graph.

Theorem. If a function f is differentiable at c, then f is continuous at c.

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 f ( x ) f (c )
Proof. Since f is differentiable at c, f '(c) = lim xc is a real number.
x c
To prove that f is continuous at c, we have to show that lim f(x) = f(c).
x c
Clearly, for each x  c,

lim f(x) = lim  ( x  c)  f (c) 

f ( x )  f (c )
x c x c  x c 
f ( x ) f (c )
= lim xc lim (x – c) + lim f(c)
x c x c x c
= f '(c)  (0) + f(c) = f(c).
i.e., lim f(x) = f(c)
x c
Therefore, if f is differentiable at c, then f is continuous at c.
The converse of the above theorem in general is not true.
Example. f(x) = | x | is continuous at 0 but not differentiable at the point.
 2 x  1 if x  0

Examples Suppose g ( x)   0 if x  0
  2 x  1 if x  0

a. Show that g is not differentiable at 0.
 2 if x  0
b. Prove that g '(x) = 
2 if x  0
Solution. a. Clearly,
lim g(x) = lim  (2 x  1) = 1 = lim (2 x  1) = lim g ( x) .
x0 x0 x0 x 0
Hence, lim g(x) = 1. However, g(0) = 0. Hence
x 0
lim g(x) = 1  0 = g(0)
x 0
It follows that g is not continuous at 0. Thus, by the above theorem, g is not differentiable at 0.
g ( x )  g ( 0)
One may also directly show that lim
x 0 x 0
does not exist. Indeed, since g(x) is represented by two different formulae in every neighborhood of
0, we have to find the one-sided limits of the difference quotient at 0. We get
g ( x )  g ( 0)
lim = lim 2 x 1 = lim  2  1  = -  ,
x0 x 0 x0 x x0  x
g ( x )  g ( 0)
and lim = lim 2 x 1 = lim   2  1  =  .
x0 x  0 x0 x x0  x
g ( x )  g ( 0)
Therefore, lim does not exist. Thus g is not differentiable at 0.
x 0 x 0
g ( x  h)  g ( x )
b. Suppose x < 0. Then g(x) = 2x+1. By definition g '(x) = lim .
h0 h

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 We can assume that x + h < 0 so that g(x + h) is given by the first formula, and thus,
g( x + h) = 2(x + h) + 1.
2( x  h) 1 ( 2 x 1)
Hence g '(x) = lim = lim 2 h = 2.
h0 h h0 h
Hence, for each x < 0, g '(x) = 2.
g ( x  h)  g ( x )
Suppose x > 0. Then g(x) = -2x + 1. By definition, g '(x) = lim
h0 h
We now can assume that x + h > 0 so that g(x + h) is given by the last formulae of g(x) , i.e., g(x+h) = -
2(x+h) + 1. It follows that
g ( x  h)  g ( x ) 2( xh)1(2 x1)
g '(x) = lim = lim = lim  2h = -2.
h0 h h0 h h0 h
Hence, for each x > 0, g '(x) = -2. Therefore
 2 if x  0
g '(x) = 
2 if x  0
Notice that 2 is the slope of the first formula while -2 is the slope of the last formula for g(x).
Additional Notations. The derivative of a function f(x) at a particular point/number c is also denoted by
df df
or (c)
dx x  c dx
For instance, since the derivative of f(x) = sin x is cos x, we have
df df  
(0) = cos (0) = 1; ( ) = cos ( ) = 0;
dx dx 2 2
df df
( ) = cos(   ) = -1; ( ) = cos(  ) = -1; etc.
dx dx
Basic Theorems on Differentiation
Theorem 1 (Derivative of Constant Functions).
The derivative of any constant function is zero.
Proof. Suppose f(x) = k, k fixed, for each real number x. Then, for any x  R,
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f ' ( x) = lim = lim k k = lim 0 = 0.
h0 h h0 h h 0
Therefore, f ' ( x) = 0 for any real number x. In other words,
If f(x) = k, k constant, then f ' ( x ) = 0.

Theorem 2 (Power Rule for Differentiation). For a fixed natural number n, let f(x) = x n . Then f ' ( x) =
nx n1 .
Proof. For each real number c, by definition of the derivative,
f ( x )  f (c ) xn  cn
f ' (c) = lim = lim .
x c x c x c x  c
But x n  c n = (x– c) ( x n1  x n2 c  ...  xc n2  c n1 ) . Hence

18 | P a g e
 xn  cn
= x n1  x n2 c  ... xc n2  c n1 .
x c
Thus, using the Addition and Product Rules for Limits,
xn  cn
f ' (c) = lim = lim ( x n1  x n2 c  ...  xc n2  c n1 )
x c x c x c
= nc n1 .
Therefore, f ' (c) = nc n1 . As c is arbitrary in R, we have:

f(x) = x n  f ' ( x) = nx n1 .

Corollary. Suppose k is a constant and n is a natural number. If g(x) = kxn , then g ' ( x) = k nx n1 for
each real number x.
Proof. For any real number c,
g ( x ) g (c ) kxn  kcn xn  cn
g ' (c) = lim xc = lim xc = lim k ( ).
x c x c x c x c
xn  cn
= k lim
x c x  c
xn  cn
But, in view of Theorem 2, lim = nc n1 .
x c x  c
Hence, g ' (c) = k( nc n1 ) = k nc n1 .

As c is arbitrary in R, we have: g(x) = k x n  g ' ( x) = kn x n-1 .

