06.

SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

(Continuation)

* The center of mass of a system of n particles distributed in space:

Let ri be the position vector of the ith particle and R be the position vector of the center
of mass, then
̂
𝒓𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝑖 ̂𝒋 + 𝑧𝑖 𝒌
and
̂
𝑹 = 𝑋 𝒊̂ + 𝑌 ̂𝒋 + 𝑍 𝒌
Also, we have
∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝒓 𝑖
𝑹=
𝑀
* Motion of center of mass:
From the above equation, we get

𝑀 𝑹 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝒓𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝒓1 + 𝑚2 𝒓2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝒓𝑛

Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. time, we get velocity of the center of mass

𝑑𝑹 𝑑𝒓1 𝑑𝒓2 𝑑𝒓𝑛

𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑀 𝑽 = 𝑚1 𝒗1 + 𝑚2 𝒗2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝒗𝑛
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. time, we get acceleration of the center of mass

𝑑𝑽 𝑑𝒗1 𝑑𝒗2 𝑑𝒗𝑛

𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑀 𝑨 = 𝑚1 𝒂1 + 𝑚2 𝒂2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝒂𝑛

From Newton’s second law, we have

𝑀 𝑨 = 𝑭1 + 𝑭2 + ⋯ + 𝑭𝑛

The force F1 on the first particle is not a single force but the vector sum of all the forces
on the first particle. Same is the case with the forces acting on the remaining particles.
According to Newton’s third law, the internal forces cancel each other and their
contribution is zero. Only the external forces contribute to the above equation.

Page 1 of 10
 𝑀 𝑨 = 𝑭𝑒𝑥𝑡

The center of mass of a system of particles moves as if all the mass of the system was
concentrated at the center of mass and all the external forces were applied at that
point.
(Draw figure 6.12, page 100)

As an example, consider a projectile in the parabolic trajectory exploding into fragments

midway in air as depicted in the above figure. The forces leading to the explosion are
internal forces and do not contribute to the motion of the center of mass. The total
external force namely, force of gravity is the same before and after the explosion and
under its influence, center of mass of the fragments continues along the same parabolic
trajectory.

* Linear momentum of a system of particles:

𝑷 = 𝑚1 𝒗1 + 𝑚2 𝒗2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝒗𝑛

𝑷= 𝑀𝑽

Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. time, we get

𝑑𝑷 𝑑𝑽
=𝑀 =𝑀𝑨
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑷
= 𝑭𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡
The above equation is Newton’s second law for a system of particles.

If the sum of external forces acting on a system of particles is zero, then

𝑑𝑷
= 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑷 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
The above question is the law of conservation of linear momentum for a system of
particles.

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* Vector product of two vectors:
A vector product of two vectors a and b is a vector c such that magnitude of c = ab sinθ.
The vector c is perpendicular to the plane containing a and b.

The direction of vector c is given by right hand thumb rule.

According to this rule, if the fingers are curled from the vector a to the vector b then
the stretched thumb points in the direction of c.

It should be remembered that smaller angle between a and b should be considered

while curling the fingers.

The vector product also referred as cross product between a and b is written as a x b
and read as a cross b.

* Properties of vector product:

1. Vector product is not commutative. i.e. a x b ≠ b x a. But a x b = – (b x a).

2. Reflection property:
The reflection of the vector a is – a. So a x b → (– a) x (– b) = a x b.

3. Vector products are distributive with respect to vector addition.

a x (b + c) = a x b + a x c.

4. a x a = a2 sin00 = 0 is a null vector.

̂𝒙𝒌
𝒊̂ 𝒙 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂ 𝒙 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂=𝟎

̂,
𝒊̂ 𝒙 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂ = 𝒊̂ ,
𝒋̂ 𝒙 𝒌 ̂ 𝒙 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂
𝒌

̂,
𝒋̂ 𝒙 𝒊̂ = − 𝒌 ̂ 𝒙 𝒋̂ = − 𝒊̂,
𝒌 ̂ = − 𝒋̂
𝒊̂ 𝒙 𝒌

* The cross product of two vectors a and b can also be expressed as determinant. Let
̂
𝒂 = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊̂ + 𝑎𝑦 ̂𝒋 + 𝑎𝑧 𝒌
and
̂
𝒃 = 𝑏𝑥 𝒊̂ + 𝑏𝑦 ̂𝒋 + 𝑏𝑧 𝒌

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
𝒂 x 𝒃 = |𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 |
𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧

a x b = (ay bz – az by) i – (ax bz – az bx) j + (ax by – ay bx) k

Page 3 of 10
* Angular displacement (θ) is defined as the angle in radians through which a point or line
has been rotated in a specified sense about a specified axis.
Formula:
𝑠
𝜃=
𝑟
where r is the radius and s is the arc length on the circle.
SI Unit: radians (rad)
Dimensional formula: [ M0 L0 T0 ]

* Angular velocity (ω) is defined as the angular displacement per unit time.
Alternate definition:
Angular velocity is also defined as the time rate at which an object rotates about an axis.
Formula:
𝑑𝜃
𝝎=
𝑑𝑡

SI Unit: radians per second (rad. s – 1)

Dimensional formula: [ M0 L0 T – 1 ]
Angular velocity is a vector quantity.
The direction of angular velocity is perpendicular to the plane of the rotation.

