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PM 103
PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

MODULE 9– WASTE MANAGEMENT

In this module, where we'll explore how to handle waste in production and operations
management. Just like watching workers on a factory floor to see how they can work better, waste
management in production and operations is about finding ways to use resources wisely and
reduce waste.

Throughout this module, we'll focus on:

 Understanding different types of waste in production and operations, such as things we

don't need anymore, extra materials, and leftover scraps.
 Learning how to identify waste and stop it from building up.
 Discovering strategies to make our processes more efficient and save time and money.

Remember, waste management in production and operations management is all about finding
simple solutions to improve efficiency and productivity.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Waste management in the context of Production and Operations Management refers to the
systematic control, reduction, and disposal of various types of waste generated throughout the
production process. This includes identifying, categorizing, and implementing strategies to
minimize waste, whether it's in the form of raw materials, energy, time, or other resources, while
also ensuring environmentally responsible disposal of any unavoidable waste.

Here's a breakdown of what waste management in Production and Operations Management:

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1. Identification of Waste: The first step in waste management is identifying the different types of
waste generated in the production process. This includes not only physical waste materials but also
wasted time, energy, and resources due to inefficiencies in operations.

2. Categorization of Waste: Once identified, waste is categorized into various types such as
defective products, excess inventory, overproduction, waiting time, transportation waste, and
unnecessary processing steps. Categorizing waste helps in understanding its root causes and
devising appropriate strategies for reduction.

3. Waste Reduction Strategies: Production and Operations Managers implement strategies to

reduce waste at its source. This may involve process optimization, improving quality control
measures to minimize defects, implementing lean manufacturing principles to eliminate
unnecessary steps, and adopting just-in-time inventory management to reduce excess inventory.

4. Recycling and Reuse: Waste management also involves exploring opportunities for recycling
and reusing materials to minimize environmental impact. This may include recycling scrap
materials, reusing packaging materials, and repurposing waste products into new materials or
products.

5. Proper Disposal: For waste that cannot be avoided, recycled, or reused, proper disposal is
essential to minimize environmental harm. Production and Operations Managers ensure
compliance with environmental regulations and implement safe disposal methods, such as
landfilling, incineration, or treatment processes, while minimizing negative environmental
impacts.

6. Continuous Improvement: Waste management is an ongoing process that requires continuous

monitoring, measurement, and improvement. Production and Operations Managers regularly
analyze production processes, identify areas of waste, and implement measures to continuously
optimize operations and reduce waste generation.

Industrial waste and scrap consists of spoiled raw materials, rejected components,
defective parts, waste from production departments, etc. involves some commercial values. They
should be disposed of periodically and proper credit of the amount should be taken in the books
of accounts. Hence, waste management plays an important role in managing operations. Wastes
can be categorized into obsolete, surplus, and scrap items.
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1. Obsolete items: These are those materials and equipment that are not damaged and
which have economic worth but which are no longer useful for the Company’s operation owing
to many reasons such as changes in the product line, process, materials, and so on.

A technology company decides to upgrade its computer systems to the latest models with
improved features and performance. As a result, the company's existing inventory of computers,
which are still in working condition but no longer meet the performance requirements for the
company's operations, becomes obsolete. These computers may have economic worth if sold, but
they are no longer useful for the company's current operations due to technological
advancements.

2. Surplus items: These are those materials and equipment that have no immediate use
but have accumulated due to faulty planning, forecasting, and purchasing. However, they have a
usage value in the future.

A manufacturing company overestimates the demand for a certain product line and ends
up producing more units than needed to meet customer demand. As a result, excess inventory
accumulates in the warehouse, consisting of finished goods that have no immediate use. These
surplus items were produced due to faulty planning or forecasting, resulting in excess inventory
that ties up resources and storage space until they can be sold or repurposed.

3. Scrap: It is defined as process wastage, such as turnings, borings, sprues, and flashes.
They may have an end-use within the plant having commercial values. Hence, should be
disposed of periodically.

A metal fabrication company produces various metal components using machining

processes such as turning and boring. During the machining process, excess metal material, such
as turnings, borings, sprues, and flashes, is generated as waste. While these scraps may have
some commercial value if recycled or repurposed within the plant, they are considered waste as
they do not contribute directly to the final product and need to be disposed of periodically to
maintain a clean and safe working environment.

Overall, effective waste management in Production and Operations Management aims to

minimize waste, maximize resource efficiency, reduce environmental impact, and improve overall
operational performance and profitability.
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9.2 REASONS FOR GENERATION AND ACCUMULATION OF OBSOLETE, SURPLUS

AND SCRAP ITEMS

Following are the reasons for the generation and accumulation of obsolete, surplus and scrap items:

1. Changes in product design: This may lead to some items getting invalid as far as the final
product is concerned. Hence, the entire stock of such items as surplus obsolete.

A smartphone manufacturer decides to introduce a new model with advanced features and
a different form factor. As a result, components such as screens, casings, and connectors from the
previous model become obsolete. The company may end up with surplus inventory of these
obsolete components, leading to accumulation and potential waste.

2. Rationalization: Sometimes raw materials are renationalized so as to minimize variety and

simplify procurement. The rationalization process renders some items as surplus or obsolete.

A furniture company decides to streamline its product offerings by focusing on a few

popular designs and discontinuing less popular ones. As a result, raw materials specific to
discontinued designs, such as unique fabric patterns or specialized hardware, become surplus or
obsolete. This rationalization effort may lead to the accumulation of excess inventory of these
materials.

3. Cannibalization: When a machine breakdown occurs, sometimes it is rectified using parts of

an identical machine which is not functioning due to various reasons. This process of
‘cannibalization’ is not uncommon in many project-based industries. When continued unchecked,
this results in obsolete and scrap items.

In a manufacturing plant producing automotive parts, a critical machine breaks down. To

quickly repair the machine and minimize downtime, maintenance technicians remove parts from
a similar but non-operational machine. Over time, if this practice of cannibalization becomes
frequent and unchecked, it can result in the accumulation of obsolete parts from machines that are
no longer in use.

4. Faulty planning and forecasting: The marketing department may have projected a sales
forecast which might be on the higher side. Any material planning has to be based on sales
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forecasts and this could result in surplus items. Wrong indenting by the user departments also leads
to accumulation.

A clothing retailer overestimates the demand for a particular style of winter coat based on
overly optimistic sales forecasts. Consequently, the retailer orders excess inventory of the coat,
leading to surplus items when the actual demand falls short. This faulty forecasting and planning
result in the accumulation of obsolete stock that may need to be discounted or disposed of.

5. Faulty purchase practices: Sub-optimizing decisions like buying in bulk to take care of
discounts and transportation economy without taking into account factors such as, shelf life,
storage space requirements and technological changes once again lead to the accumulation of
surplus and obsolete stocks.

A manufacturing company decides to take advantage of bulk discounts by purchasing a

large quantity of raw materials without considering factors such as shelf life or technological
advancements. As a result, the company ends up with surplus inventory of materials that become
obsolete before they can be used in production. This sub-optimization in purchasing practices leads
to the accumulation of obsolete stock.

6. Other causes: Many items are held as insurable spares for many years without any consumption.
Faulty store-keeping methods, without adequate preservation, lead to spoilage. Inferior materials
handling, improper codification and poor manufacturing methods also result in obsolete, surplus
and scrap items. Poor maintenance of machine tools may result in excessive tools wear and greater
process scrap.

An industrial equipment supplier keeps a large inventory of spare parts for machines that
are rarely serviced or repaired. Due to inadequate preservation methods or improper storage
conditions, some of these spare parts degrade or become damaged over time, rendering them
obsolete or unusable. Additionally, poor maintenance of machine tools leads to excessive wear
and tear, generating greater process scrap and contributing to the accumulation of waste materials.

In each of these scenarios, the accumulation of obsolete, surplus, and scrap items can result
from various factors such as changes in demand, operational inefficiencies, or inadequate planning
and management practices. Addressing these issues requires proactive measures such as improving
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forecasting accuracy, optimizing inventory management, and implementing effective waste

reduction strategies.

9.3 IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL OF WASTE

The combing process of combining the stock records and movement analysis has been
found very effective in locating such stocks in the total inventory. Stock issue cards should be
combed and items which have not been consumed (non-moving) for a period of one year must be
isolated. A list of such items and their value in terms of money and time must be made. Similarly,
such lists must be prepared for items which have not moved for 2 years, 3 years, 5 years and above.
Such lists can then be put up to top management for disposal action. Care must be taken to prepare
a separate list of imported spares and insurance items. Such combing and movement analysis must
be done on a continuous basis. A typical movement analysis statement is shown in Exhibit 9.1.