Theorems 3. Suppose f and g are differentiable at c. Then
3.1 (Addition Rule for Differentiation) f + g is differentiable at c and
( f  g )' (c) = f ' (c) + g ' (c) .
3.2 (Difference Rule for Differentiation) f – g is differentiable at c and
( f  g )' (c) = f ' (c) - g ' (c) .
Proof. 3.1 By definition of derivative of (f + g)(x) at c and using the Addition Rule for Limits,
( f  g )( x)( f  g )(c)
( f  g )' (c) = lim xc
x c
= lim 
f ( x )  f ( c ) g ( x )  g (c ) 
xc  xc 
x c 
f ( x )  f (c ) g ( x ) g (c )
= lim + lim xc
x c x  c x c
= f ' (c) + g ' (c) .
Similarly, using the definition of the derivative of (f – g)(x) at c and the Difference Rule for Limits.
Example . Find the derivative of g(x) = 3x 6  9 x 2  sin x .
Solution. Using the Addition and Difference Rules for Differentiation, we get

19 | P a g e
  '  '
g ' ( x) = 3x 6 + 9x 2 - sin x ' .
Then using the above Corollary and an earlier result on sin x,

3x 6 ' = 18 x 5 , 9x 2 ' = 18x and sin x ' = cos x.

Therefore, N g ' ( x) = 18 x 5 + 18x - cos x.
Theorem 4 (Product Rule for Differentiation). Suppose f and g are differentiable at c. Then fg is
differentiable at c and ( fg ) ' (c) = f ' (c) g(c) + g ' (c) f(c).
Proof. By definition of the derivative of (fg)(x) at c,
( fg )( x)( fg )(c) f ( x ) g ( x ) f (c ) g (c )
( fg ) ' (c) = lim x c = lim x c
x c x c
However, the difference quotient of fg at c can be rewritten as:
f ( x ) g ( x ) f (c ) g (c ) f ( x ) g ( x ) g ( x ) f (c ) g ( x ) f (c )  f (c ) g (c )
x c = x c

= g(x) 

f ( x ) f (c ) 
x  c  + f(c)

g ( x )  g (c )
x c 
Since g(x) is differentiable at c, by a theorem in Section 5.1, g is continuous at c.
i.e., lim g(x) = g(c).
x c
Then, in view of Addition and Multiplication Rules for Limits and the above expression for the
difference quotient of (fg)(x) at c, we have
f ( x ) g ( x ) f (c ) g (c )
( fg ) ' (c) = lim x c
x c
  f ( x ) f ( c )   f ( c )  g ( x ) g ( c )  
= lim  g ( x )  x c   x c 
x c     
f ( x )  f ( c) g ( x ) g (c )
= lim g(x) lim + lim f(c) xc
x c x c x c x c
= g(c) f '(c) + f(c)g '(c).
Hence, since multiplication of real numbers is commutative,
( fg ) ' (c) = f ' (c) g(c) + g ' (c) f(c).

Caution! Notice that the derivative of the product of the two functions is not necessarily the product of
the derivatives. In other words, in general,
( fg ) ' (c)  f ' (c) × g ' (c)
Example . Find the derivative of h(x) = ( x 6 + 1)( x 8 - 1) at any real number x.
Solution. We can find h '(x) using the Product Rule for Differentiation. To this end, let
f(x) = x 6 + 1 and g(x) = x 8 - 1,
so that h(x) = f(x) g(x). Since f and g are differentiable at each real number x, we have
h'(x) = f '(x) g(x) + g '(x) f(x)
But then, f '(x) = 6x 5 and g '(x) = 8x 7

20 | P a g e
 It follows that h'(x) = 6x 5 ( x 8 - 1) + 8x 7 ( x 6 + 1)
= 14x13 + 8x 7 - 6x 5
Notice that by expanding its factors, h(x) = x14 + x 8 - x 6 - 1.
Hence, using Theorems 2 and 3, we get h ' ( x) = 14x13 + 8x 7 - 6x 5 ,
which is the same as the result obtained using the Product Rule for Differentiation.
The next theorem is also valid, but we shall accept it without proof.
Theorem 5 (The reciprocal Rule for Differentiation). Suppose g is differentiable at c and g(c)  0. Then

h(x) = 1 is differentiable at c and h ' (c) =  g ' (c ) .

g ( x)  g (c ) 2
Example . Find the derivative of h(x) = 1 at each real number x.
2
x 3
Proof. Let g(x) = x 2 + 3. Then, at each real number x, g ' ( x) = 2x.
 g '( x) 2 x
Hence, in view of Theorem 5, h ' ( x) = = .
 g ( x ) 2 ( x  3) 2
2

Theorem 6 (Quotient Rule for Differentiation).

f
Suppose f and g are differentiable at c and g(c)  0. Then  (x) is differentiable at c and
g
' f ' ( c ) g (c )  g ' ( c ) f ( c )
f
  (c ) = .
g ( g (c)) 2
Proof. We know that
f
 (x) = f(x). 1 = f(x) h(x)
g g ( x)
with h(x) = 1 . Then, in view of Theorem 5,
g ( x)
 g ' (c )
h ' (c ) = .
 g (c ) 2
Using the Product Rule for Differentiation,
'
f
  (c) = ( fh) ' (c) = f ' (c) h(c) + h ' (c) f(c).
g
 g ' (c )
= f ' (c) g 1(c ) - f(c)
 g (c ) 2
f ' (c ) g (c )  g ' (c ) f (c )
=
( g (c)) 2
Therefore,

