Last 2!

Natural
Selection
Unit 7
 Topics
1-3

Natural & Artificial

Selection
 Agenda 1. Case Study
2. Notes pg 10-13
3. Practice FRQ 14-15
Explain how
Objective
natural selection
affects
populations
Homework
EdPuzzle Topics
4,5&12 (part 1)
Charles Darwin
English naturalist
● Most notable research was done at the Galapagos
Islands
Charles Darwin Research
Darwin was interested in biogeography
○ The geographic distribution of species

Darwin’s hypothesis:
● Organisms left South America and
colonized the Galapagos Islands
where they then diversified and
gave rise to new species
○ Darwin was specifically interested
in finches
True or False?
Before we dive into the theories of natural selection and
descent with modification, let’s play a game of true or false.
Game Play:
You will be given a total of FOUR statements. You and a
partner must decide if the statement is true or false. Once you
choose, you must then try to justify your logic
Statement 1
Natural selection gives organisms what they need to
survive

● FALSE: natural selection has no knowledge of what

organisms “need.” Natural selection simply acts on
genetic variations that lead to survival and reproduction
Statement 2
Natural selection acts for the good of a species
● FALSE: Natural selection has no intentions. It only acts on
traits that lead to survival and reproduction.
○ Just because a trait leads to survival doesn’t mean it’s
good for the species.
○ For example, let’s say we have a species of predators that
have a trait that makes them the BEST predator, over time
they will eat all of their prey! If they run out of a food
source, they will starve and die!
Statement 3
Natural selection is a process involving organisms trying to
adapt to their surroundings

● FALSE: Natural selection acts on random mutations that

have lead to a genetic variation in the population.
○ Organisms cannot close their eyes and cross their
fingers and make a wish to adapt
Statement 4
“Survival of the fittest” is a common phrase you may have
heard. The term “fittest” refers to the organisms in a
population that are the strongest, healthiest, and fastest.
● FALSE: the fittest organism simply refers to the organism that
(you guessed it) can survive and reproduce
○ For example, sickle cell anemia is a trait that leads to
protection against malaria. But individuals with sickle cell
anemia would not be classified as healthy
Evolution
During his studies, Darwin proposed the idea of descent
with modification, which is now our modern definition of
evolution
Evolution
Evolution: change in the genetic makeup of a population
over time; descent with modification
● Heritable traits change from generation to generation
○ To explain the pattern of descent with modification
(evolution) he observed, Darwin proposed the idea
of natural selection
Natural Selection
Natural selection: A process in which individuals that have
certain traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates
than other individuals because of those traits
○ Natural selection acts on phenotypic variations in populations
■ Some phenotypes will increase or decrease an organism’s
fitness (ability to survive and reproduce)
● Measured by reproductive success
■ Environments can change, causing selective pressures to
populations
Natural Selection
The theory of natural selection is based on two main
observations that Darwin made:
Traits are More offspring are
Heritable produced than survive
Natural Selection
1. Traits are heritable
● Characteristics can be passed from parent to offspring
● Adaptations: inherited characteristics of organisms that
enhance their survival and reproduction
Natural Selection
2. More offspring are produced than can survive
● This leads to competition for limited resources, which
results in differential survival
● The traits that lead to survival (“favorable” traits)
will accumulate in the population
● Populations evolve, NOT individuals
Artificial Selection
At the time, Darwin was worried about other scientists
supporting his work. So he compelled them by comparing
natural selection to artificial selection
○ Artificial selection: the selective breeding of
domesticated plants and animals to encourage the
occurrence of desirable traits
Natural vs. Artificial
Selection
Natural Selection Artificial Selection

● Nature “selects” traits ● Humans select traits

that are better suited for that are desirable
survival and ● Domestication of plants
reproduction and animals

Note: Both can lead to evolutionary change in the

organism, but natural selection occurs in nature
without the influence of humans
Practice Problem
A population of pacas, a nocturnal rodent, live in South America.
Their diet consists of leaves, flowers, and fruits that have fallen
from taller trees. A recent fire has wiped out much of the food that
the pacas eat. This has caused the pacas to lose body mass. Due
to the lack of food, subsequent generations of pacas are thinner
than the preceding generations.

