Preparation for

Construction

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &

BUILDING
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Excavation & Earthworking
Slope Protection and

CONSTRUCTION
Retaining Structures
Pavements

l
PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

1.5 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
The major parts of a building are:
Equipment 1. Superstructure – the portion of the
Major Parts of a Building 1.5
Foundation Bed building above the ground.
SUPERSTRUCTURE
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
2. Substructure – the habitable
Excavation & Earthworking portion of the building found below
Site Drainage the ground.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures 3. Foundation – the structural portion
Pavements
of the building that transfer the STRUCTURE

buildings load into the soil. FOUNDATION

The three types of substructures are:

1. Slab on Fill – slab which rests on

ground and not suspended.
2. Crawl Space – in a building without
BASEMENT
a basement, an unfinished
accessible space below the first CRAWL SPACE
floor which is usually less than a full
story height. SLAB ON FILL

3. Basement – the lower story of a

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building, either partly or entirely
below grade.
 Preparation for
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Laying the Batterboards 1.6 FOUNDATION BED
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment The word “foundation” is applied to:
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed 1.6
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking 1. Construction below grade, such as footing
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and courses, basement walls, etc., forming the
Retaining Structures lower section of a structure;
Pavements

2. The natural material, the particular part of the

earth’s surface on which the construction rests;

3. Special construction such as piling or piers

used to transmit the loads of the building to firm
substrata.

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 Preparation for
Construction

Staking-Out the Building Foundation bed - the natural material

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring on which the construction rests
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building Foundation walls - that part of the CONCRETE

Foundation Bed 1.6 building foundation which forms the FOUNDATION WALLS
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
permanent retaining wall of the
Excavation & Earthworking structure below grade.
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and CONCRETE MASONRY
Retaining Structures Foundation piers/columns – FOUNDATION WALLS
Pavements piers/columns below grade, to
distinguish them from similar
construction above grade

Grade Beam - that part of a

foundation system which supports the
exterior wall of the superstructure and
bears directly on the column footing.

Footing courses - lower portions of

walls, piers or columns which are
spread to provide a safe base FOOTING

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FOUNDATION WALL
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
1.6.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATION BEDS
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring Foundation beds may be classified as follows:
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed 1.6
Site Investigation 1. Rock (solid rock, bedrock or ledge). Undisturbed rock masses forming an
Soil mechanics undisturbed part of the original rock-formation. Some examples of harder rocks
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage are granite, slate, sandstone, and limestone which are all capable of carrying
Slope Protection and the load of any ordinary structure. Examples of softer rocks are shale, shaley
Retaining Structures slates and certain marley limestone and clay stones.
Pavements

2. Decayed rock (rotten rock). Sand, clays and other materials resulting from the
disintegration of rock masses, lacking the coherent qualities but occupying the
space formerly occupied by the original rock.

3. Loose rock. Rock masses detached from the ledge of which they originally
formed a part.

4. Gravel. Detached rock particles, generally water-worn, rounded and

intermediate in size between sand particles and boulders.

5. Boulders. Detached rock masses larger than gravel, generally rounded and
worn as a result of having been transported by water a considerable distance
from the ledges of which they originally formed a part.

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 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
6. Sand. Non-coherent rock particles smaller than ¼” in maximum dimension.
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building 7. Clay. A plastic material resulting from the decomposition and hydration of feldspathic
Foundation Bed 1.6 rocks, being hydrated silicate of alumina, generally mixed with powdered feldspar, quartz
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics and other materials.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage 8. Hard-pan. Any strong coherent mixture of clay or other cementing material with sand,
Slope Protection and
gravel and boulders.
Retaining Structures
Pavements
9. Silt. A finely divided earthy material deposited from running water.

10. Mud. Finely divided earthy material generally containing vegetable matter and deposited
from still or slowly moving water.

11. Mould. Earthy material containing a large proportion of humus or vegetable matter.

12. Loam. Earthy material containing a proportion of vegetable matter.

13. Peat. Compressed and partially carbonized vegetable matter.

14. Filled Ground. All artificial fills and some natural fills are liable to a more or less uniform
but continuous settlement or shrinkage due to the gradual consolidation of the material of
which the fill is composed

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 Preparation for
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Laying the Batterboards 1.6.2 ALLOWABLE LOADS ON FOUNDATION BEDS
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building Thorough investigation is required before one
Foundation Bed 1.6
Site Investigation can determine the allowable unit load on the foundation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
bed. When material and conditions are uniform over
Site Drainage the entire site of the building, a uniform unit load may
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures be used. In cases when entirely different conditions
Pavements
exist under different portions of the same building, the
unit load on the foundation bed must be reduced as
much as possible so as to reduce the differences in
settlements between the two sections of the building to
a minimum.