Whenever changes in production program, design and product lines are contemplated, a
senior executive from materials management must definitely be kept in the picture. This helps in
several ways. He is in a position to inform top management of the amount of stock of materials on
hand that are likely to be rendered obsolete if and when the changes are introduced. This could
even guide the management as to when the changes could be made so that the existing stock can
be consumed in full. The materials manager in turn can freeze further orders for such materials
and try to negotiate with the suppliers to take back the stock. For some items he can introduce the
buy-back clause wherein the suppliers takes back items not consumed within a specific period. For
new items which may be required, he can try to develop sources and place orders so that changes
can be expeditiously introduced. All this highlights that a close coordination is required in order
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to avoid stock pilling obsolete and surplus items. Selective control based on ABC analysis,
accurate forecasting techniques and proper preservation minimize such accumulation. In the case
of storage of perishable items the Central Warehousing Corporation has devised a scheme to
enlarge its scope to cover certain specialized lines of storage. The schemes drawn up by the
corporation include setting up a chain of cold storage plants for potatoes, and fruit, and storage
facilities for certified seeds.

Many organizations have introduced formal documentation in introducing changes in

design or product. It is called the ‘Effective Point Advice.’ This is popularly known as EPA. Here,
the proposed changes, details of new materials and products required, details of materials and the
products which will be invalid/obsolete when the change occurs and the approximate date when
the change is expected to be introduced are detailed and circulated to concerned departments. EPA
thereby helps in tapering off the stocks of ‘invalid’ items, cancellation of orders for such items,
placing orders for buying and/or manufacturing new items and related activities. EPA systems help
in better coordination for profitable introduction of changes with minimum ‘side effects’ such as
the accumulation of obsolete items.

The reclamation of scrap has not attracted the attention of the top management in Indian
Industry. Optimal utilization of scrap would allow conservation of the use of scarce natural
resources, such as iron ore. This is because scrap is an important element which goes into the
manufacture of steel and castings.

It is possible to salvage scrap for usage within the firm in some cases. Press parts are
normally made from sheets and plates. The off-cuts generated during such process can be
profitably utilized in making smaller press components such as washers. Rationalizing the supply
size, changes in process such as reversing the dies may result in minimization of scrap. Big
organizations have a full-fledged scrap salvaging department. These departments segregate the
scrap into categories, like turnings, borings, plate cuttings, endpieces of billets, punching etc. Color
coding the scrap is also done to avoid the mixing of different categories of scrap. It is also
advantageous to the end-users in each category and supply of scrap at the appropriate time for
production. Often informing the production department at the right time about the volume of scrap
generated enables prevention of excessive scrap through timely changes in production methods,
tooling and materials.
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9.4 DISPOSAL OF SCRAP

Disposal of scrap when handled in an imaginative manner can result in handsome returns
to the organization. An effective disposal requires a compact disposal organization reporting to the
materials manager, continuous market survey on the prices of various categories of scrap generated
in the plant and constant touch with the industries which generate similar scrap and with the end-
users. Disposal action follows when the scrap cannot be utilized within the organization. In
practice, it has been found that it is profitable to dispose the scrap directly to end-users rather than
to middlemen who normally form a cartel of their own which leads to lower returns. Before
disposal action it is essential that the scrap is segregated according to metal, size, etc. when the
scrap is mixed, the return is even lower than the lowest element in the mixture. This is because the
buyer of scrap will have to segregate it at an extra cost. A cursory analysis of scrap prices will
reveal that sheet and plate cuttings will fetch fewer amounts per a ton compared to that of turnings
and borings. Also when costly scrap such as copper, aluminum and tungsten are involved, it is
imperative that they are segregated as returns are huge and price levels are different. Since scrap
is generated process-wise, it comes out in a segregated condition and there should be no difficulty
in sorting.

Auction and Tender methods are frequently used for disposal of scrap. Parties in both the
cases are normally required to inspect the scrap in the scrap yard and deposit earnest money. Very
often the company insists on a basic price depending upon the category of scrap. The disposal
section works, in this aspect, in close coordination with the finance department. In many cases the
disposal section may try to enter into a long-term contact with end-users such as steel plants.

Many companies have found to their displeasure scrapped components appearing in the
market and competing with their parts as ‘original equipment’. This is the price which
organizations pay for not dismantling and disfiguring the scrap before disposal. Automobile spare
parts and bearings especially are prone to such dangers. For this purpose some organizations go to
the extent of requesting vehicle users to demolish filters and plugs before scrapping them. This is
very important aspect.

In view of the paucity of raw materials and shortage of credit, it is necessary that optimum
usage of materials is made and funds tied up in obsolete surplus and scrap items minimized. This
is only possible when top management shows commitment and support. The employees of the
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organizations are naturally the best people to suggest improvements in materials, processes and
new end users for scrap. It is they who can minimize the accumulation of scrap through
coordination. Therefore, top management should work out formal reward systems to promote
employee participation in this matter. A few organizations have suggestion box schemes which
pay rich dividends to the organization. Employees, too get rewards and recognition in the process.

Let's consider an example of an Instrumentation and Control Technology company and

how they manage the disposal of scrap in an environmentally friendly and profitable manner.

Example Scenario: Instrumentation and Control Technology Company

 Dedicated Disposal Team: The Instrumentation and Control Technology company

maintains a dedicated disposal team responsible for managing the disposal of scrap
generated during manufacturing processes. This team reports to the materials manager or
the operations manager.
 Market Analysis: The company conducts regular market analysis to stay updated on the
prices of various types of scrap materials, including electronic components, metal casings,
and wiring. This helps them make informed decisions about when and how to dispose of
scrap to maximize returns.
 Direct Disposal to End-users: Instead of selling scrap to middlemen or scrap dealers, the
company prefers to dispose of scrap directly to end-users, such as recycling facilities or
electronics manufacturers. By doing so, they can negotiate better prices and ensure that the
scrap is properly recycled or reused.
 Segregation of Scrap: Before disposal, the company segregates scrap materials based on
their composition and recyclability. For example, electronic components containing
valuable metals like gold, silver, and copper are separated from non-metallic materials for
specialized recycling processes.
 Auction and Tender Methods: The company occasionally uses auction or tender methods
to sell large quantities of scrap materials. Interested buyers are invited to inspect the scrap
materials and submit bids, ensuring transparency and fair pricing.
 Preventing Resale of Scrapped Components: To prevent scrapped components from re-
entering the market as counterfeit or refurbished products, the company takes measures to
destroy or render unusable any electronic components or control devices before disposal.
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This may include physically damaging circuit boards or removing identifying labels and
markings.

By implementing these practices, the Instrumentation and Control Technology company

not only maximizes returns on scrap disposal but also minimizes environmental impact by
promoting recycling and responsible waste management. This approach aligns with the company's
commitment to sustainability and ethical business practices, contributing to both financial success
and environmental stewardship in the industry.

Advantages and disadvantages of waste management in industrial settings

Advantages:

1. Cost savings

Proper waste management can lead to cost savings by identifying and reducing surplus and
obsolete items, minimizing scrap generation, and optimizing the utilization of resources.

2. Efficiency improvement

Effective waste management practices streamline operations by reducing clutter, improving

inventory turnover rates, and enhancing overall productivity.

3. Environmental benefits

Proper disposal and recycling of waste materials contribute to environmental sustainability by

minimizing pollution, conserving natural resources, and reducing carbon footprint.

4. Compliance with regulations

Adhering to waste management regulations ensures legal compliance and avoids potential fines or
penalties for improper disposal practices.

5. Enhanced reputation

Companies that demonstrate responsible waste management practices enhance their reputation
among customers, investors, and regulatory authorities, leading to improved stakeholder trust and
goodwill.
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Disadvantages:

1. Initial investment

Implementing comprehensive waste management systems may require significant initial

investment in infrastructure, technology, and employee training, which can pose financial
challenges for some organizations.

2. Complexity

Managing various types of waste streams, such as obsolete items, surplus materials, and scrap, can
be complex and time-consuming, requiring specialized expertise and resources.

3. Resistance to change

Resistance from employees or stakeholders accustomed to traditional practices can hinder the
adoption of new waste management strategies, delaying the realization of benefits.

4. Disruption to operations

Transitioning to new waste management processes may cause temporary disruptions to production
schedules, inventory management, and supply chain operations.

5. Limited market for recycled materials

The market demand and price fluctuations for recycled materials may impact the economic
viability of recycling initiatives, affecting the potential returns on investment in waste
management.

Effective waste management offers numerous advantages in terms of cost savings,

efficiency improvements, and environmental benefits, organizations must carefully consider and
address potential challenges and barriers to implementation.
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To sum it up, let's focus on the objectives of this module.

