Current and Resistance

Chapter 27
Basic circuit symbols to note.
Electric Current
Most practical applications of electricity deal with electric currents (moving
electric charges).
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge through some region of space.
▪ SI unit of current is the ampere (A).
▪ 1A=1C/s Q
I avg =
▪ Symbol for electric current is I. t

If the rate at which the charge flows

varies with time, the instantaneous
current, I, is

dQ
I
dt
Direction of Current

The charged particles passing through the surface could be positive, negative or both.
It is conventional to assign to the current the same direction as the flow of positive
charges.
In an ordinary conductor, the direction of current flow is opposite the direction of the flow
of electrons.
It is common to refer to any moving charge as a charge carrier.
Current and Drift Speed
Current and Drift Speed, cont
Charge Carrier Motion in a Conductor

When a potential difference is applied across

the conductor, an electric field is set up in the
conductor which exerts an electric force on the
electrons.
The motion of the electrons is no longer
random.
The zigzag black lines represents the motion of
a charge carrier in a conductor in the presence
of an electric field.
▪ The net drift speed is small.
The sharp changes in direction are due to
collisions.
The net motion of electrons is opposite the
direction of the electric field.
Motion of Charge Carriers, cont.

In the presence of an electric field, in spite of all the collisions, the charge
carriers slowly move along the conductor with a drift velocity, vd

The electric field exerts forces on the conduction electrons in the wire.
These forces cause the electrons to move in the wire and create a
current.
Motion of Charge Carriers, final

The electrons are already in the wire.

They respond to the electric field set up by the battery.
The battery does not supply the electrons, it only establishes
the electric field.
Drift Velocity, Example

Assume a copper wire, with one free electron per atom

contributed to the current.
The drift velocity for a 12-gauge copper wire carrying a
current of 10.0 A is 2.23 x 10-4 m/s
▪ This is a typical order of magnitude for drift velocities.
Direction of Current, repeat
The charged particles passing through the surface could be positive, negative or
both.
It is conventional to assign to the current the same direction as the flow of
positive charges.
In an ordinary conductor, the direction of current flow is opposite the direction of
the flow of electrons.
It is common to refer to any moving charge as a charge carrier.

Current Density
J is the current density of a conductor.
For a uniform charge flow through a perpendicular area, the current density is
▪ J ≡ I / A = nqvd (SI units of A/m2)

A current density and an electric field are established in a conductor whenever a

potential difference is maintained across the conductor.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that for many materials, the ratio of the current density to the
electric field is a constant σ that is independent of the electric field producing the
current.
▪ Most metals obey Ohm’s law
▪ Mathematically, J = σ E
▪ Materials that obey Ohm’s law are said to be ohmic
▪ Not all materials follow Ohm’s law. Materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are
said to be non-ohmic.
Resistance
In a conductor, the voltage applied across the
ends of the conductor is proportional to the
current through the conductor.
The constant of proportionality is called the
resistance of the conductor
V
R
I
This equation is sometimes used as a
statement of Ohm’s law.
(SI units of resistance are ohms (Ω) and 1 Ω
=1V/A
Resistance in a circuit arises due to collisions
between the electrons carrying the current
with the fixed atoms inside the conductor.
Most electric circuits use circuit elements
called resistors to control the current in the
various parts of the circuit.
Resistor Color Code
Resistivity
Resistivity of a
material is related to
resistivity through

R=ρ
A
Resistivity has SI units
of ohm-meters (Ω . m)

The inverse of the

conductivity is the
resistivity ρ = 1 / σ
Every ohmic material has a characteristic resistivity that depends on the properties
of the material and on temperature.
An ideal conductor would have zero resistivity.
An ideal insulator would have infinite resistivity.

Resistance and Temperature

Over a limited temperature range, the resistivity of a conductor varies
approximately linearly with the temperature according to
ρ = ρo [1 + α (T − To )]
▪ ρo is the resistivity at some reference temperature To
▪ To is usually taken to be 20 oC
▪ α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity (SI units = oC-1)

Temperature Variation of Resistance

The effect of temperature on resistance.
R = Ro[1 + α(T - To)]
Ohmic Material, Graph
An ohmic device
The resistance is constant over a wide
range of voltages.
The relationship between current and
voltage is linear.
The slope is the inverse of resistance.