21 | P a g e
 '
f f ' (c ) g (c )  g ' (c ) f (c )
  (c ) = .
g ( g (c)) 2

Caution! Notice that the derivative of the quotient of two functions is not necessarily equal to the
quotient of the respective derivatives. In other words, in general,
'
f f '( x)
  ( x)  .
g g '( x)
Example . Find the derivative of the rational function

h(x) = x 1
3

x 4 1
Solution. Let f(x) = x 3 + 1 and g(x) = x 4 + 1, so that

f ( x)
h(x) = .
g ( x)
Since f(x) and g(x) are differentiable and g(x)  0 at any real number x, we can differentiate h(x) at
each real number x. But then, by the Quotient Rule for Differentiation,
f '( x) g ( x)  g '( x) f ( x)
h ' ( x) = .
( g ( x)) 2
On the other hand,
f ' ( x) = 3 x 2 and g ' ( x) = 4 x 3 .
Hence,
3 x 2 ( x 4 1)  4 x 3 ( x 3 1) 6 3 2
h ' ( x) = =  x  4 x  3x .
( x 4 1) 2 ( x 4 1) 2
In particular,
h ' (0) = 0, h ' (1) = - 12 , h ' (1) = 3 , etc.
2

Example . Let h(x) = sin x . Find h'(c) at c = 0,  , -  .

2 2
x2 2
Solution. Let f(x) = sin x and g(x) = x 2 + 2. Then

f ( x)
h(x) = .
g ( x)
Since f and g are differentiable and g(x)  0 at any real number x, we can use the Quotient Rule for
Differentiation to find h'(x). We get
f ' ( x) g ( x)  g ' ( x) f ( x)
h ' ( x) =
( g ( x)) 2

22 | P a g e
 But, f ' ( x) = cos x and g ' ( x) = 2x. Hence

( x 2  2) cos x  2 x sin x
h ' ( x) =
( x 2  2) 2
Thus,
h ' (0) = 2 cos 0 = 12 ,
4
 
   2      sin   
    2  cos 2
 2   2 2  2
h ' ( ) =  
2
2  
   2 
   2 
 2  
 
 16


= = .
 2  8

 4 

2

2 8
2

 
Similarly,
h ' (  2 ) = 16
2
 2  8 
 
 

Derivatives of Category of Functions.

In this section, we use the techniques developed earlier to study the derivatives of certain
category/class of functions.

1. Derivatives of Polynomial Functions.

Recall that for any constant k and natural number n,
(kxn ) ' = knxn1 .
Using this fact and Addition/Difference Rules for Differentiation, it is now easy to differentiate any
polynomial function at each real number. Indeed, suppose
P(x) = an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a1 x  a0
is a polynomial function with constants a0 , a1 , ..., an . Then

 
'
 '

P ' ( x) =  an x n   an 1 x n 1  ...  a1 x  a0 ' .

= nan x n 1  (n  1)an 1 x n  2  ...  a1 .

For instance,

131 x 26  4x16  2x 4  2x  5' = 2x 25  64x15  8x3  2 ,

23 | P a g e
 ( x13  x12  ...  x  1) ' = 13x12  12 x11  ... 1 ,
( 3x17  2 x 8  2 x 6  4 x 2  8) ' = 17 3x16  16 x 7  6 2 x 5  8x, etc.

2. Derivatives of Rational Functions.

P( x)
Suppose f(x) = is a rational function with polynomial functions P(x) and Q(x). Then its
Q( x)
domain is R\{ x| Q(x) = 0 }. The Quotient Rule for Differentiation is the basic tool used to find
f ' ( x) . Indeed, for each real number x such that Q(x)  0, we have
'
P ' ( x)Q( x)  Q ' ( x) P( x)
 P( x) 
f ' ( x) =   = .
 Q( x)  Q( x)2
Since P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, as indicated above, P ' ( x) and Q ' ( x) are easy to find. Hence
f ' ( x) is obtained using the already given expression.
3
Example . Let f(x) = 2 x  4 . Find the derivative of f at each real number x.
x 2 1
Solution. With P(x) = 2 x 3  4 and Q(x) = x 2  1 ,
P( x)
f(x) =
Q( x)
is a rational function with domain R. Then, by the Quotient Rule for Differentiation,
P '( x)Q( x)  Q '( x) P( x)
f ' ( x) =
(Q( x)) 2
On the other hand,
P ' ( x) = 6x 2 and Q ' ( x) = 2 x .
Hence,
6 x 2 ( x 2  1)  2 x(2 x 3  4)
= 2x  6x  8x .
4 2
f ' ( x) =
( x 2  1) 2 ( x 2  1) 2

3. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions.

We already know that

(sin x) ' = cos x and (cos x) ' = -sin x.
Using these and the Quotient Rule for Differentiation, we can differentiate
f(x) = tan x
in its domain. Indeed,

24 | P a g e
 ' (sin x) ' cos x  (cos x) ' sin x
f ' ( x) = (tan x) ' =  sin x  =
 cos x  cos 2 x
2 2
= cos x  sin x = 1 = sec 2 x .
2 2
cos x cos x
Hence, (tan x) ' = sec 2 x .
Similarly, the derivative of g(x) = sec x can be obtained. Indeed, since

g(x) = sec x = 1 ,
cos x
we can use the Quotient Rule for Differentiation as follows.
' (1) ' cos x  (cos x) ' (1)
(sec x) ' =  1  =
 cos x  cos 2 x
= sin x = sin x . 1 = tan x sec x.
2 cos x cos x
cos x

Therefore,
(sec x) ' = tan x sec x.