1. Understanding different types of waste in production and operations:

This objective involves gaining a comprehensive understanding of the various types of waste
that can occur in production and operations processes. These types of waste can include:

 Defective products or materials that are no longer usable due to manufacturing errors or
quality issues.
 Excess inventory or materials that are not needed for current production requirements.
 Leftover scraps or by-products generated during manufacturing processes, such as off-
cuts, trimmings, or excess materials.

By understanding these different types of waste, organizations can better identify areas where
waste is occurring and implement strategies to reduce or eliminate it.

2. Learning how to identify waste and stop it from building up:

This objective involves developing the skills and techniques necessary to identify waste in
production and operations processes and take proactive measures to prevent it from accumulating.
Methods for identifying waste may include:

 Conducting waste audits or assessments to analyze current processes and identify areas
of inefficiency or waste generation.
 Implementing visual management techniques, such as process mapping or value stream
mapping, to identify and visualize areas of waste.
 Engaging employees in continuous improvement initiatives to encourage them to identify
and address waste in their work areas.

By learning how to identify waste and stop it from building up, organizations can improve
efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance overall productivity.
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3. Discovering strategies to make processes more efficient and save time and money:

This objective involves exploring and implementing strategies to optimize production and
operations processes, reduce waste, and improve overall efficiency. Some strategies to achieve this
objective may include:

 Implementing lean manufacturing principles to streamline workflows, reduce lead times,

and eliminate non-value-added activities.
 Utilizing Just-in-Time (JIT) inventory management to minimize excess inventory and
reduce storage costs.
 Investing in automation technologies to improve process efficiency and reduce reliance
on manual labor.
 Implementing quality management systems to reduce defects and rework, thereby
minimizing waste and improving product quality.

By discovering and implementing these strategies, organizations can save time and money,
improve customer satisfaction, and maintain a competitive edge in the market.

Overall, by focusing on understanding different types of waste, learning how to identify

waste and prevent it from building up, and discovering strategies to improve efficiency,
organizations can achieve significant improvements in production and operations management,
leading to cost savings, increased productivity, and enhanced competitiveness.
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PM 103
PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

MODULE 10 - AUTOMATION

In this module we will explore how machines and technology can help make tasks easier
and smoother in production and operations. Automation is about using machines to do tasks
without needing people to do them.
Throughout this module, we will look at:
• Understanding what automation is and how it helps in making things and managing work.
• Figuring out which tasks can be done by machines and how to make them work well in our
production and operations.
• Learning tricks to use automation to save time and money and make things run smoother in
production and operations.
Remember, automation is about using machines to make work simpler and better in
production and operations.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

AUTOMATION is a technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic, and

computer-based systems to operate and control production. This technology includes automatic
machine tools to process parts, automatic assembly machines, industrial robots, automatic material
handling and storage systems, automatic inspection systems for quality control, feedback control
and computer process control, and computer systems for planning, data collection, and decision-
making to support manufacturing activities.

Automation in production and operations management means using technology to make work
easier in factories and other workplaces. Here's what it involves:

1. Automatic Tools

Machines that can do tasks like cutting or shaping materials without needing people to do it
manually.
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2. Assembly Machines

Machines that put things together automatically, like parts of a toy or a computer.

3. Industrial Robots

Special robots can do tasks like moving heavy objects or painting cars in factories.

4. Material Handling Systems

Machines that move materials around in a factory, like conveyor belts or robot arms.

5. Quality Control Systems

Machines that check products to make sure they're good quality, like cameras that look for
defects.

6. Control Systems

Machines that keep an eye on how things are going and make adjustments if needed, so
everything runs smoothly.

7. Computer Systems

Computers help with planning what needs to be made, keeping track of how things are
going, and making decisions to make work better.

Automation helps factories and businesses work faster, cheaper, and with fewer mistakes
by using technology to do tasks that people used to do by hand.

10.2 TYPES OF AUTOMATION

Automated production systems can be classified into three basic types:

1. Fixed automation,

Fixed automation is when machines are set up to do one specific task repeatedly. These
systems are designed to produce one type of product or perform one particular operation, and
they're not easily changed or adapted.
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Imagine a bakery that uses a fixed automation system for baking bread. The bread-making
machine is programmed to mix the ingredients, shape the dough, bake it, and then package the
finished loaves. The machine follows the same steps every time and doesn't change its process
based on different types of bread or customer orders.

2. Programmable automation, and

Programmable automation involves machines or systems that can be reprogrammed to

perform different tasks or produce different products. Unlike fixed automation, these systems offer
some level of flexibility and can adapt to changing production needs.

An example of programmable automation is a manufacturing plant that produces different

types of cars. The assembly line robots can be reprogrammed to weld different parts together based
on the type of car being produced. So, if the plant switches from making sedans to SUVs, the
robots can be reprogrammed to weld the different parts required for SUVs.

3. Flexible automation.

Flexible automation is the most adaptable type of automation. It involves systems that can
handle various tasks or product types without needing extensive reprogramming or setup changes.
These systems are highly versatile and can quickly adjust to different production requirements.

A good example of flexible automation is a manufacturing facility that produces various

sizes and shapes of plastic containers. The injection molding machines in the facility are equipped
with computer-controlled molds that can be adjusted automatically to produce different container
designs without stopping the production line. This flexibility allows the facility to respond quickly
to changes in customer demands or market trends.

1. FIXED AUTOMATION

It is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the
equipment configuration. The operations in the sequence are usually simple. It is the integration
and coordination of many such operations into one piece of equipment that makes the system
complex. The typical features of fixed automation are:

(a) High initial investment for custom–Engineered equipment;

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Fixed automation systems require significant upfront investment in custom-engineered equipment

tailored to specific production processes. This equipment is designed and built to perform a
predetermined sequence of processing or assembly operations efficiently.

In a manufacturing plant producing automotive parts, a fixed automation system might involve
custom-built robotic assembly cells designed to weld or rivet components together. The initial
investment includes the cost of designing, manufacturing, and installing these specialized robotic
cells.

(b) High production rates; and

Fixed automation systems are designed for high-speed production, capable of achieving rapid
output rates due to the optimized sequence of simple operations performed by the equipment.

In a food processing facility, a fixed automation system might consist of conveyor belts, robotic
arms, and packaging machines working together to assemble and package products such as frozen
meals or snack bars at a high rate of speed to meet consumer demand.

(c) Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes.

Fixed automation systems are less adaptable to changes in product design or production
requirements due to their specialized configuration and predefined sequence of operations. Making
modifications to accommodate new products can be challenging and may require significant
reengineering or retooling.

In a pharmaceutical manufacturing plant, a fixed automation system might be used to produce a

specific medication in a precise dosage form. If there's a need to introduce a new medication with
different ingredients or dosage specifications, the fixed automation system may require extensive
reconfiguration or replacement of equipment to accommodate the change.

The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products with very high
demand rates and volumes. The high initial cost of the equipment can be spread over a very large
number of units, thus making the unit cost attractive compared to alternative methods of
production. Examples of fixed automation include mechanized assembly and machining transfer
lines.
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2. PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION

In this, the production equipment is designed with the capability to change the sequence of
operations to accommodate different product configurations. The operation sequence is controlled
by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that the system can read and interpret them.
New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products. Some of
the features that characterize programmable automation are:

(a) High investment in general-purpose equipment;

Programmable automation systems require an initial investment in general-purpose equipment

capable of performing a variety of tasks and operations. While this equipment may be more
versatile than fixed automation equipment, it tends to be more expensive upfront due to its
flexibility and programmability.

In a manufacturing facility, programmable automation equipment such as CNC (Computer

Numerical Control) machines or industrial robots are considered general-purpose equipment.
These machines can be programmed to perform various tasks, such as milling, drilling, or welding,
depending on the specific requirements of the production process.

(b) Low production rates relative to fixed automation;

Programmable automation systems typically have lower production rates compared to fixed
automation systems. While they offer greater flexibility in accommodating changes and variations
in product configurations, this versatility often comes at the cost of reduced throughput or cycle
times.

In an electronics assembly plant, programmable automation equipment such as pick-and-place

machines may have lower production rates compared to fixed automation systems used for high-
volume production. However, the ability to reprogram these machines allows for the production
of a wide range of electronic devices with different component configurations.

(c) Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration;

Programmable automation systems are designed to adapt to changes in product configurations or

requirements by allowing the sequence of operations to be easily modified through programming.
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This flexibility enables manufacturers to respond quickly to market demands and produce custom
or specialized products.