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 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

1.7 SITE INVESTIGATION
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & Before any design is made, the architect is required to get as much
Equipment valuable data about site excavation and building erection at the project
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed site in order to determine the character of the materials which will be
Site Investigation 1.7
Soil mechanics
encountered at the level of a foundation bed.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage 1.7.1 METHODS OF
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures EXPLORATION
Pavements
1. Test pits. For shallow work, an
open pit is the most suitable method
since it calls for an actual inspection of
the undisturbed material over a
considerable area.

2. Test borings. For excavations that

are carried no deeper than the
proposed level, the underlying material
may be investigated by test boring. Soil Boring Rig. SPT Sample.

1.7.2 LOADING TESTS

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Loading tests of the materials forming
the foundation bed are made to assist
in determining its safe bearing
capacity.
 Preparation for
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1.8 SOIL MECHANICS
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
1.8.1 CLASSES OF SOIL
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building There are two broad classes of soil:
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics 1.8
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage A. Course-grained soil – consist
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures of relatively large particles,
Pavements visible to the naked eyes.

B. Fine-grained soil –
consist of much smaller
particles, such as silt and clay.

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 Preparation for
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Laying the Batterboards 1.8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL
Formwork & Shoring
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION PRESUMPTIVE PERMEABILITY
Construction Tools &
BEARING AND
Equipment CAPACITY DRAINAGE
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed psf kPa
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics 1.8 Gravels Clean Gravels GW Well-graded gravel 10000 479 Excellent
Excavation & Earthworking 6.4 – 76.2mm
Site Drainage GP Poorly graded gravel 10000 479 Excellent
Slope Protection and Gravels with GM Silty Gravel 5000 239 Poor
Retaining Structures fines
Pavements GC Clayey Gravel 4000 192 Poor

Sands Clean SW Well-graded sand 7500 359 Excellent

0.05 – 6.4mm Sands
SP Poorly graded sand 6000 287 Excellent

Sands with SM Silty Sand 4000 192 Fair

fines
SC Clayey Sand 4000 192 Poor

Silts LL>50§ ML Inorganic Silt 2000 96 Poor

0.002-0.05mm
CL Inorganic Clay 2000 96 Impervious

Clays LL<50§ OL Organic Very poor Impervious

<0.002mm Silt-Clay

MH Elastic inorganic silt 2000 96 Poor

CH Plastic inorganic clay 2000 96 Impervious

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OH Organic clay & silt Very poor Impervious

Pt Peat unsuitable Poor

 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
1.8.3 STABILITY AND STRENGTH OF SOIL BED
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards is defined by the following criteria:
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment A. Allowable Bearing Capacity – maximum unit pressure a
Major Parts of a Building foundation is permitted to impose vertically or laterally on the soil
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation mass.
Soil mechanics 1.8
Excavation & Earthworking
B. Density – the critical factoring determining the bearing capacity of
Site Drainage granular soils.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
SPT - Standard Penetration Test
Pavements - measures the density of granular soils and the consistency of
some clays
- records the number of blows required by a hammer to advance a
standard soil sampler.
MDD - Maximum Dry Density
- Dry density is the density of soil, or the like, after it has been
heated at a temperature of 221 deg F (105 deg C) to a dry
condition.
C. Shearing Strength – measure of the ability to resist displacement
when an external force is applied, due largely to the combined effects
of cohesion and internal friction.
D. Water Table – level beneath which the soil is saturated with

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groundwater.
 Preparation for
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1.9 EXCAVATION AND EARTHWORKING
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring These processes entail the following:
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building 1. Excavating is the process of digging
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
the earth to provide a place for the
Soil mechanics foundation of the building.
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and 2. Leveling and Grading are processes
Retaining Structures that change land elevation and slope by
Pavements
filling in low spots and shaving off high
spots.

3. Stabilizing the Soil is the process of

compacting the soil on which the
structure will rest.

4. The protection of adjoining

structure is a law that provides that any
person making an excavation is
responsible for resulting damage to
adjoining property.

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 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & 5. Shoring is a process of
Equipment transferring a portion of the
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed load of the wall to temporary
Site Investigation footings and done when the
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9 excavation does not go much
Site Drainage below the adjoining footings
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures and when the material is fairly
Pavements solid.