Nonohmic Material, Graph

Nonohmic materials are those whose
resistance changes with voltage or
current.
The current-voltage relationship is
nonlinear.
A junction diode is a common example
of a nonohmic device.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that exhibit a decrease in resistivity with an
increase in temperature.

Superconductors
A class of materials and compounds whose
resistances fall to virtually zero below a
certain temperature, TC.
▪ TC is called the critical temperature.
The graph is the same as a normal metal
above TC, but suddenly drops to zero at TC.

An important application of superconductors

is a superconducting magnet. They are very
strong magnets. These magnets are being
considered as a means of storing energy and
are currently used in MRI units
Electric Power

( V )
2

P = IV = I R =
2

Real power lines have resistance.

Power companies transmit electricity
at high voltages and low currents to
minimize power losses.
Circuit Analysis
Simple electric circuits may contain batteries, resistors, and capacitors in various
combinations.
For some circuits, analysis may consist of combining resistors.
In more complex complicated circuits, Kirchhoff’s Rules may be used for
analysis.
Circuits may involve direct current or alternating current.

Direct Current
When the current in a circuit has a constant direction, the current is called direct
current.
▪ Most of the circuits analyzed will be assumed to be in steady state, with
constant magnitude and direction.
Because the potential difference between the terminals of a battery is constant,
the battery produces direct current.
The battery is known as a source of emf.
Electromotive Force

The electromotive force (emf), , of a battery is the maximum

possible voltage that the battery can provide between its
terminals.
The emf supplies energy, it does not apply a force. The
battery will normally be the source of energy in the circuit.
The positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than
the negative terminal.
We consider the wires to have no resistance.
Internal Battery Resistance
If the internal resistance is zero, the terminal voltage equals the emf.
In a real battery, there is internal resistance, r.
The terminal voltage, V =  – Ir
The emf is equivalent to the open-circuit voltage.
▪ This is the terminal voltage when no current is in the circuit.
▪ This is the voltage labeled on the battery.
The actual potential difference between the terminals of the battery depends
on the current in the circuit.
Load Resistance
The terminal voltage also equals the voltage across the
external resistance.
▪ This external resistor is called the load resistance.
▪ In the previous circuit, the load resistance is just the
external resistor.
▪ In general, the load resistance could be any electrical
device.
▪ These resistances represent loads on the battery since
it supplies the energy to operate the device containing
the resistance.
Resistors in Series and in Parallel 1 1 1 1
= + + +
Req R1 R2 R3

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

I = I 1 = I2 I = I 1 + I 2 = (ΔV1 / R1) + (ΔV2 / R2)

ΔV = V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2 = I (R1+R2) ΔV = ΔV1 = ΔV2

The equivalent resistance (Req) has the same effect on the circuit as the original
combination of resistors.
Combinations of Resistors, Example
Kirchhoff’s Rules
There are ways in which resistors can be connected so that the circuits formed
cannot be reduced to a single equivalent resistor.
Two rules, called Kirchhoff’s rules, can be used instead.

Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule

Junction Rule
▪ The sum of the currents at any junction must equal zero.
▪ Currents directed into the junction are entered into the equation as +I and
those leaving as -I.
▪ Mathematically, 
junction
I =0

I1 - I2 - I3 = 0
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

Loop Rule
▪ The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed
circuit loop must be zero.
Mathematically,  V = 0
closed
loop
Effects of Various Currents
5 mA or less
▪ Can cause a sensation of shock
▪ Generally little or no damage
10 mA
▪ Muscles contract
▪ May be unable to let go of a live wire
100 mA
▪ If passing through the body for a few seconds, can be fatal
▪ Paralyzes the respiratory muscles and prevents breathing
In some cases, currents of 1 A can produce serious burns.
▪ Sometimes these can be fatal burns
No contact with live wires is considered safe whenever the voltage is greater than 24 V.
Ground Wire
Electrical equipment manufacturers use electrical cords that have a third wire,
called a ground.
This safety ground normally carries no current and is both grounded and connected
to the appliance.
If the live wire is accidentally shorted to the casing, most of the current takes the
low-resistance path through the appliance to the ground.
If it was not properly grounded, anyone in contact with the appliance could be
shocked because the body produces a low-resistance path to ground.
Ground-Fault Interrupters (GFI) or Earth Leakage
Special power outlets
Designed to protect people from electrical shock
Senses when currents (< 5 mA) are leaking to ground
Quickly shuts off the current when above this level