In a furniture manufacturing workshop, programmable automation equipment such as CNC routers

can be programmed to cut and shape wood pieces according to different furniture designs and
dimensions. If there's a change in customer preferences or new product designs, the equipment can
be reprogrammed accordingly to accommodate the changes.

(d) Most suitable for batch production.

Programmable automation systems are well-suited for batch production scenarios where products
are manufactured in small to medium-sized quantities with frequent changes in product
configurations. They offer the flexibility to adjust production processes and setups for each batch
without requiring extensive retooling or equipment modification.

In a pharmaceutical manufacturing facility, programmable automation equipment such as filling

and packaging machines may be used for batch production of medications in different dosages and
formulations. The equipment can be programmed to adjust filling volumes, packaging formats,
and labeling requirements for each batch of products.

Automated production systems that are programmable are used in low and medium-volume
production. The parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch of a
different product, the system must be reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions that
correspond to the new product. The physical setup of the machine must also be changed over:
Tools must be loaded; fixtures must be attached to the machine table be changed machine settings
must be entered. This changeover procedure takes time. Consequently, the typical cycle for the
given product includes a period during which the setup and reprogramming take place, followed
by a period in which the batch is produced. Examples of programmed automation include
numerically controlled machine tools and industrial robots.
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3. FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION

It is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible automated system is one that is capable

of producing a variety of products (or parts) with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one
product to the next. There is no production time lost while reprogramming the system and altering
the physical setup (tooling, fixtures, and machine setting). Consequently, the system can produce
various combinations and schedules of products instead of requiring that they be made in separate
batches. The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:

(a) High investment for a custom-engineered system.

(b) Continuous production of variable mixtures of products.

(c) Medium production rates.

(d) Flexibility to deal with product design variations.

The essential features that distinguish flexible automation from programmable automation are:

(1) the capacity to change part programs with no lost production time; and

(2) the capability

to changeover the physical setup, again with no lost production time. These features allow the
automated production system to continue production without the downtime between batches that
is characteristic of programmable automation. Changing the part programs is generally
accomplished by preparing the programs off-line on a computer system and electronically
transmitting the programs to the automated production system. Therefore, the time required to do
the programming for the next job does not interrupt production on the current job. Advances in
computer systems technology are largely responsible for this programming capability in flexible
automation. Changing the physical setup between parts is accomplished by making the changeover
off-line and then moving it into place simultaneously as the next part comes into position for
processing. The use of pallet fixtures that hold the parts and transfer into position at the workplace
is one way of implementing this approach. For these approaches to be successful; the variety of
parts that can be made on a flexible automated production system is usually more limited than a
system controlled by programmable automation.
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10.3 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

Computers have a dramatic impact on the development of production automation technologies.

Nearly all modern production systems are implemented today using computer systems. The term
computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) has been coined to denote the pervasive use of
computers to design products, plan production, control operations, and perform the various
business-related functions needed in a manufacturing firm. Computer Aided Design and Computer
Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) in another term that is used synonymously with CIM. A good
relationship exists between automation and CIM with a conceptual model of manufacturing. In a
manufacturing firm, the physical activities related to production that take place in the factory can
be distinguished from the information-processing activities. The physical activities include all of
the manufacturing processing, assembly, materials handling, and inspections that are performed
 22

on the product. These operations come in direct contact with the physical activities during
manufacture. Raw materials flow in one end of the factory and finished products flow out the other
end. The physical activities (processing, handling, etc.) take place inside the factory. The
information-processing functions form a ring that surrounds the factory, providing the data and
knowledge required to produce the product successfully. These information processing functions
include:

(1) business activities,

These are the activities related to managing the business side of operations, such as sales,
marketing, finance, and human resources. Business activities provide the foundation for the
production process by determining market demand, setting sales targets, managing finances, and
overseeing personnel. Without effective business activities, the production process may lack
direction and struggle to meet market demands or financial goals.

(2) product design,

Product design involves creating and developing the specifications, features, and functionalities of
a product. It encompasses activities such as conceptualization, prototyping, testing, and
finalization of product designs. Effective product design is essential for ensuring that the final
product meets customer needs, performs as intended, and can be manufactured efficiently. It lays
the groundwork for the production process by providing clear guidelines and requirements for
manufacturing.

(3) manufacturing planning, and

Manufacturing planning involves determining the most efficient and effective way to produce the
product based on the design specifications and available resources. It includes activities such as
capacity planning, resource allocation, scheduling, and sequencing of production activities.
Manufacturing planning ensures that the production process is organized and optimized to meet
production goals while minimizing costs and maximizing efficiency.

(4) manufacturing control. These four functions form a cycle of events that must accompany the
physical production activities.
 23

Manufacturing control involves monitoring and regulating the production process to ensure that it
stays on track and meets predefined objectives. It includes activities such as monitoring production
progress, quality control, inventory management, and addressing any deviations or issues that arise
during production. Manufacturing control ensures that the production process operates smoothly,
efficiently, and in accordance with established standards and specifications.

10.4 REASONS FOR AUTOMATION

Following are some of the reasons for automation:

1. Increased productivity: Automation of manufacturing operations holds the promise of

increasing the productivity of labor. This means greater output per hour of labor input. Higher
production rates (output per hour) are achieved with automation than with the corresponding
manual operations.

In an industrial technology classroom, students may use automated CNC (Computer Numerical
Control) machines to fabricate parts for projects. Compared to manual machining, CNC machines
can produce parts faster and with greater precision, allowing students to complete projects more
efficiently.

2. High cost of labor: The trend in the industrialized societies of the world has been toward ever-
increasing labor costs. As a result, higher investment in automated equipment has become
economically justifiable to replace manual operations. The high cost of labor is forcing business
leaders to substitute machines for human labor. Because machines can produce at higher rates of
output, the use of automation results in a lower cost per unit of product.

Imagine a manufacturing company facing rising labor costs in their assembly line. To remain
competitive, they invest in robotic automation to perform repetitive tasks like assembly or
packaging. This reduces the need for manual labor and lowers the overall cost per unit produced.

3. Labor shortages: In many advanced nations there has been a general shortage of labor. Labor
shortages stimulate the development of automation as a substitute for labor.

In regions where there's a shortage of skilled labor, industrial technology students may observe
manufacturing companies turning to automation to fill the gaps. By implementing automated
 24

systems, companies can maintain production levels even when facing a shortage of available
workers.

4. Trend of labor toward the service sector: This trend has been especially prevalent in India.
There are also social and institutional forces that are responsible for the trend. There has been a
tendency for people to view factory work as tedious, demeaning, and dirty. This view has caused
them to seek employment in the service sector of the economy government, insurance, personal
services, legal, sales, etc. Hence, the proportion of the work force employed in manufacturing is
reducing.

Industrial technology students may notice that fewer people are pursuing careers in traditional
manufacturing roles and instead opting for jobs in the service sector. This shift in workforce
preference reinforces the need for automation in manufacturing to compensate for the decreasing
availability of skilled labor.

5. Safety: By automating the operation and transferring the operator from an active participation
to a supervisory role, work is made safer.

Students learning about automation might examine how automated systems enhance workplace
safety. For instance, in an automotive assembly plant, robots can perform tasks like welding or
painting, reducing the risk of injuries to human workers from exposure to hazardous materials or
repetitive motions.

6. High cost of raw materials: The high cost of raw materials in manufacturing results in the need
for greater efficiency in using these materials. The reduction of scrap is one of the benefits of
automation.

In a manufacturing lab, students might analyze how automated processes help minimize material
waste and optimize resource utilization. For instance, using automated cutting machines with
precise measurements can reduce material waste and lower the overall cost of production.

7. Improved product quality: Automated operations not only produce parts at faster rates but
they produce parts with greater consistency and conformity to quality specifications.

Students studying quality control in industrial technology might explore how automation
contributes to consistent product quality. For example, automated inspection systems in a food
 25

processing plant can detect defects or contaminants in products, ensuring that only high-quality
items reach the market.

8. Reduced manufacturing lead time: With reduced manufacturing lead time automation allows
the manufacturer a competitive advantage in promoting good customer service.

Industrial technology students might examine how automation shortens production cycles and
improves efficiency. For instance, implementing automated scheduling systems in a
manufacturing facility can reduce lead times by optimizing production sequences and minimizing
idle time between operations.

9. Reduction of in-process inventory: Holding large inventories of work-in-process represents a

significant cost to the manufacturer because it ties up capital. In-process inventory is of no value.
It serves none of the purposes of raw materials stock or finished product inventory. Automation
tends to accomplish this goal by reducing the time a work part spends in the factory.