It consists of the following members:

a) sheet piles, which are timber, steel, or pre-cast planks driven side by side to retain earth and
prevent water from seeping into the exaction and
b) wales or continuous horizontal beams which tie the sheet piles in place or
c) soldier piles, which are steel H-sections driven vertically into the ground to support
d) lagging or heavy timber planks joined together horizontally to retain the face of an excavation.
e) crossbracing or rakers are diagonals which support the wales and soldier piles bearing on
heel blocks or footings.
f) tiebacks secured to rock or soil anchors are resorted to when crossbracing or rakers would

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interfere with the excavation procedure.
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring SHEET PILING SOLDIER PILES/BEAMS
Construction Tools &
Equipment (STEEL H-SECTIONS)
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
LAGGING refers to the heavy
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics timber planks joined together
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9 side by side to retain the face of
Site Drainage an excavation
Slope Protection and
STEEL
Retaining Structures
Pavements TIMBER
PRECAST

SHEET PILING AND SOLDIER

TIEBACKS BEAMS WITH LAGGING

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 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building 6. Needling and underpinning

Laying the Batterboards is a process where needles or
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & girders are used in cases where
Equipment part or all of the weight of the wall
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed has to be carried, as when the
Site Investigation old footing is removed and the
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9
wall underpinned or carried down
Site Drainage to a new footing at a greater
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
depth.
Pavements

NEEDLING NEEDLE; a short beam passed

through a wall as a temporary
support while the foundation or
part beneath is repaired, altered
or strengthened

DEAD SHORE; an upright timber

for supporting a dead load during
the structural alteration of a

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building, esp. one of two supports
for a needle
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment
7. Dewatering refers to the process of lowering a water table
Major Parts of a Building or preventing an excavation from filling with groundwater. It is
Foundation Bed accomplished by driving perforated tubes called wellpoints
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics into the ground to collect water from the surrounding area so
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9 it can be pumped away.
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements
DEWATERING
EXISTING
WATER TABLE

WATER TABLE
AFTER PUMPING

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 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building 1.10 SITE DRAINAGE

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & - necessary to prevent erosion and collection of excess surface
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
water or groundwater resulting from new construction.
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation Surface Water –
Soil mechanics Groundwater –
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage 1.10 1. Rainfall which runs over the surface of the Water, near the surface of the
Slope Protection and ground.
Retaining Structures
ground , which passes through the
2. Water carried by an aggregate except that held subsoil.
Pavements
by absorption within the aggregate particles
themselves.

BASIC TYPES OF SITE DRAINAGE

A. SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE –
consists of an underground network of piping for conveying groundwater
to a point of disposal, as a storm sewer system or a natural outfall at a
lower elevation on the site. Excess groundwater can reduce the load-
carrying capacity of a foundation soil and increase the hydrostatic
pressure on a building foundation. Waterproofing is required for basement

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structures situated close to or below the water table of a site.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0 Components of the sub-surface drainage system are:
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards Catch Basins
Formwork & Shoring receptacles for the runoff of SWALES
Construction Tools &
Equipment
surface water. They have a basin
Major Parts of a Building or sump that retains heavy
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
sediment before it can pass into
Soil mechanics an underground drainpipe. AREA DRAIN
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage 1.10
Slope Protection and Culverts
Retaining Structures are drains or channels passing under
Pavements
a road or walkway.
CATCH BASINS

Foundation drainage tile or pipe

Tile or piping for the collection of sub- CULVERTS
surface water, dispersion of septic
tank effluent, and the like.

Drainage tile
is a hollow tile, usually laid end to end
as piping (with open joints) in soil in
order to drain water saturated soil, or
CATCHMENTS
used to permit fluid in the hollow-tile
pipe to disperse into the ground (as in

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an absorption field).
 Preparation for
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Laying the Batterboards B.SURFACE DRAINAGE
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & refers to the grading and surfacing of a site in order to divert rain and
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
other surface water into natural drainage patterns or a municipal
Foundation Bed storm sewer system. Grass and lawn areas are sloped 1.5% to 10%;
Site Investigation while paved parking areas, 2% to 3%. A holding pond may be
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking necessary when the amount of surface runoff exceeds the capacity
Site Drainage 1.10 of the storm sewer system.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements
Components of the surface drainage system are:

Swales
shallow depressions formed by the
intersection of two ground slopes,
designed to direct or divert the runoff
of surface water. Grass swales slope
1.5% to 2%; while paved swales, 4%
to 6%.
SWALES

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 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards Area Drain
Formwork & Shoring receptacle designed to collect
Construction Tools & Absorption Field or Disposal
Equipment surface water or rainwater from an
Major Parts of a Building
Field
open area.
Foundation Bed a system of trenches containing
Site Investigation coarse aggregate and
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking distribution pipes through which
Site Drainage 1.10 Dry Wells septic-tank effluent may seep
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures are drainage pits lined into the surrounding soil.
Pavements with gravel or rubble to
receive surface water Absorption Trench
and allow it to percolate a trench containing coarse
away to absorbent aggregate and a distribution tile
earth underground. pipe through which septic-tank
Also called an effluent may flow, covered with
absorbing well. earth.
DRY WELL

Ponds and Marshes

designed catchments areas for

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surface water.
ABSORPTION TRENCH
 Preparation for
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1.11 SLOPE PROTECTION AND RETAINING
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
STRUCTURES
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building 1. The need for stabilizing a sloping
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation ground can be reduced by
Soil mechanics diverting the runoff at the top of
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage the slope or by creating a series
Slope Protection and of terraces to reduce the velocity
Retaining Structures
1.11
Pavements of the runoff.