Example . Find the derivative of f(x) = cos x .

x
Solution. By the Quotient Rule for Differentiation,
' (cos x) ' x  ( x) ' cos x  x sin x  cos x
f ' ( x) =  cos x  = = .
 x  x2 x2
Therefore, for each x  0,
'
 cos x  =  x sin x  cos x .
 x  x2

4. The Chain Rule

Theorem (The Chain Rule). Suppose f is differentiable at x and g is differentiable at f(x). Then h(x) =
g(f(x)) is differentiable at x and
h'(x) = g '( f(x)) f '(x).
Example . Let h(x) = sin( 2x 2 - 1). Find the derivative of h at any real number x.
Solution. Let f(x) = 2x 2 - 1 and g(x) = sin x so that h(x) = g( f(x)). It follows that
h'(x) = g '( f (x)) f '(x).
Since g '(x) = (sin x)' = cos x, it is clear that g '( f(x)) = cos( 2x 2 - 1).
Moreover, f '(x) = 4x. Hence h'(x) = g '( f(x)) f '(x) = cos( 2x 2 - 1)  4x = 4xcos( 2x 2 - 1).

25 | P a g e
 Therefore, (sin(2 x 2  1)) ' = 4x cos( 2x 2 - 1).

5. Derivatives of Radical Functions.

Suppose h(x) = ( f ( x)) r with f(x)  0 is a radical function. If f is differentiable at x, then we can

use the Chain Rule to find h'(x). Indeed, for each x > 0, let g(x) = x r . Then

h(x) = g( f(x)) = ( f ( x)) r .

Using g'(x) = rx r - 1 , we have

h'(x) = g'( f(x)) f '(x) = r ( f ( x)) r 1 f '(x).
In other words,

'
 ( f ( x )) r   r( f ( x) ) r  1 f ' ( x)
 

5
Example. If h(x) = ( x 8  2 x 2  1) 2 , then
1 5
h' (x) = 5 ( x 8  2 x 2  1) 2 (8 x 7  4 x)
2
3
= 5 (4 x 7  2 x) ( x 8  2 x 2  1) 2

Example . Differentiate the function h(x) =

x2  1 .
2x  6

Solution. Let f(x) = x 2  1 and g(x) = 2x + 6 so that

f ( x)
h(x) = .
g ( x)
Then we can use the Quotient Rule to differentiate h at any x  -3. In view of the Chain Rule,
'  1
f '(x) =  x 2  1  = 12 ( ( x 2  1) 2 .2x = x .
  x2  1
Moreover, g'(x) = 2. Hence, for each x  -3,
x ( 2 x  6)
f '( x) g ( x)  g '( x) f ( x) x 2 1  2 x2  1
h'( x ) = =
( g ( x)) 2 ( 2 x  6) 2
x( 2 x  6)  2( x 2 1) 6x2
= = .
2
( 2 x  6) 2 x 1 (2 x  6) 2 x 2  1
Radical functions may also involve logarithmic or exponential functions. Examples of such
functions will be discussed in the next section.

26 | P a g e
6. Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions.
In Chapter 1, we introduced the special limit
1
e = lim (1  t ) t = lim (1  1 ) t
t 0 t   t
and indicated that e is an irrational number. e can be approximated by 2.7182818 up to seven decimal
places.
Theorem. For b > 0 and b  1, let f(x) = log x . Then f is differential at each x > 0 and
b
f '(x) = 1 log b e .
x
Proof. By the definition of the derivative of f at x, x > 0,

log b x' = f '(x) = hlim0 f ( x  hh)  f ( x)

log ( xh)log x
= lim b b
h0 h
But, using the property of the logarithm function,

log ( xh)log x 1
b b = 1 log  x  h  = log  x  h  h
h h b x  b x 
1

= log 1  h h
x  .
b
Now, put t = hx so that h = tx. Hence

1 1
1  h  h = (1  t ) tx
 x
Notice that t  0 as h  0, but x is a fixed real number. Using the above equivalent expression
for the difference quotient of f at x, we have
log ( xh)log x 1
f '(x) = lim b b = lim log (1  t ) tx
h0 h t 0 b
1
= lim 1 log (1  t ) t
t 0 x b
1
= 1 log lim (1  t ) t = 1 log e .
x b t 0 x b
Therefore,
( log x )' = 1 log e .
b x b

27 | P a g e
 If b = e , in particular,
( n x)' = ( log x )' = 1 log e e = 1 .
b x x
Hence, for each x > 0,
( n x)' = 1 .
x
Example.
( log x )’ = 1 log e ,
2 x 2
'
 
 log x  = 1 log 1 e ,
 1  x
 2  2
'
 
 log x  = 1 log e , etc.
 2  x 2

In general,
log b f ( x) ' 
f ' ( x)
f ( x)
log b e

In particular, since n e = 1,

nf ( x)'  f ' ( x)

f ( x)

Examples . Find the derivative of

a. h(x) = log ( x 2  4)
2
b. h(x) = n ( x 2 - 4)

Solution. a. Since f(x) = x 2 + 4 > 0 for each real number x, and h(x) = log f ( x) , it is clear that the
2

domain of h is R. Since f '(x) = ( x 2 - 4)' = 2x, using what has been developed above, we
have
'
h' (x) =  log f ( x)  = f ' ( x) log e = 22 x log 2 e
 2  f ( x) 2 x 4
Therefore,

28 | P a g e
 '
 log ( x 2  4)  = 2 x log e
 2  x2 4
2

b. Let f(x) = x 2 - 4. Since f(x) > 0 iff x < -2 or x > 2, it is clear that the domain of
h(x) = n ( x 2 - 4)
is (-  , -2)  (2,  ). Moreover f '(x) = 2x. Hence,
h'(x) = ( n ( x 2 - 4))' = 2x ,
x2  4
for each x  (-  , -2 )  ( 2,  ).

7. Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Recall that for b > 0 and b  1, the function
f(x) = b x
is called the exponential function with base b. We know that the domain of the function f is R. First, we
would like to know its derivative. We have the following.

Theorem . Suppose b > 0 and b  1. Then f(x) = b x is differentiable at each real number x and

f '(x) = b x log e b = b x n b.
Proof. Using the definition of the algorithm, it is clear that for each real number x,
log b b x = x.
Therefore,
'
 log b x  = (x)' = 1.
 b 
Using f(x) = b x and g(x) = log b x , we have

g( f(x)) = log b b x
In view of the Chain Rule,

g( f(x))' = g'( f(x)) f '(x)

By the above Theorem,

 '
g'(x) = log b x = 1 log b e
x
Hence
g'( f(x)) = 1 log b e .
f ( x)
It follows that

29 | P a g e
 '
1 =  log b b x  = (g( f(x )))' = g '( f(x)). f '(x)
 
= 1 log b e . f '(x)
f ( x)
Solving for f '(x) from the last equation, we get
'
 b x  = f '(x) = f ( x) = f(x) n b = b x n b.
  log b e

'
i.e., 
 b x   b x nb

 

for each real number x. In particular, since n e = 1,

'

 e x   ex

 

For instance,
'
 2 x  = 2 x n 2,
 
'
 1  x   1  x
    =   n 1 , etc.
 2    2  2
 

More generally, if f(x) is any real valued function and b > 0, b  1, then

h(x) = b
f (x)
is called an exponential function with base b and exponent f(x). If f is differentiable at x, then using

Theorem 3 and the Chain Rule, we can find the derivative of h(x). To see how, let g(x) = b x so that

g( f(x)) = b
f (x) = h(x).
Then,

h'(x) = g '( f(x)) f '(x).

Since, by the above theorem,
'
g'(x) =  b x  = b x n b,
 
we have

g '( f(x)) = b
f (x) n b.

30 | P a g e
Thus,
h' ( x)  g ' ( f ( x)) f ' ( x) = b f ( x) nb  f ' ( x) = f ' ( x)b f ( x) nb.
Therefore,

'
 b f ( x)   f ' ( x)b f ( x)n b
 
 

In particular,

'
 e f ( x)   f ' ( x)e f ( x)
 

Examples . Find the derivatives of each of the following.

( x 2  sin x)
a. h(x) = 3

b. h(x) = e x cos x
Solution. a. Let f(x) = x 2 + sin x and g(x) = 3 x . Then
( x 2  sin x)
g( f(x)) = 3 = h(x)
Hence, by the Chain Rule,
h'(x) = g '( f(x)) f '(x).
( x 2  sin x)
But g'(x) = 3 x n 3  g '( f(x)) = ( n 3) 3
and f '(x) = ( x 2 + sin x)' = 2x + cos x.

It follows that
'
 ( x 2  sin x)  ( x 2  sin x) 2
3  =3 ( x + sin x)' n 3
 
( x 2  sin x)
= (2 x  cos x)(n3) 3
'
b. h'(x) =  e x cos x  = e x cos x (x cos x)' n e .
 
But n e = 1 and by the Product Rule for Differentiation,
(xcos x)' = (x)'cos x + (cos x)'x = cos x – xsin x.
It follows that
'
 e x cos x  = (cos x – xsin x) e x cos x .
 

31 | P a g e
8. Differentiability and Higher Order Derivatives.
Definition. Suppose f is a function with domain D. We say that f is differentiable on D iff f is
differentiable at each point x  D. In other words, f is differentiable on D means, for each x  D,
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f '(x) = lim
h0 h
exists and it is a real number.

For instance, from our discussion in the previous sections, it is clear that
2
f(x) = 3x 4  3x 2  2 x  1 , 3 x 1 , sin x,
e x 1 , n ( x 2 +3)
x2 2
is each differentiable on R. More generally,
 All polynomial functions are differentiable on R,
 Rational functions are differentiable on their respective domains, etc.
On the other hand, we have seen that
f(x) = | x |
is not differentiable at 0, hence not differentiable on R. But it is differentiable on (-  , 0)  (0,
 ).
If a function f is differentiable on D, then f '(x) exists for each x  D. This gives another function
and then we can ask whether this new function, i.e., f '(x), is differentiable. If the answer is positive, then
(f '(x))' is denoted by f ''(x) and called the second derivative of f.
Similarly,
(f ''(x))' is denoted by f '''(x) and called the third derivative of f.
For instance, consider the following function.
f(x) = x 3  x 2  x  1.
Then
f '(x) = 3x 2  2 x  1 .........first derivative of f,
f ''(x) = 6 x  2 ...................second derivative of f,
f '''(x) = 6 ...........................third derivative of f.

In general, for each n = 1, 2, 3, …,

f (n) ( x) denotes the nth derivative of f.
The nth derivatives of f for n  2 are called higher (order) derivatives of f. Usually,
f ( 1 ) ( x) is denoted by f '(x)
f ( 2 ) ( x) is denoted by f ''(x)
and f ( 3 ) ( x) is denoted by f '''(x).
Sometimes, the nth derivative of f is also denoted by
dn f
.
dx n

32 | P a g e
Hence,
df d2 f d3 f
f '(x) = , f ''(x) = , f '''(x) = , etc.
dx dx 2 dx 3
Example 1. Find all higher derivatives of f(x) = 2 x 4  6 x 2  1.
Solution. Clearly,
f '(x) = 8 x 3  12 x ,
f ''(x) = 24 x 2  12 ,
f '''( x ) = 48 x ,
f ( 4 ) ( x) = 48,
and for all n = 5, 6, 7, … , f ( n ) ( x) = 0.
In general, if f(x) is a polynomial function of degree m, then it is easy to see that
f ( n ) ( x) = 0 for n = m+1, m+2, …

Example 2. Let f(x) = e x 1 . Find all the higher derivatives.