Identify if this is an example of descent with

modification and justify your response.
Practice MCQ
Climate change is disrupting the length of winter in various ecosystems, resulting in less snowfall
and milder winters. Scientists in Finland have been observing the tawny owl, a fairly large owl
species that is commonly found in woodlands across much of Europe and Asia. Typically, the
feathers of the upper body are either brown (BB) or gray (bb). Scientists studying tawny owls in
Finland have found that the percentage of tawny owls that have brown feathers has increased
over the past 28 years.
Which of the following best explains why the brown-feathered phenotype in tawny owls has
increased over the past 28 years?

a. Since the brown genotype is dominant, it will eventually eliminate the recessive gray
genotype from the population.
b. Since the brown genotype is dominant, it will eventually eliminate the recessive gray
genotype from the population. - no response given
c. Darker feather color in tawny owls makes them less visible to predators as they sit in the
trees.
d. With milder winters, the advantage of gray feathers that blend into a snowy environment
has decreased.
Practice FRQ
Check AP Classroom Topic 7.2
Plasmodium Drug-Resistance FRQ
 Warm Up
1. What does “fitness” refer (in terms of natural selection)?
2. Evolution is driven by random occurrences. List four
examples of random occurrences that can lead to
evolution
3. What does natural selection act on?
 1. Activity: Modeling
Agenda
Gene Flow
2. Worksheet:
Population Genetics

Explain the relationship

Objective between changes in the
environment and
evolutionary changes in
the population

Homework
1. Finish Worksheets
2. Review Video
 Z Z LE
E DP U Topics
4,5,12

Population Genetics &

Hardy Weinberg
Population Genetics
Population: a group of individuals of the same species that
live in the same area and interbreed to produce fertile
offspring
○ Gene pool: a population’s genetic makeup
■ Consists of all copies of every type of allele
● If there is only one allele present for a
particular locus in the population it is fixed
● Many fixed alleles=less genetic diversity
Gene Pool

BB Bb bb BB
b B
B b
B
B
b
B
Population Genetics
● A population’s allele frequencies will change over time
○ Remember: populations evolve NOT individuals
○ Microevolution: small scale genetic changes in a
population
■ Evolution is driven by random occurrences
● Mutations
● Genetic Drift
● Migration/gene flow
● Natural selection
Mutations
● Review: define mutations in your own words
● Mutations can result in genetic variation
○ Can form new alleles
○ Natural selection can act on varied phenotypes
○ Mutation rates tend to be slow in plants and animals
and fast in prokaryotes due to a faster generation
time Note: Mutations can be harmful, neutral, or
beneficial. Most mutations are in the neutral to
harmful range. Not all mutations lead to
evolution.
Genetic Drift
Genetic drift: chance events that cause a change in allele
frequency from one generation to the next
○ Most significant to small populations
○ Can lead to a loss of genetic variation
○ Can cause harmful alleles to become fixed
○ Does NOT produce adaptations
○ Two types:
■ Bottleneck effect
■ Founder effect
Bottleneck Effect
● Bottleneck effect: when a large
population is drastically reduced by
a non-selective disaster
○ Floods, famine, fires, hurricanes,
hunting, etc.
○ Some alleles may become
overrepresented,
underrepresented, or absent
Founder Effect
● Founder effect: when a few
individuals become isolated
from a large population and
establish a new small
population with a gene pool
that differs from the large
population
○ Lose genetic diversity
Gene Flow
● Gene flow: the transfer of alleles into or out of a
population due to fertile individuals or gametes
○ Alleles can be transferred between populations
■ Example: pollen being blown to a new location
Quick Review
Examine each scenario and determine if it is an example of
the bottleneck effect, founder effect, or genetic drift. Justify
each response with an explanation.
Scenario 1
The black robin is a small bird native to the
Chatham Islands in New Zealand. Before the
19th century, much of their habitat was
converted to farmland.
Due to the loss of their habitat and the introduction of non-native
predators (like cats), the population declined to its lowest point, only 5
individuals. Since then, conservation efforts have brought the population
number back up to an estimated 230 individuals.
Bottleneck effect due to human activity
Scenario 2
In the 1720’s an Amish population settled into
Pennsylvania. A small number of the early settlers were
from Germany and carried an unusual number of mutations,
one of which included polydactyly. The trait for polydactyly
is now much more common in the Amish population than it
is in the general population.