Students learning about inventory management might investigate how automation helps minimize
work-in-process inventory. For example, using automated material handling systems in a
warehouse can reduce the time materials spend waiting between production stages, freeing up
capital and improving cash flow.

10. High cost of not automating: A significant competitive advantage is gained by automating a
manufacturing plant. The benefits of automation show up in intangible and unexpected ways, such
as, improved quality, higher sales, better labor relations, and better company image.

Industrial technology students might analyze case studies of companies that have successfully
implemented automation and the benefits they've gained. For instance, a manufacturing company
that automates its production processes may experience improvements in product quality,
customer satisfaction, and overall competitiveness compared to competitors who have not
automated.
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10.5 ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION

Following are some of the advantages of automation:

1. Automation is the key to the shorter workweek. Automation will allow the average number of
working hours per week to continue to decline, thereby allowing greater leisure hours and a higher
quality life.

2. Automation brings safer working conditions for the worker. Since there is less direct physical
participation by the worker in the production process, there is less chance of personal injury to the
worker.

3. Automated production results in lower prices and better products. It has been estimated that the
cost to machine one unit of product by conventional general-purpose machine tools requiring
human operators may be 100 times the cost of manufacturing the same unit using automated mass-
production techniques. The electronics industry offers many examples of improvements in
manufacturing technology that have significantly reduced costs while increasing product value
(e.g., color TV sets, stereo equipment, calculators, and computers).

4. The growth of the automation industry will itself provide employment opportunities. This has
been especially true in the computer industry, as the companies in this industry have grown (IBM,
Digital Equipment Corp., Honeywell, etc.), new jobs have been created. These new jobs include
not only workers directly employed by these companies, but also computer programmers, systems
engineers, and other needed to use and operate the computers.

5. Automation is the only means of increasing standard of living. Only through productivity
increases brought about by new automated methods of production, it is possible to advance
standard of living. Granting wage increases without a commensurate increase in productivity will
results in inflation. To afford a better society, it is a must to increase productivity.

10.6 DISADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION

Following are some of the disadvantages of automation:

1. Automation will result in the subjugation of the human being by a machine. Automation tends
to transfer the skill required to perform work from human operators to machines. In so doing, it
reduces the need for skilled labor. The manual work left by automation requires lower skill levels
 27

and tends to involve rather menial tasks (e.g., loading and unloading work part, changing tools,
removing chips, etc.). In this sense, automation tends to downgrade factory work.

2. There will be a reduction in the labor force, with resulting unemployment. It is logical to argue
that the immediate effect of automation will be to reduce the need for human labor, thus displacing
workers.

3. Automation will reduce purchasing power. As machines replace workers and these workers join
the unemployment ranks, they will not receive the wages necessary to buy the products brought
by automation. Markets will become saturated with products that people cannot afford to purchase.
Inventories will grow. Production will stop. Unemployment will reach epidemic proportions and
the result will be a massive economic depression.

10.7 AUTOMATION STRATEGIES

There are certain fundamental strategies that can be employed to improve productivity in
manufacturing operations technology. These are referred as automation strategies.

1. Specialization of operations: The first strategy involves the use of special purpose equipment
designed to perform one operation with the greatest possible efficiency. This is analogous to the
concept of labor specializations, which has been employed to improve labor productivity.

2. Combined operations: Production occurs as a sequence of operations. Complex parts may

require dozens, or even hundreds, of processing steps. The strategy of combined operations
involves reducing the number of distinct production machines or workstations through which the
part must be routed. This is accomplished by performing more than one operation at a given
machine, thereby reducing the number of separate machines needed. Since each machine typically
involves a setup, setup time can be saved as a consequence of this strategy. Material handling
effort and nonoperation time are also reduced.

3. Simultaneous operations: A logical extension of the combined operations strategy is to

perform at the same time the operations that are combined at one workstation. In effect, two or
more processing (or assembly) operations are being performed simultaneously on the same work
part, thus reducing total processing time.
 28

4. Integration of operations: Another strategy is to link several workstations into a single

integrated mechanism using automated work handling devices to transfer parts between stations.
In effect, this reduces the number of separate machines though which the product must be
scheduled. With more than one workstation, several parts can be processed simultaneously,
thereby increasing the overall output of the system.

5. Increased flexibility: This strategy attempts to achieve maximum utilization of equipment for
job shop and medium volume situations by using the same equipment for a variety of products. It
involves the use of the flexible automation concepts. Prime objectives are to reduce setup time and
programming time for the production machine. This normally translates into lower manufacturing
lead time and lower work-in-process.

6. Improved material handling and storage systems: A great opportunity for reducing non-
productive time exists in the use of automated material handling and storage systems. Typical
benefits included reduced work-in-process and shorter manufacturing lead times.

7. On-line inspection: Inspection for quality of work is traditionally performed after the process.
This means that any poor quality product has already been produced by the time it is inspected.
Incorporating inspection into the manufacturing process permits corrections to the process as
product is being made. This reduces scrap and brings the overall quality of product closer to the
nominal specifications intended by the designer.

8. Process control and optimization: This includes a wide range of control schemes intended to
operate the individual process and associated equipment more efficiency. By this strategy, the
individual process times can be reduced and product quality improved.

9. Plant operations control: Whereas the previous strategy was concerned with the control of the
individual manufacturing process, this strategy is concerned with control at the plant level of
computer networking within the factory.

10. Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM): Taking the previous strategy one step further,
the integration of factory operations with engineering design and many of the other business
functions of the firm. CIM involves extensive use of computer applications, computer data bases,
and computer networking in the company.
 29

10.8 AUTOMATED FLOW LINES

An automated flow line consists of several machines or workstations that are linked together by
work-handling devices that transfer parts between the stations. The transfer of work parts occurs
automatically and the workstations carry out their specialized functions automatically. The flow
line can be symbolized as shown in Fig. 10.2. A raw work part enters one end of the line and the
processing steps are performed sequentially as the part moves from one station to the next. It is
possible to incorporate buffer zones into the flow line, either at a single location or between every
workstation. It is also possible to include inspection stations in the line to automatically perform
intermediate checks on the quality of the parts. Manual stations might also be located along the
flow line to perform certain operations that are difficult or uneconomical to automate.

Automated flow lines are generally the most appropriate means of productions in cases of
relatively stable product life; high product demand, which requires high rates of production; and
where the alternative method of manufacture would invoice large labor content.

The objectives of the use of flow line automation are:

1. To reduce labor costs;

This objective involves using automation to replace manual labor with machines, which can be
more efficient and cost-effective in the long run. By automating repetitive tasks, businesses can
reduce their reliance on expensive human labor, leading to cost savings.
 30

2. To increase production rates;

Flow line automation aims to speed up the production process by eliminating bottlenecks and
inefficiencies. Automated systems can work continuously and at a consistent pace, leading to
higher production rates compared to manual labor, which may be slower and prone to fatigue or
errors.

3. To reduce work-in-process;

Work-in-process refers to the materials and products that are in various stages of production but
have not yet been completed. Flow line automation helps minimize work-in-process by
streamlining the production process and reducing idle time between operations. This efficiency
improvement ensures that products move smoothly through the production line without
unnecessary delays.

4. To minimize distances moved between operations;

Flow line automation focuses on optimizing the layout of the production line to minimize the
distance traveled by materials or products between different operations or workstations. By
arranging operations near each other, unnecessary movement and transportation costs are reduced,
leading to greater efficiency and lower expenses.

5. To achieve specialization of operations;

Specialization involves dividing the production process into specialized tasks that can be
performed most efficiently by specific machines or equipment. Flow line automation allows
businesses to design production lines with specialized stations dedicated to specific tasks, ensuring
that each operation is optimized for maximum efficiency and quality.

6. To achieve integration of operations.

There are two general forms that the workflow can take. These two configurations are in-line and
rotary.

Integration refers to the seamless coordination and interaction between different stages of the
production process. Flow line automation facilitates the integration of operations by connecting
various machines, equipment, and processes into a cohesive and synchronized workflow. This
 31

integration ensures that all components work together harmoniously, leading to smoother
operations and better overall performance.

In summary, the objectives of flow line automation encompass reducing costs, increasing
production rates, minimizing work-in-process, optimizing workflow layout, promoting
specialization of tasks, and achieving seamless integration of operations to enhance efficiency and
productivity in manufacturing processes.

In-line Type

The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of workstations in a more-or-less straight-line

arrangement. The flow of work can take a few 90° turns, either for workpiece reorientation, factory
layout limitations, or other reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line configuration. A common
pattern of workflow, for example, is a rectangular shape, which would allow the same operator to
load the starting workpiece and unload the finished workpiece.