Solution. Using the fact that (e x ) ' = e x and the Chain Rule, we have

f '(x) = (e x 1 ) ' = e x 1 ( x  1) ' = e x 1 = f(x)

Therefore, f '(x) = f(x). It follows that

f ''(x) = (f(x))' = (e x 1 ) ' = e x 1 ( x  1) ' = e x 1 = f(x).
Similarly for each n = 3, 4, 5, … ,
f ( n ) ( x) = e x 1 = f(x).

Example 3. Let f(x) = sin x. Find f ( n ) ( x) for n = 1, 2, 3, 4.

Solution. We know that

f '(x) = (sin x)' = cos x.
It follows that
f ''(x) = (cos x)' = -sin x,
f '''(x) = (-sin x)' = -cos x,
and f ( 4 ) ( x) = (-cos x)' = sin x = f(x).
Example . An object located at 980 meters above the ground is acted by a force so that its height at any
time t seconds is given by
h( t ) =  4.9t 2  49t  980
meters above the ground, valid until the object hits the ground.
a. How long does it take to hit the ground?

33 | P a g e
 b. Find the velocity and acceleration of the object at any time.
c. How high does the object rise above the ground?

Solution. a. Clearly the object hits the ground only when

h(t) = 0   4.9t 2  49t  980 = 0  t 2  10t  200  0
 (t  20)(t  10)  0  t = 20 or -10.
But time is never negative, by convention. Hence it hits the ground at t = 20 seconds. In particular,
h(t) =  4.9t 2  49t  980
holds true only for t such that 0 ≤ t ≤ 20.
b. For each t  (0, 20),

v(t) = h'(t) =  9.8t  49 m/sec

is the velocity of the object. Moreover,

a(t) = v'(t) = h''(t) = -9.8 m/sec2

is the acceleration of the object. Notice that a(t) is deceleration due to gravitational force.
c. At the maximum height of the object, its velocity is zero. But then
v(t) = 0  -9.8t = -49
 t = 490 = 5 seconds.
98
Therefore, the maximum height of the object above the ground occurs at t = 5 sec. In other words,
h(5) = 1102.5 meters
is the highest the object rises above the ground.
Exercises 1.
1. Find the difference quotient of each of the following functions at the given values. Express each in its
simplified form.
f(x) = 3x 2  2 x  1 ; c = -1, 0, 1
2
f(x) = x 1 ; c = -1, 0, 1
x 2 1
2. Let f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = x 2  3 and h(x) = x 3  1 . Use the definition of the derivative to prove each
of the following.
2.1 f '(3) = 2 2.4 g '(2) = 4
2.2 f '(-5) = 2 2.5 h '(-1) = 3
2.3 g '(0) = 0 2.6 h '(2) = 12
3. Using the definition of the derivative, find f '(c) for each of the following functions at the respective
points.
3.1 f(x) = 13x +2 ; c = 0, 1
3.2 f(x) = 3x 2  4 x  1 ; c = 0, 1
3.3 f(x) = 5 x 3  2 x  6 ; c = 0, 1

34 | P a g e
 3.4 f(x) = x 1 ; c = 0, 1.
x 2 1
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
4. Use f '(x) = lim to find f '(x) at an arbitrary point x for each of the following
h0 h
functions.
4.1 f(x) = x 2 4.5 f(x) = x 2 + cos x
4.2 f(x) = x 3 4.6 f(x) = x 3 + sin x
4.3 f(x) = x 3 + x 2 4.7 f(x) = x 4 - sin x
4.4 f(x) = x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + 1 4.8 f(x) = x 5 + cos x
5. Use the definition of the derivative to show that each of the following functions is not differentiable
at the respective points.
5.1 f(x) = |x – 1| ; c = 1
5.2 f(x) = | x 2 - 1| ; c = -1, 1
 x2 if x  0

5.3 f(x) =  1 if x  0 ; c=0
  2x  1 if x  0

  x if x  0
5.4 f(x) =  ; c=0
 sin x if x  0
6. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at (c, f(c)) for the respective values of c.
6.1 f(x) = x 2  3x  1 ; c = 0, 1
6.2 f(x) = x 3  2 x  1; c = 0, 1
6.3 f(x) = cos x – 4 ; c = 0, 
2
6.4 f(x) = 1 ; c = -1, 1
x
7. Find the equation of the normal line to f at (c, f(c)) for the respective values of c.
7.1 f(x) = 1 x 2 - 3 ; c = -1, 1
2

7.2 f(x) = - 1 x 2 + 1 ; c = -1, 1

2

7.3 f(x) = x 3 ; c = -1, 1

7.4 f(x) = x 2  4 x  1 ; c = -1, 1

8. For each of the following functions, find the slope of the tangent line to f at an arbitrary point (x, f(x)).
Identify the point(s) on the graph of f for which the tangent line is horizontal.
8.1 f(x) = x 2  2 x  5 8.3 f(x) = x 3  3x
8.2 f(x) = 2 x 2  8x  2 8.4 f(x) = x 3  3x 2  3x  1

35 | P a g e
9. Find the point on the graph of f(x) = x 2  2 x  2 at which the tangent line to f has slope 2. Find the
equation of the normal to f at the point.
10. Find the point on the graph of g(x) = 2 x 2  3x  1 at which the normal line is parallel to the line
with equation x – y = 2.
Exercises 2.