Founder effect
Scenario 3
Recurrent flash floods have caused mass mortalities in the
marble trout population. Scientists have analyzed the
genetic makeup of the remaining marble trout population
and have found that genetic diversity has decreased
significantly.

Bottleneck effect
Scenario 4
Due to an increase in wind in a local area, pollen from one
population of flowers has travelled further than usual and
pollinated another population of flowers. The offspring of
these flowers now have traits of each population.

Gene flow
Natural Selection
Now that you are familiar with natural selection, let’s look
closer at how it can affect a population
Natural Selection
● Reproductive success is measured by relative fitness
○ The number of surviving offspring that an individual produces
compared to the number left by others in the population
● Effects of natural selection can be measured by examining
the changes in the mean of phenotypes
○ There are three modes of natural selection
1. Directional selection
2. Stabilizing selection
3. Disruptive selection
 Modes of Natural
Selection

Selection towards one Selection towards the Selection against the

extreme phenotype mean and against the mean. Both
extreme phenotypes phenotypic extremes
have the highest
relative fitness
Natural Selection
● Sexual selection: a type of natural selection that
explains why many species have unique/showy traits
○ Males often have useless structures (ie colorful male
peacock feathers) simply because females choose
that trait
○ Can produce traits that are harmful to survival
■ Example: colorful feathers in male peacocks
make them easier to spot by predators
 Warm Up
1. A fire separates a population of beetles. This creates habitat
isolation. The two populations of beetles, over time, have very
different gene pools. What is this an example of? Why?

2. The image below represents the gene pool of a particular species

of grass. The left represents the gene pool before the flood, and
the right represents the gene pool after the flood. What is this an
example of? Why?
 1. Review Test FRQ
Agenda
2. Review pg. 23-26
3. Digital Lab - Brine
Shrimp

Explain the relationship

Objective between changes in the
environment and
evolutionary changes in
the population

Homework 1. EdPuzzle Topics 4,5,&12

(part 2)
2. Hardy Weinberg
Practice pg. 32
Warm Up
Hardy-Weinberg Review
 Agenda 1. Review H.W.
2. Goldfish Lab
3. Practice pg 37-39

Explain the impacts on

Objective the population if any
of the conditions of
Hardy Weinberg are
not met

Homework
EdPuzzle Topics 6, 7
&8
 Hardy Weinberg
Z
Equilibrium
Z LE
E DP U
● A model used to assess whether natural selection or
other factors are causing evolution at a particular locus
○ Determines what the genetic make up of the population
would be if it were NOT evolving
■ This is then compared to actual data:
● If there are NO differences, then the population is NOT
evolving
● If there ARE differences, then the population MAY BE
evolving
Hardy Weinberg
Equilibrium
● The Hardy Weinberg principle states:
○ The frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a
population will remain constant from generation to
generation, provided that only Mendelian
segregation and recombination of alleles are at work

Remember: this is a hypothetical situation where no

evolution would take place. In real populations the
allele and genotype frequencies DO change over time
Hardy Weinberg
Equilibrium
Five conditions must be met to be in Hardy Weinberg
equilibrium:
1. No mutations
2. Random mating
3. No natural selection
4. Extremely large population size
5. No gene flow
● If any of these conditions are not met, then microevolution
occurs (i.e. mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection,
and non-random mating).
Think, Pair, Share
● Discuss with a partner how each of the five Hardy
Weinberg conditions, if not met, can lead to evolution
 Hardy Weinberg
Equilibrium
p+q=1 p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