Rotary Type

In the rotary configuration, the work parts are indexed around a circular table or dial. The
workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside periphery of the dial. The parts
ride on the rotating table and are registered or positioned, in turn, at each station for its processing
or assembly operation. This type of equipment is often referred to as an indexing machine or dial
index machine and its configurations. The choice between the two types of configurations depends
on the application. The rotary type is commonly limited to smaller workpieces and to fewer
stations. There is no flexibility in the design of the rotary configuration. The rotary configuration
usually involves a lower-cost piece of equipment and typically requires less factory floor space.
The in-line design is preferable for larger work pieces and can accommodate a larger number of
workstations. In-line machines can be fabricated with a built-in storage capability to smooth out
the effect of work stoppages at individual stations and other irregularities.

10.9 AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLES SYSTEMS

An automated or automatic guided vehicle system (AGVS) is a materials handling system that
uses independently operated, self-propelled vehicles that are guided along defined pathways in the
floor. The vehicles are powered using on-board batteries that allow operation for several hours (8
 32

to 16 hours is typical) between recharging. The definition of the pathways is generally

accomplished using wires embedded in the floor or reflective paint on the floor surface. Guidance
is achieved by sensors on the vehicles that can follow the guide wires or paint.

10.9.1 Types of AGVS

The types of Automated Guided Vehicles Systems (AGVS) can be classified as follows:

1. Driverless trains: The type consists of a towing vehicle (which is the AGV) that pulls one or
more trailers to form a train. It was the first type of AGVS to be introduced and is still popular. It
is useful in applications where heavy payloads must be moved large distances in warehouses of
factories with intermediate pickup and drop-off points along the route.

2. AGVS pallet trucks: Automated guided pallet trucks are used to move palletized loads along
predetermined routes. In the typical application the vehicle is backed into the loaded pallet by a
human worker who steers the truck and uses its forks to elevate the load slightly. Then the worker
who steers the truck to the guide path, programs its destination, and the vehicle proceeds
automatically to the destination for unloading. A more recent introduction related to the pallet
truck is the forklift AGV. This vehicle can achieve significant vertical movement of its forks reach
loads on shelves.

3. AGVS unit load carriers: This type of AGVS is used to move unit loads from one station to
another station. They are often equipped for automatic loading and unloading by means of powered
rollers, moving belts, mechanized lift platforms, or other devices. The light-load AGV is a
relatively small vehicle with a corresponding light load capacity. It does not require the same large
aisle width as the conventional AGV. Light-load guided vehicles are designed to move small loads
through plants of limited size engaged in light manufacturing. The assembly line AGVS is
designed to carry a partially completed subassembly through a sequence of assembly workstations
to build the product.

10.10 AUTOMATED STORAGE/RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS

An automated storage/retrieval system (AS/RS) is defined by the Materials Handling Institute as,
“A combination of equipment and controls which handles, stores and retrieves materials with
precision, accuracy and speed under a defined degree of automation” AS/R systems are custom-
 33

planned for each individual application, and they range in complexity from relatively small
mechanized systems that are controlled manually to very large computer-controlled systems that
are fully integrated with factory and warehouse operations. The AS/RS consists of a series of
storage aisles that are serviced by one or more storage/ retrieval (S/R) machines, usually one S/R
machine per aisle. The aisles have storage racks for holding the materials to be stored. The S/R
machines are used to deliver materials to the storage racks and to retrieve materials from the racks.
The AS/RS has one or more input stations where materials are delivered for entry into storage and
where materials are picked up from the system. The input/output stations are often referred to as
pickup and deposit (P&D) stations in the terminology of AS/RS systems. The P&D stations can
be manually operated or interfaced with some form of automated handling system, such as a
conveyor system or AGVS.

10.10.1 Types of AS/RS

Several important categories of automated storage/retrieval systems can be distinguished. These

include:

1. Unit load AS/RS: This is typically a large automated system designed to handle unit loads
stored on pallets or other standard containers. The system is computer-controlled and the S/R
machines are automated and designed to handle the unit load containers. The unit load system is
the generic AS/RS.

In an industrial technology lab, students might encounter a unit load AS/RS used in a
manufacturing facility to store and retrieve pallets of raw materials or finished products. The
AS/RS efficiently manages the storage of heavy unit loads, optimizing space utilization and
minimizing manual handling.

2. Miniload AS/RS: This storage system is used to handle small loads (individual parts or
supplies) that are contained in bins or drawers within the storage system. The S/R machine is
designed to retrieve the bin and deliver it to a P&D station at the end of the aisle so that the
individual items can be withdrawn from the bins. The bin or drawer is then returned to its location
in the system. The mini-load AS/RS system is generally smaller than the unit load AS/RS and is
often enclosed for the security of the items stored.
 34

Industrial technology students might observe a mini-load AS/RS used in a warehouse to store and
retrieve small parts or components. The system facilitates fast and accurate retrieval of items,
enhancing efficiency in picking operations and reducing the risk of errors.

3. Man-on-board AS/RS: The man-on-board AS/RS system represents an alternative approach

to the problem of storing and retrieving individual items in the system. Whereas the miniload
system delivers the entire bin to the end-of-aisle pick station, the man-on-board system permits
the individual items to be picked up directly at their storage locations. This offers an opportunity
to reduce the transaction time of the system.

Students might learn about a man-on-board AS/RS used in a distribution center to store and
retrieve small items. The system enhances picking efficiency by eliminating the need to transfer
entire bins, enabling faster order fulfillment and improving overall productivity.

4. Automated item retrieval system: These systems are also designed for retrieval of individual
items or small unit loads such as cases of products in a distribution warehouse. In this system, the
items are stored in single-file lanes rather than in bins or drawers. When an item is to be retrieved,
it is released from its lane onto a conveyor for delivery to the pickup station. The supply of items
in each lane is generally replenished from the rear of the retrieval system, so that there is flow-
through of the items, thus permitting first in first out (FIFO) inventory control.

These systems retrieve individual items or small unit loads, such as cases of products in a
distribution warehouse. Items are stored in single-file lanes, and when retrieved, they're released
onto a conveyor for delivery to the pickup station. The system supports FIFO inventory control.

5. Deep-lane AS/RS: The deep-lane AS/RS is a high-density unit load storage system that is
appropriate when large quantities are to be stored but the number of separate types of material is
relatively small. Instead of storing each unit load so that it can be accessed directly from the aisle,
the deep-lane system stores up to 10 or so loads in a single rack, one load behind the next. Each
rack is designed for ‘flow-through’ with input on one side and output on the other side. Loads are
picked from one side of the rack system by a special S/R type machine designed for retrieval and
another special machine is used on the entry side of the rack system for input of loads.
 35

Students might study a deep-lane AS/RS implemented in a cold storage facility to store pallets of
frozen food products. The system efficiently manages high-volume storage by storing multiple
pallets in each rack, optimizing space utilization, and facilitating FIFO inventory control.

10.11 CAROUSEL STORAGE SYSTEMS

A carousel storage system is a series of bins or baskets fastened to carries that are connected and
revolve around a long, oval track system. The track system is similar to a trolley conveyor system.
Its purpose is to position bins at a load/unload station at the end of the oval. The operation is similar
to the powered overhead rack system used by dry cleaners to deliver finished garments to the front
of the store. The typical operation of the storage carousel is mechanized rather than automated.
The load/unload station is manned by a human worker who activates the powered carousel to
deliver a desired bin to the station. One or more parts are removed from the bin, and the cycle is
repeated. Carousels come in a variety of sizes, ranging between 10 and 100 ft in length of the oval.
As the length of the carousel is increased, the storage density increases, but the average transaction
time (Storage or retrieval) decreases. Accordingly, the typical carousel size ranges perhaps
between 30 and 50 ft to achieve a proper balance between these opposing factors.

10.12 CAROUSEL STORAGE APPLICATIONS

The carousel storage system provides a relatively high amount rate and is often attractive to the
miniload AS/RS in the following types of applications.

1. Storage and retrieval operations: In certain operations, individual items must be selected from
the group of items stored in the bin or basket. Sometimes called ‘pick and load’ operations, this
type of procedure is common for order picking of service parts or other items in a wholesale firm,
tools in a tool room, raw materials from a stockroom, and work-in-process in a factory. In small
assembly operations such as electronics, carousels are used to accomplish kitting of parts that will
be transported to the assembly workstations.

2. Transport and accumulation: These are applications in which the carousel is used to transport
and sort materials as they are stored. One example of this is in progressive assembly operations
where the workstations are located around the periphery of a continuously moving carousel and
the workers have access to the individual storage bins of the carousel. They remove work from the
 36

bins to complete their own respective assembly tasks, and then place their work into another bin
for the next operation at some other workstation.