1. Use the Addition/Difference Rules for Differentiation to answer each of the following.
If f(x) = x 4  6 x 2  1, then find f ' (c) at c = -1, 0, 1.
If g(x) = x13  3x 2  6 , then find g ' (c) at c = -1, 0, 1.
If h(x) = ( x 8  1)( x10  1) , then find h ' (c) at c = -1, 0, 1.
If f(x) = x14  13x 5  8x  6 , then find f ' (c) at c = -1, 0, 1.
2. Using the appropriate rules for differentiation, find the derivative of each of the following at any real
number x.
f(x) = 13x 5  4 x 2  3x  5
f(x) =  12 x10  4 x 3  6 x  2
h(x) = (13 x 4 + 1)( 1 x 8 + 5)
4

h(x) = 6 x 3 1 .
x 6 1
3. Use the Product Rule for Differentiation to prove each of the following.
3.1 If f(x) = sin 2 x , then f ' ( x) = 2sin x cos x.
3.2 If f(x) = cos 2 x , then f ' ( x) = -2sin x cos x
3.3 If f(x) = xsin x, then f ' ( x) = xcos x + sin x
3.4 If f(x) = xcos x, then f ' ( x) = -xsin x + cos x.
4. Use the Quotient Rule for Differentiation to find the derivative of each of the following at any real
number x.
4.1 f(x) = 3x 4.3 f(x) = 2 x 1 , x  -1
x 2 1 x 1
2
4.2 f(x) = x 1 4.4 f(x) = x 1 , x  0, 1
x 2 1 x2  x
Exercises 3.
1. Find the derivative of each of the following functions at every real number x.
1.1 f(x) = 3x 20  6 x10  12 x 3  5x  10
1.2 f(x) = ( x 2  1)(4 x 6  3x  1)

1.3 f(x) = 3 x 1
x 2 8
1.4 f(x) = 1
cos x  4

36 | P a g e
 1.5 f(x) = 3x 4  1 x 2  1
2 sin x  3
1.6 f(x) = x 6  1 x 3  cos x sin x .
3
2. Differentiate each of the following functions in the respective domains.
2.1 f(x) = cot x 2.4 f(x) = 4  2  8 sin x
x2 x
17 4
2.2 f(x) = x3 2.5 f(x) = 6 x  x 5 8
2.3 f(x) = cosec x 2.6 f(x) = sin x
x 2 1
3. Use the Chain Rule to differentiate each of the following.
3.1 f(x) = (2 x  1) 6 3.4 f(x) = cos( x 2  1)

3.2 f(x) = ( x 2  10)8  1 3.5 f(x) = x 2  3x  5

15
3.3 f(x) = ( x 2  10) 2  1 3.6 f(x) = 3 sin( x 2  1 )
Exercises 4.

1. Find the derivative of the following functions at each element of the respective domains.

1.1 f(x) = log x 1.5 f(x) = nx

4
x2 1
 
1.2 f(x) = n (5x + 10) 1.6 f(x) = n 1 
 1 x 
2

1.3 f(x) = xnx 1.7 f(x) = nx

1.4 f(x) = (nx) 2 1.8 f(x) = x 2 nx .
2. Find the derivative of the following functions at any real number.
2.1 f(x) = 4 x 2.5 f(x) = n(1  e x )

2.2 f(x) = e 3 x 2 2.6 f(x) = e 3 x 3

2.3 f(x) = e1  sin x 2.7 f(x) = xe x

1
2 1
2.4 f(x) = e x 2.8 f(x) = x 2 e x
3. Find the derivatives of the following functions at the given points.
 1  x if x  0
3.1 f ( x)   at c  0
 1  x if x  0
 2 x  1 if x  1

3.2 f ( x)   2 at c  -1.

 x  2 if x  1
Is f differentiable at -1 ? Why ?

37 | P a g e
 
 ex if x  0 at each real number c.
3.3 f ( x)  

 x  1 if x  0

 1  x  x 3 if x  0
3.4 f ( x)   at each real number c.

 1  sin x if x  0
 x2  4 if x  1

3.5 f ( x)   at each c  1.
 x 2  2 x  1 if x  1

3.6 Find the derivative of f(x) = x 2  3x  2 at c  1, 2. Is f differentiable at 1 or 2? Why?

e x  e x e x  e x
5. Let f(x) = and g(x)= . Show that f '(x) = g(x) and g '(x) = f(x) at each real
2 2
number x.
| x | x
6. Let f(x) = .
2
6.1 Show that f is not differentiable at 0.
6.2 Find f '(x) at each real number x  0.