Frequency of the Percentage of the Percentage of the

dominant allele in homozygous homozygous
a population dominant individuals recessive individuals

Frequency of the Percentage of the

recessive allele in a heterozygous
population individuals
Quick Check
1. You are told that 20% of a population is homozygous
recessive. What variable is that referring to in the Hardy
Weinberg equations?
It refers to q2

2. You are told that the frequency of a dominant allele in a

population is 75%. What variable is that referring to in
the Hardy Weinberg equations?
It refers to p
Hardy Weinberg
Equilibrium
Which formula you start with depends on the information
you are given.
● If a problem gives “allele frequencies,” it is referring to “p”
and “q.” If it gives information about individual organisms or
populations, then it is referring to p2, 2pq and q2
○ Most times you will use both formulas to complete the
problem
○ Usually you are given q, and then you will need to find p, but
you will also see problems where that is not the case
Tips for Solving Problems
1. Always write down both equations
2. Identify the information given. Is it for alleles? For populations?
3. Regardless of what the problem asks, solve for q first and then
p, because that will allow you to answer any question!
4. Use your calculator to do the square and square root functions!
The most common mistake students make is assuming they
know the answer.
5. Double check your work
Hardy Weinberg
Equilibrium
Let’s watch a video by Mr. Anderson and see some Hardy
Weinberg problems being solved, then we will practice
some problems on our own!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPkOAnK20kw&t=571s
 Practice Problems
1. You have sampled a population and found that 36% are homozygous
recessive (aa). What is the frequency of the A and a alleles?

Work:
p+q=1
Given p + 0.6 =1
q2= 0.36 p= 1- 0.6
p= 0.4
Remember: solve for p
and q first regardless Answer: the frequency of the A
allele is 40%. The frequency of the a
allele is 60%
 Practice Problems
2. Ten percent of a population of mice are albino. Albinism is recessive
to tan coloring. What is the frequency of homozygous dominant and
heterozygous individuals in the population?
Work: 0.32
p+q=1
Given p + 0.32 =1
q2= 0.10 p= 0.68
2pq: 2(.68)(.32) = 0.44
Solve for 2pq & p2
Answer: the frequency of the
homozygous dominant individuals is
46%. Heterozygous is 44%
 Practice Problem #3
3. A recessive genetic disorder occurs in 7% of a
population of birds. What percentage of the population
is homozygous for theWork:
normal condition?
p+q=1
Given p + 0.26 =1
q2= 0.07 p= 1- 0.26
Solve for:
p2 p= 0.74
p2=0.55
Answer: 55% of the population is homozygous dominant
 Practice Problem #4
4. A population has 1000 individuals. 123 BB, 455 Bb and
422 bb. What are the frequencies of the B and b allele?
Work:
p2= 123/1000= 0.123
q2= 422/1000 = 0.422
Given 2pq= 455/1000 = 0.455
Uncalculated p2= 0.123
p2, 2pq, and q2 p=
Solve for: q2= 0.422
P and q q=
Answer: the frequency of the B allele is 35%, and b is 65%
Quick Review
What is the difference between genotype frequencies and allele
frequencies in a population?
Answer: genotype frequencies refer to how alleles combine. Allele
frequencies refer to an allele’s relative distribution in the population (ie
how common is the allele).
Hardy Weinberg equilibrium is often referred to as a null model of
evolution. What does this mean?
Answer: a null model of evolution is one where no evolution occurs,
which is assumed with Hardy Weinberg if all conditions are met
Variations in Populations
● The more genetic diversity in a population, the better it
can respond to changes in the environment
○ More likely to be individuals that can withstand changes
■ Species with low genetic diversity are at risk of decline
and/or extinction
● Example: due to poaching and poisoning, the California
Condor was reduced to 27 individuals. This drastically
lowered the gene pool. Even though restoration efforts
have increased numbers, they have lost diversity
Warm Up
Hardy-Weinberg Review
 Agenda 1. Review H.W.
2. Goldfish Lab
3. Practice pg 37-39