* The relation between linear velocity (v) and angular velocity (ω) is v = ω x r.

(Draw figure 6.17(b), page 104)

Derivation:
In the above figure, consider a particle rotating in a circle of radius r. Let the time for
one rotation of the particle be ‘t’.
Angular velocity of the particle for one rotation on the circle is given by
2𝜋
𝝎=
𝑡
The linear velocity (tangential velocity) of the particle is given by
2𝜋𝒓
𝒗=
𝑡

2𝜋
𝒗= 𝑟= 𝜔𝑥𝑟
𝑡
* Angular acceleration (α) is defined as the time rate of change of angular velocity.
Formula:
𝑑𝜔
𝜶=
𝑑𝑡
SI Unit: radians per second squared (rad. s – 2)
Dimensional formula: [ M0 L0 T – 2 ]. Angular acceleration is a vector quantity.

Page 4 of 10
* Moment of force (Torque) is defined as the cross product of position vector (r) and force
vector (F).

Formula: τ=rxF
The magnitude of torque is given by τ = r F Sinθ
where r is the perpendicular distance between the point of application of force
and the axis of rotation. F is the force and θ is the angle between F and r.

SI Unit: newton meter (N m)

Note that even though newton-meter is equivalent to joule, joule is not taken as the
unit of torque.
Dimensional formula: [M1 L2 T – 2]. Torque is a vector quantity.

* Angular momentum (L) of a particle is defined as the cross product of position vector (r)
and momentum vector (p).

Formula: L=rxp
The magnitude of angular momentum is given by L = r p Sinθ

SI Unit: kg m2 s – 1
Dimensional formula: [M1 L2 T – 1]. Angular momentum is a vector quantity.

* Relation between angular momentum (L) and torque (τ):

We know that,
𝑳=𝒓x𝒑

Differentiating the above equation on both sides with respect to time, we get

𝑑𝑳 𝑑
= (𝒓 x 𝒑)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑳 𝑑𝒓 𝑑𝒑
= x𝒑+𝒓x
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑳
= 𝒗 x 𝑚𝒗 + 𝒓 x 𝑭
𝑑𝑡
Since v x v = 0, we get
𝑑𝑳
= 𝝉
𝑑𝑡

Thus, the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a particle is equal to the torque
acting on it.

Page 5 of 10
* Angular momentum and torque for a system of particles:

𝑳 = ∑ 𝒓𝑖 x 𝒑𝒊

𝝉𝒆𝒙𝒕 = ∑ 𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕
𝒊
We can write,
𝑑𝑳
= 𝝉𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡

The time rate of the total angular momentum of a system of particles about a point is equal
to the sum of the external torques acting on the system taken about the same point.

𝑑𝑳
If τext = 0, then the above equation reduces to = 0 or L = constant.
𝑑𝑡

Thus, if the total external torque on a system of particles is zero then the total angular
momentum of the system is conserved which proves law of conservation of angular momentum.

# Equilibrium of a rigid body:

A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if both its linear momentum and angular
momentum do not change with time or equivalently the body has neither linear acceleration
nor angular acceleration. This means,

(i) The total force on the rigid body is zero.

𝑛

∑ 𝑭𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1
The above equation gives the condition for the translational equilibrium of the body.

(ii) The total torque on the rigid body is zero.

𝑛

∑ 𝝉𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1
The above equation gives the condition for the rotational equilibrium of the body.

* Consider a light rod at the two ends of which two parallel forces both equal in magnitude are
applied perpendicular to the rod as shown. The net moment on the rod will be zero. The
system will be in rotational equilibrium but it will not be in translational equilibrium.

(Draw figure 6.20(a&b), page 110)

Now, the force at one end is reversed. Thus we have the same rod with two equal and
opposite forces applied perpendicular to the rod at each end of the rod. The total force on
the body is zero and the body is in translational equilibrium but it is not in rotational
equilibrium. Although the rod is not fixed in any way, it undergoes pure rotation.
A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as a couple or torque.
A couple produces rotation without translation.
Example: When we open the lid of a bottle by turning it, our fingers apply a couple to the lid.

Page 6 of 10
* Principle of moments states that
the sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moments.
d1 x F1 = d2 x F2
or
Load arm x Load = Effort arm x Effort

(Draw figure 6.23, page 111)

Mechanical Advantage (M.A.) is the ratio of Load to Effort or the ratio of Effort arm to
Load arm.
𝐹1 𝑑2
𝑀. 𝐴. = =
𝐹2 𝑑1

* Center of gravity of a body is the point at which the total gravitational torque is zero.

𝜏𝑔 = ∑ 𝑟𝑖 x 𝑚𝑖 𝑔 = 0

The center of gravity of the body coincides with the center of mass in uniform gravity or gravity
free space for a small body.
If the body is so extended that g varies from point to point on the body, the center of gravity
does not coincide with center of mass. Center of mass does not depend on gravity. It
depends only on the distribution of mass of the body.