3. Unique applications: These involve specialized uses of carousel storage systems. Examples
include electrical testing of components, where the carousel is used to store the item during testing
for a specified period; and drawer or cabinet storage, in which standard drawer-type cabinets are
mounted on the carousel. Storage carousels are finding an increasing number of applications in
manufacturing operations, where their relatively low cost, versatility, and high reliability have
been acknowledged. It represents a competitive to the mini-load AS/RS and other AS/RS
configurations for work-in-progress storage in the manufacturing plant.

AUTOMATION IN INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY PROFESSIONALS

FOOD TECHNOLOGY

Automation plays a crucial role in food technology, revolutionizing various aspects of food
production, processing, packaging, and distribution. Here's how automation is applied in different
areas of food technology:

1. Production and Processing:

Automation is used in food processing plants to streamline the production of food items such as
beverages, baked goods, snacks, and canned goods. Machinery and equipment automate tasks like
mixing, blending, cooking, cutting, and packaging.

Example: In a beverage production plant, automated bottling lines fill and cap bottles of various
sizes with drinks like soda, juice, or water. Automated mixing tanks blend ingredients in precise
proportions, while conveyor systems transport bottles between processing stations.

2. Quality Control and Inspection:

Automated systems are employed for quality control and inspection to ensure that food products
meet safety and quality standards. These systems use sensors, cameras, and other technologies to
detect defects, contaminants, or irregularities in food products.
 37

Example: In a meat processing facility, automated inspection systems scan meat products for
foreign objects, discoloration, or signs of spoilage. Any defective items are automatically removed
from the production line to maintain product quality and safety.

3. Packaging:

Automation is used extensively in food packaging to improve efficiency, accuracy, and hygiene.
Packaging machines can handle various types of packaging materials and formats, including
bottles, cans, pouches, trays, and cartons.

Example: In a snack food manufacturing plant, automated packaging machines fill and seal bags
of chips or crackers at high speeds. These machines can weigh and portion precise amounts of
snacks into individual packages, ensuring consistency and freshness.

4. Warehousing and Distribution:

Automated systems are utilized in food warehouses and distribution centers to manage inventory,
order picking, and shipping operations. Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS),
conveyor systems, and robotic palletizers optimize storage space and streamline order fulfillment.

Example: In a frozen food distribution center, automated AS/RS units store pallets of frozen
products in high-density storage racks. Robots equipped with grippers and sensors pick and place
pallets onto conveyor belts for loading onto delivery trucks, minimizing manual handling and
reducing the risk of product damage.

5. Food Safety and Traceability:

Automation is instrumental in ensuring food safety and traceability by implementing systems for
tracking and monitoring food products throughout the supply chain. Automated data collection
and record-keeping systems enable quick and accurate traceability in the event of a foodborne
illness outbreak or product recall.

Example: In a food manufacturing facility, automated data logging systems record critical
parameters such as temperature, humidity, and processing times during production. This data is
stored electronically and can be accessed quickly to trace the origin and distribution of food
products.
 38

Automation in food technology enhances efficiency, consistency, and safety across the entire food
supply chain, from production to distribution. By automating repetitive tasks and implementing
advanced technologies, food manufacturers can improve productivity, reduce costs, and ensure the
quality and safety of food products for consumers.

INSTRUMENTATION and CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

Automation in instrumentation and control technology refers to the use of automated systems to
monitor, control, and optimize industrial processes and equipment. Here's how automation is
applied in this field:

1. Process Control:

Automation systems are used to regulate and control various processes in industries such as
manufacturing, chemical processing, and energy production. These systems monitor parameters
such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, and level, and automatically adjust settings to maintain
optimal process conditions.

Example: In a chemical plant, automated control systems regulate the flow of raw materials,
monitor reaction temperatures, and adjust mixing ratios to ensure consistent product quality and
safety.

2. Instrumentation:

Automation plays a crucial role in instrumentation by automating the measurement, recording, and
analysis of data from sensors and instruments. Automated instrumentation systems provide real-
time data on process variables, allowing operators to make informed decisions and respond quickly
to changes.

Example: In a power plant, automated instrumentation systems continuously monitor parameters

such as voltage, current, and frequency in electrical circuits. This data is analyzed to detect
abnormalities or faults, enabling timely intervention to prevent equipment failures or power
outages.
 39

3. SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition):

SCADA systems are used to remotely monitor and control industrial processes and equipment
from a centralized location. These systems collect data from sensors and devices distributed
throughout a facility, providing operators with real-time insights into process performance and
allowing them to make adjustments as needed.

Example: In a water treatment facility, a SCADA system monitors water quality parameters such
as pH, turbidity, and chlorine levels in multiple treatment stages. Operators can remotely adjust
chemical dosing rates or control valve positions to optimize treatment processes and ensure water
safety.

4. PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) Systems:

PLC systems are used to automate control tasks in manufacturing and industrial processes. These
programmable devices execute control logic based on inputs from sensors and user-defined
programming, enabling precise control of machinery, equipment, and production processes.

Example: In an automotive assembly line, PLC systems control robotic arms, conveyor belts, and
welding machines to automate the assembly of vehicles. PLC programs sequence tasks, coordinate
movements, and ensure that components are assembled correctly according to predefined
specifications.

5. Safety Systems:

Automation is utilized to implement safety systems that protect personnel and equipment from
hazards in industrial environments. Automated safety systems detect unsafe conditions, trigger
alarms or shutdowns, and activate safety mechanisms to mitigate risks and prevent accidents.

Example: In a manufacturing plant, automated safety systems monitor machine operation and
detect anomalies such as excessive vibration or temperature. If a safety hazard is detected, the
system automatically stops the machine and activates safety interlocks to prevent injuries or
damage.
 40

Automation in instrumentation and control technology enhances efficiency, accuracy, and safety
in industrial processes by automating monitoring, control, and safety functions. These automated
systems enable industries to optimize operations, reduce costs, and improve productivity while
ensuring compliance with regulatory standards and maintaining a safe working environment.

AUTOMATION IN MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY

Automation in mechanical technology involves the integration of automated systems to enhance

the design, manufacturing, operation, and maintenance of mechanical systems and equipment.
Here's how automation is applied in various aspects of mechanical technology:

1. Design and Engineering:

- Automation aids in computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided engineering (CAE)

processes, where software automates repetitive tasks such as drafting, modeling, simulation, and
analysis. Automated design tools enable engineers to quickly generate and iterate design concepts,
optimize product performance, and ensure compliance with specifications and standards.

- Example: In an engineering firm, engineers use CAD software with automated features to
design mechanical components or systems for products such as automobiles, machinery, or
consumer electronics. The software assists in creating 3D models, generating engineering
drawings, and simulating performance under various conditions.

2. Manufacturing and Production:

- Automation in manufacturing encompasses various technologies such as CNC machining,

robotic assembly, additive manufacturing (3D printing), and automated material handling systems.
These automated systems streamline production processes, increase efficiency, and improve
quality by reducing errors, minimizing waste, and optimizing throughput.

- Example: In a manufacturing facility, CNC machines equipped with automated tool changers
and robotic loading/unloading systems automate the machining of metal components. Robots
handle repetitive tasks like welding, painting, or assembly, while automated conveyor systems
transport materials between workstations for seamless production flow.
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3. Condition Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance:

- Automation is used for condition monitoring and predictive maintenance of mechanical

equipment to prevent unexpected failures and optimize maintenance schedules. Automated
monitoring systems collect data from sensors embedded in machinery, analyze performance
trends, and generate alerts or recommendations for maintenance actions.

- Example: In a power plant, automated condition monitoring systems continuously collect data
on equipment such as turbines, pumps, and boilers. Machine learning algorithms analyze this data
to detect early signs of degradation or abnormalities, allowing maintenance teams to schedule
repairs or replacements proactively and avoid costly downtime.

4. Robotics and Automation Systems:

- Robotics and automation systems in mechanical technology involve the integration of industrial
robots, automated guided vehicles (AGVs), and flexible automation platforms. These systems
perform tasks such as material handling, assembly, inspection, and testing with speed, precision,
and reliability.

- Example: In an automotive assembly plant, robotic arms equipped with grippers and vision
systems automate tasks such as welding, painting, and part installation on vehicle assembly lines.
AGVs transport components between workstations, while automated inspection systems ensure
product quality and compliance with standards.

5. Smart and Connected Systems**:

- Automation facilitates the development of smart and connected mechanical systems equipped
with sensors, actuators, and embedded electronics. These systems enable real-time monitoring,
remote control, and data exchange for optimization, customization, and integration with other
technologies such as IoT (Internet of Things) and AI (Artificial Intelligence).