Explain the impacts on

Objective the population if any
of the conditions of
Hardy Weinberg are
not met

Homework
EdPuzzle Topics 6, 7
&8
 Z Z LE
E DP U Topics
6-8

Evolution &
Common Ancestry
Evidence of Evolution
Overwhelming evidence supports the theory of evolution
● Primary sources of evidence are:
○ The fossil record
○ Comparative morphology
○ Biogeography
Fossil Record
Fossils: remains or traces of past organisms
○ Fossil record: gives a visual of evolutionary change
over time
■ Fossils can be dated by examining the rate of carbon 14
decay and the age of rocks where the fossils are found
■ Gives geographical data for the organisms found
Comparative Morphology
Comparative morphology: analysis of the structures of living
and extinct organisms
○ Homology: characteristics in related species that have
similarities even if the functions differ
■ Embryonic homology: many species have similar embryonic
development
■ Vestigial structures: structures that are conserved even though
they no longer have a use
● Example: tailbone and appendix in humans
■ Molecular homology: many species share similar DNA and
amino acid sequences
Comparative Morphology
● Homologous structures: characteristics that are similar
in two species because they share a common ancestor
○ Example: arm bones of many species
Comparative Morphology
● Convergent evolution: similar adaptations that have
evolved in distantly related organisms due to similar
environments
○ Analogous structures: structures that are similar but
have separate evolutionary origins
■ Example: wings in birds vs bats vs bees
● Each species have wings, but the wings did
not originate from a common ancestor
●
Biogeography
Biogeography: the distribution of animals and plants
geographically
○ Example: Species on oceanic islands resemble
mainland species
○ Example: species on the same continent are similar
and distinct from species on other continents
Comparative Morphology
● Structural evidence indicates common ancestry of all
eukaryotes
○ Many fundamental and cellular features and processes
are conserved across organisms
■ Cellular examples:
● Membrane-bound organelles
● Linear chromosomes
● Introns in genes
Quick Review
What type of data provides evidence for evolution?
a. Answer: fossil data, biogeography, and morphology
2. In terms of natural selection, how can structures become
vestigial?
a. Answer: a structure may have been useful at one
time, but maybe there was a mutation that rendered
it useless. Therefore it was conserved across
generations, neither being selected for or against
Putting It All Together
Populations continue to evolve
○ Genomes change
■ Examples:
● Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
● Insect resistance to pesticides
● Pathogens cause emerging (new) diseases
Warm Up
Hardy-Weinberg Review
 1. HHMI Rock Pocket
Agenda
Mice
2. Hardy Weinberg & Chi
Squared pg. 45-48