* Moment of Inertia:
The moment of inertia (I) of a rigid body about an axis is defined as the sum of the products
of the masses of different particles, supposed to be constituting the body, and the square of
their respective perpendicular distances from the axis of rotation.

𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2

The moment of inertia of point mass about a known axis is defined by I = mr2.
The SI unit of moment of inertia is kgm2. Moment of inertia is a scalar quantity.
Moment of inertia is independent of the magnitude of the angular velocity.
It is a characteristic of the rigid body and the axis about which it rotates.
Moment of inertia is the rotational analogue of inertia (or mass).

* The total kinetic energy of a body is given by the sum of the kinetic energies of
individual particles.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 2
1 2 2
1
𝐾 = ∑ 𝑘𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝜔 = (∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 ) 𝜔2
2 2 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

1
or 𝐾= 𝐼 𝜔2
2
The above equation is analogue to the kinetic energy in translational motion, K = ½ mv2.

Page 7 of 10
* Application of moment of inertia:
The machines, such as steam engine and the automobile engine etc., that produce rotational
motion have a disc with a large moment of inertia called a flywheel. Because of its large
moment of inertia, the flywheel resists the sudden increase or decrease of the speed of the
vehicle. It allows a gradual change in the speed and prevents jerky motions thereby ensuring
a smooth ride for the passengers of the vehicle.

* Calculating moment of inertia for a light rod with pair of masses at its ends:

(Draw figure 6.28, page 115)

Consider a rigid massless rod of length l with a pair of small masses rotating about an axis through
the center of mass perpendicular to the rod. Each mass M/2 is at a distance l/2 from the axis.
The moment of inertia of the masses is therefore given by
𝑀 𝑙 2 𝑀 𝑙 2
𝐼 = ( )( ) + ( )( )
2 2 2 2
or
𝑀𝑙 2
𝐼=
4
* Radius of gyration (K):
Radius of gyration of a rigid body about an axis of rotation is the distance between the axis of
rotation and the center of mass of the body. The SI unit of radius of gyration is meter.
𝐼
𝐾= √
𝑀

* Moment of inertia of a body depends on

(i) the mass of the body
(ii) the position of the axis of rotation
(iii) the distribution of mass of the body about the axis

Eg#1: When we consider a heavy body and a light body of same size and shape rotating about the
same axis of rotation, the heavy body will have greater moment of inertia as its mass is more.

Eg#2: When a hollow body and a solid body of same mass and shape are rotated about the same
axis, the hollow body will have greater moment of inertia as the particles of the hollow body
are at greater distance from the axis of rotation.

Eg#3: If we compare the moments of inertia of a person rotating about an axis passing through
the center of mass with folded hands and stretched hands, the moment of inertia with stretched
hands is greater because the distance of the particles of hands are at greater distance when
hands are stretched.

Note: Learn table 6.1 (page 116) from the textbook

Page 8 of 10
* Kinematics of rotational motion:

1. ω = ω0 + αt similar to v = u + at
2. θ = ω0t + ½ αt2 similar to s = ut + ½ at2
3. ω2 = ω02 + 2αθ similar to v2 = u2 + 2as
4. θn = ω0 + α(n – ½ ) similar to Sn = u + a(n – ½ )

* Comparison of translational and rotational motion:

* Derivation of dW = τdθ (work done by a torque):

(Draw Figure 6.30, page 118)

The above figure shows a cross section of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis which is taken
as the z – axis. Let F be a force acting on a particle of the body at point P with line of action in a
plane perpendicular to the axis.

The displacement of the particle is ds and has magnitude ds = rdθ and its direction it along the
tangent at P.

The work done by the force on the particle is

dW = F.ds = F ds cosΦ = F (rdθ) cos(90 – α)
= r F sinα dθ
= τdθ
Therefore, dW = τdθ

Page 9 of 10
* Derivation of Power, P = τω:

Differentiating dW = τdθ w.r.t. time, we get

𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝜃
= 𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Therefore, P = τω

* Derivation of τ = Iα:

The rate of increase of kinetic energy

𝑑 𝐼𝜔2
= ( )
𝑑𝑡 2

𝐼 𝑑𝜔
= (2𝜔)
2 𝑑𝑡

= 𝐼𝜔𝛼

The rate of increase of kinetic energy is same as power. Therefore,

𝜏𝜔=𝐼𝜔𝛼

or τ=Iα

* Derivation of L = I ω:
From the angular momentum, we have
L =rxp
=rxmxv
= r x m (r x ω)
= m r2 ω
L =Iω

* Examples on conservation of angular momentum:

According to this principle, if the external torque is zero then L is constant, i.e. Iω is constant.

1 The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as
she brings her arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of mass of
her body closer to the axis she decreases her body's moment of inertia. Because angular
momentum is constant in the absence of external torques, the angular velocity (rotational
speed) of the skater has to increase.

2 After jumping from the diving board, the diver brings the hands and legs close to the body
thereby decreases the moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is constant in the
absence of external torques, the angular velocity of the diver increases and makes more
rotation in the air.

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