2. Natural means of stabilization

include soil binders --- plant
materials that inhibit or prevent
erosion by providing a ground
cover and forming a dense
network of roots that bind the soil.

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 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
3. Riprap is a layer of irregularly broken
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards and random-sized stones placed on the
Formwork & Shoring slope of an embankment. RIPRAP
Construction Tools &
Equipment Depth of layer should be greater
Major Parts of a Building than the maximum size of stone
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics FILTER FABRIC or GRADED
Excavation & Earthworking SAND and GRAVEL for drainage
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
1.11
Pavements

4. Cribbing is a cellular framework of squared steel,

concrete, or timber members, assembled in layers at
right angles, and filled with earth or stones.

5. A Bin Wall is a type of gravity retaining wall

formed by stacking modular, interlocking pre-
cast concrete units and filling the voids with
crushed stone or gravel.

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 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building 6. Gabions are galvanized or PVC coated wire

Laying the Batterboards baskets filled with stones and stacked to form
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & an abutment or retaining structure.
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building GABIONS
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics Filter fabric or graded
Excavation & Earthworking sand and gravel for
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and drainage
Retaining Structures
1.11
Pavements

7. Retaining Structures. When a desired change in

ground elevation exceeds the angle of repose of the
soil, a retaining wall becomes necessary to hold the
mass of earth on the uphill side of the grade change.
The types of RC retaining walls are as follows:
10” (255)

a) Gravity Retaining Wall - resists

overturning and sliding by the
sheer weight and volume of its
mass.

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 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
b) T-type Cantilevered Retaining Wall – limited to a height of
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards 20’ (6 M); beyond this height a counterfort wall is employed.
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
8” (205)
Equipment Batter refers to backward
Major Parts of a Building sloping face of a wall as it
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
rises to offset illusion of face
Soil mechanics leaning forward
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage Temperature steel for walls
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
1.11 more than 10” (255) thick
Pavements
Drainage mat w/ filter fabric
0.6H or porous gravel backfill
(0.9H w/ surcharge)
2” (51 mm) o weepholes @
4’-6’ (1220-1830mm) o.c. or
perforated drainpipe sloped
to outlet away from wall
2” (51) min
3” (75) min
Structural Steel
reinforcement

Footing should extend

below the frostline or

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2’ (610mm) below the
grade level,
whichever is higher
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building c) Counterfort Retaining Wall– utilizes

Laying the Batterboards triangular-shaped cross walls to stiffen the
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & vertical slab and add weight to the base. The
Equipment counterforts are spaced at equal intervals
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed equal to one-half the wall height.
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
1.11
Pavements

d) L-type Cantilevered Retaining Wall – used

when the wall abuts a property line or other
obstruction.

0.7H
(1.25 w/ surcharge)
0.6H
(1.0 w/ surcharge)

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 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 1.12 PAVEMENTS
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment Paving provides a wearing surface for pedestrian or vehicular traffic in the
Major Parts of a Building landscape. It is a composite structure whose thickness and construction
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation are directly related to:
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage • type and intensity of traffic and loads to be carried
Slope Protection and • bearing capacity and permeability of the subgrade
Retaining Structures
Pavements 1.12

1.12.1 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

1. Flexible Pavements – consists of

unit pavers of concrete, brick, or
stone laid on a sand setting bed,
are somewhat resilient and
distribute loads to the subgrade in
a radiating manner. Requires wood,
steel, stone, masonry, or concrete
edging to restrain horizontal
movement.

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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 2. Rigid Pavements – are
Formwork & Shoring reinforced concrete slabs or
Construction Tools &
Equipment paving units mortared over a
Major Parts of a Building concrete slab, distribute the
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
loads internally and transfer
Soil mechanics them to subgrade over a broad
Excavation & Earthworking area. Requires reinforcement
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and and an extension of the base
Retaining Structures material along their edges.
Pavements 1.12 RIGID PAVEMENTS

1.12.2 TYPES OF PAVERS

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 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring 1.12.3 PAVING PATTERNS
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements 1.12

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 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 1.12.4 PAVING DETAILS
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements 1.12

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 Preparation for
Construction

BUILDING
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards
CONSTRUCTION
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
1 Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Excavation & Earthworking
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

END