Explain the impacts on

Objective the population if any
of the conditions of
Hardy Weinberg are
not met

Homework
Study for Quiz!
EdPuzzle Topic 9
 Topic
9

Phylogeny
 A
Agenda

A
Objective

A
Homework
Phylogeny
Systematics: classification of
organisms and determining their
evolutionary relationships
○ Taxonomy: naming and
classifying species
○ Phylogenetics: hypothesis
of evolutionary history
■ Use phylogenetic trees
to show evolution
Phylogeny
To determine evolutionary relationships, scientists use:
○ Fossil records
○ DNA
○ Proteins
○ Homologous structures
Phylogenetic Trees
Phylogenetic trees: diagrams that represent
the evolutionary history of a group of
organisms
○ Similar to cladograms, except trees
show the amount of change over time
measured by fossils
Cladograms
● Each line represents a lineage
● Each branching point is a node
○ Nodes represent common ancestors
■ Nodes and all branches from it are called clades
■ Species in a clade have shared derived features
Cladograms
● Two clades that emerge from the same node are sister
taxa
● A lineage that evolved from the root and remains
unbranched is the basal taxon
Cladograms
● Synapomorphy: a derived character
shared by clade members
○ Derived characteristic: similarity
inherited from the most recent
common ancestor of an entire group
○ Ancestral characteristic: similarity
that arose prior to the common
ancestor
A
Cladograms
● Many cladograms and trees include an outgroup
○ A lineage that is the least closely related to the rest
of the organisms
Practice Time
1. What is the common ancestor for butterflies, moths, and flies (A,
B, or C)
a. Answer: C
2. What is the basal taxon?
a. Answer: beetles
3. What is an example of a sister taxa?
a. Answer: butterflies, moths, and flies
Practice Time
4. Examine the data table below. (+) represents the
presence of a trait. (-) represents the absence of a trait.
Create a cladogram that would best represent the data.
Practice Time
5. Examine the data table below. (+) represents the
presence of a trait. (-) represents the absence of a trait.
Create a cladogram that would best represent the data
Practice Time
6. Examine the data table below. (+)
represents the presence of a trait. (-)
represents the absence of a trait. Which
cladogram best represents the data.
 Warm Up
1. What is the most accurate source of data to use when
constructing a cladogram?
2. Using the cladogram below: what is the common ancestor
for salmon, the common frog, and the platypus? (A, B, or C)
 Notes pg. 62-69
Agenda Practice FRQ pg. 67

Describe the
conditions under
Objective which new species
may arise

EdPuzzle Topic 13
Homework Start Studying for Test!
 Topics
10-11

Speciation &
Extinction
Speciation
Species: a group able to interbreed and produce viable,
fertile offspring
○ Speciation: formation of new species
■ Results in diversity of life forms
Speciation
● Geography has an impact on speciation
○ Two modes of speciation
■ Allopatric speciation
■ Sympatric speciation
Speciation
Allopatric Speciation Sympatric Speciation
● Physical barrier divides ● A new species evolves
population or a small while still inhabiting the
population is separated same geographic region
from main population as the ancestral species
● Populations are ○ Usually due to the
geographically isolated exploitation of a new
niche
○ Prevents gene flow
○ Often caused by natural
disasters
Speciation
Speciation
● Speciation occurs due to reproductive isolation
○ Two types:
■ Prezygotic barriers
■ Postzygotic barriers
○ Both types maintain isolation and prevent gene flow
between the populations
A
Speciation
● Prezygotic barriers: prevent mating or hinder
fertilization
○ Five types:
■ Habitat isolation
■ Temporal isolation
■ Behavioral isolation
■ Mechanical isolation
■ Gametic isolation
Prezygotic Barriers
● Habitat isolation: Species live in different areas or they
occupy different habitats within the same area
○ Example: in western North America the mountain
bluebird lives at high elevation while the eastern
bluebird lives at low elevation
Prezygotic Barriers
● Temporal isolation: species breed at different times of
the day, year, or season
○ Example: the western spotted skunk mates in late
summer, while the eastern spotted skunk mates in
late winter
Prezygotic Barriers
● Behavioral isolation: unique behavioral patterns and
rituals separate species
○ Example: the blue footed boobies will only mate
after a courtship ritual
Prezygotic Barriers
● Mechanical isolation: the reproductive anatomy of one
species does not fit with the anatomy of another species
○ Example: snails can have varying spirals on shells,
which prevent mating
Prezygotic Barriers
● Gametic isolation: proteins on the surface of gametes
do not allow for the egg and sperm to fuse
○ Example: the sperm and eggs of red and purple sea
urchins are released in the water, but they cannot
fertilize each other
Quick Review
Take a couple of minutes to review the five types of
prezygotic barriers with a partner
Practice Time
Read each example and determine which type of prezygotic
barrier is at work.
Practice Time
1. Many plants have anatomical structures that only allow
certain pollinators to collect and distribute pollen
a. Answer: mechanical isolation
2. Lions and tigers are both common in India, but the lions
live in open grasslands, while the tigers live in the forest
a. Answer: habitat isolation
3. Female fireflies identify males of their own species to mate
with by their flashing patterns
a. Answer: behavioral isolation
Postzygotic Barriers
● Postzygotic barriers: prevent a hybrid zygote from
developing into a viable, fertile adult
○ Three types:
■ Reduced hybrid viability
■ Reduced hybrid fertility
■ Hybrid breakdown
Postzygotic Barriers
● Reduced hybrid viability: The genes of different parent
species may interact in ways that impair the hybrid’s
development or survival
○ Example: domestic sheep can fertilize domestic
goats, but the hybrid embryo dies early on
Postzygotic Barriers
● Reduced hybrid fertility: a hybrid can develop into a
healthy adult, but it is sterile
○ Usually results due to differences in number of
chromosomes between parents
■ Example: a male donkey and a female horse can mate
to produce a mule, but mules are sterile
Postzygotic Barriers
● Hybrid breakdown: the hybrid of the first generation
may be fertile, but when they mate with a parent
species or one another, their offspring will be sterile
○ Example: farmers have tried crossing different types of
cotton plants, but after the first generation the plants do
not produce viable seeds
Quick Review
Take a couple of minutes to review the three types of
postzygotic barriers with a partner
Practice FRQ
Work on the practice FRQ in your packet
Micro & Macroevolution
● Speciation is a bridge between the concepts of
microevolution and macroevolution
○ Microevolution: change in allele frequencies within a
single species or population (natural and sexual selection,
genetic drift, gene flow)
○ Macroevolution: large evolutionary patterns (adaptive
radiation, mass extinction)
■ Stasis: no change over long periods of time
Pace of Speciation
● Evolution and speciation can occur at different speeds
○ Punctuated equilibrium: when evolution occurs
rapidly after a long period of stasis
○ Gradualism: when evolution occurs slowly over
hundreds, thousands, or millions of years
Evolution & Speciation
● Divergent evolution: groups with the same common
ancestor evolve and accumulate differences resulting in
the formation of a new species
○ Adaptive radiation: if a new habitat or niche becomes
available, species can diversify rapidly
● Convergent evolution: two different species develop
similar traits despite having different ancestors
○ Analogous traits
Extinction
● Extinction: the termination of a species
● Extinctions have occurred throughout the Earth’s history
(5 mass extinctions)
○ Human activity has affected extinction rates
■ Anytime there is ecological stress, extinction rates can
quicken
● If a species does go extinct, it opens up a niche
that can be exploited by a different species
 A
Agenda