Exercises 5.
1. Find the first four derivatives of each of the following functions.
1.1 f(x) = 4 x 2  5 x  1 1.3 f(x) = sin 2x
3x  7
1.2 f(x) = x + cos x 1.4 f(x) = e
2. Find the first and second derivatives of each of the following functions.
2.1 f(x) = cos( x 2 + 1) 2.5 f(x) = sin x – cos x
2
2.2 f(x) = x 2.6 f(x) = e x - 1
x 2 3
2.3 f(x) = x + n ( x 2 + 3) 2.7 f(x) = e x 1
2

2.4 f(x) = x 2  3 2.8 f(x) = e cos x

3. Find a formula for the nth derivative of the following functions in the respective domains.

3.1 f(x) = 3 3.3 f(x) = 3

x x 5
3.2 f(x) = 3 3.4 f(x) = cos x
x 1

38 | P a g e
 4. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE FUNCTION
4.1. Inverse Functions and Their Derivatives
Definition: Let be a function. Then has an inverse provided that there is a function such
that the domain of is the range of and such that
if and only if
For all in the domain of and all in the range of . In this case, is the inverse of , and is
designated by . Thus
if and only if

For all in the domain of and all in the range of

Example: Find a formula for the inverse of the function
1.
2.
3.
Solution
1.
Let

2.
Let

3.
Let Then
Note: 1. Let has an inverse. Then and have the following properties
.
for all in the domain of .
for all in the domain of .
Note: 2. If is one to one and monotonic if and only if it has an inverse.
Example: 1. Show that the functions are inverse functions of each other.
and
Solution: Because the domains and ranges of both and consist of all real numbers, you can
conclude that both composite functions exist for all The composite of with is given by

39 | P a g e
The composite of with is given by

Because and , you can conclude that and are inverse functions
of each other.
Example: 2.Which of the functions have an inverse function?
a. b.
Solution: a)
Therefore, is strictly increasing over its entire domain.
So, is strictly monotonic and it must have an inverse function.
Solution: b) Since is not one to one function. For instance, has the same value when
and

So, does not have an inverse function.

Definition: Let be a function that is differentiable on an interval If has an inverse function
, then is differentiable at any for which Moreover,

Example: Evaluating the derivative of an inverse function. Let .

a. What is the value of when
b. What is the value of when
Solution: Notice that is one to one and therefore has an inverse.
a. Because when , you know that
b. Because the function is differentiable and has an inverse function, you can apply

with to write

Moreover, using , you can conclude that

40 | P a g e
Theorem: Let be continuous on an interval , and let the values assigned by to the points in
from the interval . If has an inverse, then is continuous on .
Suppose that has an inverse and continuous on an open interval containing . Assume also
that exists, , and . Then exists, and

Example: Find if
Solution:
Method: I.

or
Method: II.

And
Thus,
Exercise:
1. Let . Find
2. Let . Find and
3. Calculate .
a.
b.

4.2. Inverse Trigonometric functions and their Derivatives

4.2.1. Inverse trigonometric functions
Definition:
1. if and only if for
2. if and only if for
3. if and only if for
4. if and only if for
5. if and only if for
6. if and only if for

41 | P a g e
Example: Evaluate each function
1. 2. 3.
Solution:
1. By definition, implies that . In the interval , the

correct value of is .
2. By definition, implies that . In the interval , you have

3. By definition, implies that . In the interval , you

have
Inverse functions have the following properties:
and
When applying these properties to inverse trigonometric functions, remember that the
trigonometric functions have inverse only in restricted domains. For values outside these
domains, these two properties do not hold. For example, is equal to not

4.2.2. Properties of inverse trigonometric functions

1. If , then and

2. If , then and

3. If , then and
Similarly properties hold for the other inverse trigonometric functions.
Note: Identities foe inverse trigonometric functions:
1. 2. 3.

Example: solve
1.
2.
Solution:
1.

2.

42 | P a g e
4.2.3. Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
In this section, you will see that the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions are
algebraic.
The following theorem lists the derivatives of the six trigonometric functions. Proof for
and are given below and the rest are left as an exercise. Note that the derivatives of
, and are the negatives of the derivatives of , and ,
respectively.
Theorem: Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
1. 4.
2. 5.
3. 6.
Example: 1. Find the derivative of the function
a.
b.
c.
Solution:
a.

b.

c.

43 | P a g e
 1.3. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions and their Derivatives
1.3.1. Inverse Hyperbolic functions
Unlike trigonometric functions, hyperbolic functions are not periodic. Four of the six hyperbolic
functions are actually one-to-one (the hyperbolic sine, tangent, cosecant, and cotangent). So, you
can conclude that these four functions have inverse functions. The other two (the hyperbolic
cosine and secant) are one-to-one if their domains are restricted to the positive real numbers, and
for this restricted domain they also have inverse functions. Because the hyperbolic functions are
defined in terms of exponential functions, it is not surprising to find that the inverse hyperbolic
functions can be written in terms of logarithmic functions, as shown in the following theorem.
Theorem: Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

Proof: 1.

Consider if and only if for all and for all .

And

44 | P a g e
Since

Therefore, .

2.

Consider if and only if for all and for all .

And

Since,

Exercise: Find the inverse of all the remaining hyperbolic functions.

Example: Evaluate

a. d.
b. e.
c. f.

Solution:

a.

b.

c.

45 | P a g e
 d.

e.

f.

The graphs of the six inverses of hyperbolic functions are given below.

Note: Identities for inverse hyperbolic functions

1.
2.
3.

1.3.2. Derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions

The derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic functions, which resemble the derivatives of the inverse
trigonometric functions, are listed below.

1. 2.

46 | P a g e
 3. 5.
4. 6.

Proof: 1.

2.

Exercise: Find the derivative of all the remaining inverse hyperbolic functions.

Example: Find the derivative of the function

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

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Solution:
1.

5.
2.

3.
6.

4.

Exercise: Find the derivative of the function

1. 2.

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 3. 4.
Review Exercise
1. Evaluate each function
a. e.
b. f.
c. g.
d. h.
2. Verify each identity
a. d.
b.
c.
3. Find the derivative of the function
a. g.
b. h.
c. i.
d. j.
e.
f.
4. Find the derivative of the function
a. f.
b. g.
c. h.
d.
i.
e.
5. Evaluate the function
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f. .

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