A
Objective

A
Homework
 Topics
13

Origin of Life
on Earth
 A
Agenda

A
Objective

A
Homework
Origins of Life
● Earth formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago (bya)
○ Early Earth was not suitable for life until 3.9 bya
■ Earliest fossil evidence is 3.5 bya
● Cyanobacteria
How Did Life Arise
● Early Earth contained inorganic molecules
○ These could have synthesized organic molecules due to
free energy and abundant oxygen
■ Organic molecules could have also been transported
to Earth via meteorites or other celestial events
Experimental Data
● Oparin and Haldane hypothesized
that early Earth was primarily
composed of hydrogen, methane,
ammonia and water
○ Stanley Miller and Harold Urey
tested the hypothesis in their lab
■ They found organic compounds
and amino acids formed
Experimental Data
● Miller and Urey
hypothesized that the
organic molecules that
formed served as the
building blocks for
macromolecules
RNA World Hypothesis
● RNA World Hypothesis: proposes that RNA could have
been the earliest genetic material
○ Helps to explain the pre-cellular stage of life
Review
Think back to when we covered the endosymbiont theory.
What was that? How does it relate to this topic of the
origins of life?
Lab: conclusions

Ceres is located in the main Neptune is the farthest

01 04
asteroid belt planet from the Sun

Pluto is now considered a Saturn is a gas giant and

02 05
dwarf planet has several rings

The Sun is the star at the Jupiter is a gas giant and the
03 06
center of the Solar System biggest planet
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