- Example: In a smart building, automated HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)
systems adjust temperature and airflow based on occupancy and environmental conditions. Sensor
data is analyzed to optimize energy efficiency, improve indoor air quality, and provide occupants
with comfort and safety.
 42

Automation in mechanical technology drives innovation, efficiency, and performance across the
entire lifecycle of mechanical systems and equipment. By leveraging automated tools, processes,
and systems, mechanical engineers and technologists can design, manufacture, operate, and
maintain mechanical systems with greater speed, accuracy, and reliability, leading to improved
productivity, cost savings, and competitiveness in various industries.

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

Automation in computer technology involves the use of automated systems and processes to
enhance the development, deployment, management, and operation of computer systems, software
applications, and IT infrastructure. Here's how automation is applied in different aspects of
computer technology:

1. Software Development:

- Automation tools and frameworks are used in software development to streamline repetitive
tasks such as code generation, testing, and deployment. Continuous integration (CI) and
continuous deployment (CD) pipelines automate the building, testing, and deployment of software
updates, enabling faster release cycles and improving code quality.

- Example: In a software development team, automated CI/CD pipelines are set up to

automatically build, test, and deploy code changes to a staging or production environment
whenever new code is committed to a version control repository.

2. Infrastructure Provisioning and Configuration:

- Automation tools such as configuration management systems (e.g., Ansible, Puppet, Chef) and
infrastructure as code (IaC) frameworks (e.g., Terraform) automate the provisioning and
configuration of IT infrastructure resources such as servers, networks, and storage.

- Example: In a cloud computing environment, infrastructure provisioning is automated using

IaC tools to define and deploy infrastructure components (e.g., virtual machines, databases, load
balancers) as code, ensuring consistency and repeatability across environments.
 43

3. System Administration and Operations:

- Automation simplifies system administration and operations tasks by automating routine

maintenance, monitoring, and troubleshooting activities. Scripting languages (e.g., Bash, Python)
and automation frameworks (e.g., PowerShell DSC, SaltStack) are used to automate tasks such as
software updates, log analysis, and system configuration management.

- Example: In a data center, automated monitoring tools continuously monitor server health,
network performance, and application availability. Alerts and notifications are triggered
automatically when predefined thresholds are exceeded, allowing system administrators to
respond proactively to potential issues.

4. Security and Compliance:

- Automation is employed in security operations to enhance threat detection, incident response,

and compliance management. Security information and event management (SIEM) systems
automate the collection, correlation, and analysis of security event data, while automated
compliance frameworks enforce security policies and regulatory requirements.

- Example: In a cybersecurity operations center (SOC), automated threat detection systems

analyze network traffic, log files, and system events in real-time to identify and respond to security
incidents. Automated compliance checks ensure that systems adhere to industry standards and
regulatory mandates.

5. Data Management and Analysis:

- Automation tools and platforms are used in data management and analysis to automate data
collection, cleansing, transformation, and visualization tasks. Automated data pipelines and
machine learning algorithms automate data processing and analysis workflows, enabling
organizations to derive insights and make data-driven decisions.

- Example: In a data-driven organization, automated ETL (extract, transform, load) pipelines

collect data from multiple sources, clean and preprocess the data, and load it into a data warehouse
or analytics platform. Automated analytics dashboards provide stakeholders with real-time
insights into key performance metrics and trends.
 44

Automation in computer technology enables organizations to improve productivity, agility, and

scalability by automating repetitive tasks, reducing manual intervention, and increasing
operational efficiency across the entire IT lifecycle. By embracing automation, organizations can
accelerate innovation, minimize errors, and focus on strategic initiatives that drive business value
in a rapidly evolving digital landscape.

AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY

Automation in automotive technology refers to the integration of automated systems and

technologies in vehicles, manufacturing processes, and transportation systems. Here's how
automation is applied in different aspects of automotive technology:

1. Vehicle Manufacturing:

- Automation plays a significant role in automotive manufacturing plants, where robotic systems
are used for various tasks such as welding, painting, assembly, and quality control. Automated
production lines optimize efficiency, reduce cycle times, and ensure consistency in vehicle
manufacturing.

- Example: In an automotive assembly plant, robotic arms equipped with advanced sensors and
vision systems automate tasks such as spot welding, seam sealing, and painting. Automated guided
vehicles (AGVs) transport components between workstations, while automated inspection systems
detect defects and ensure product quality.

2. Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS):

- ADAS technologies automate vehicle control and safety functions to assist drivers in navigating
and maneuvering vehicles safely. These systems include features such as adaptive cruise control,
lane-keeping assistance, automatic emergency braking, and parking assistance.

- Example: Many modern vehicles are equipped with ADAS features such as adaptive cruise
control, which automatically adjusts vehicle speed to maintain a safe following distance from other
vehicles. Lane-keeping assistance systems use cameras and sensors to detect lane markings and
help drivers stay within their lane.
 45

3. Autonomous Vehicles:

- Autonomous vehicles (AVs) use sensors, cameras, radar, lidar, and onboard computers to
navigate and operate vehicles without human intervention. AVs rely on advanced algorithms and
artificial intelligence to interpret sensor data, make driving decisions, and navigate complex
environments.

- Example: Companies like Waymo, Tesla, and General Motors are developing autonomous
vehicle technology that enables cars to navigate city streets, highways, and parking lots
autonomously. These vehicles can detect and respond to traffic signals, pedestrians, cyclists, and
other vehicles with minimal human intervention.

4. Connected Vehicle Technologies:

- Connected vehicle technologies enable vehicles to communicate with each other (V2V) and
with roadside infrastructure (V2I) to exchange real-time information about traffic, road conditions,
and potential hazards. These systems enhance safety, efficiency, and convenience for drivers and
passengers.

- Example: Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication allows cars to share information such as

speed, position, and braking status with nearby vehicles to avoid collisions and optimize traffic
flow. Vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication enables vehicles to receive traffic signal
information, road closures, and construction updates from roadside units.

5. Telematics and Fleet Management:

- Telematics systems combine GPS technology, cellular communication, and onboard sensors to
track vehicle location, monitor vehicle performance, and collect data on driving behavior. Fleet
management systems use telematics data to optimize vehicle usage, improve fuel efficiency, and
enhance driver safety.

- Example: Commercial fleet operators use telematics systems to track the location of vehicles,
monitor engine performance, and analyze driver behavior in real-time. Fleet management software
provides insights into vehicle utilization, maintenance schedules, and fuel consumption to optimize
fleet operations.
 46

Automation in automotive technology is transforming the automotive industry by improving

manufacturing efficiency, enhancing vehicle safety, and enabling new forms of mobility such as
autonomous driving and connected vehicles. By embracing automation, automotive manufacturers
and transportation companies can innovate, adapt, and deliver safer, more efficient, and more
sustainable transportation solutions for the future.

ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

Automation in electrical technology involves the application of automated systems and

technologies to enhance the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of electrical systems,
equipment, and infrastructure. Here's how automation is applied in different aspects of electrical
technology:

1. Design and Engineering:

- Automation tools such as computer-aided design (CAD) software and simulation programs
streamline the design and engineering of electrical systems, including power distribution networks,
control systems, and renewable energy systems. These tools automate tasks such as schematic
design, component selection, and system analysis, enabling engineers to optimize designs and
ensure compliance with safety standards and regulations.

- Example: In electrical engineering firms, CAD software automates the creation of electrical
schematics, layout drawings, and panel designs for building electrical systems. Simulation tools
allow engineers to model and analyze the performance of electrical circuits and systems under
different operating conditions.

2. Industrial Control Systems:

- Automation systems control and monitor industrial processes and equipment in various sectors
such as manufacturing, energy, and utilities. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs), distributed
control systems (DCS), and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems automate
tasks such as process control, equipment monitoring, and data logging.

- Example: In a manufacturing plant, PLCs and SCADA systems control machinery, regulate
production processes, and collect real-time data on equipment performance and product quality.
 47

Automated control systems optimize production efficiency, minimize downtime, and ensure
consistent product output.

3. Power Generation and Distribution:

- Automation technologies are used in power generation and distribution systems to optimize
energy production, improve grid reliability, and enhance system resilience. Automated monitoring,
control, and protection systems manage generation assets, monitor grid conditions, and respond to
faults and disturbances.

- Example: In a power plant, automated control systems regulate turbine operations, adjust
generator output, and maintain grid stability by balancing supply and demand. Automated
protection systems detect faults and isolate faulty equipment to prevent widespread outages and
ensure the continuity of electrical service.

4. Building Automation Systems:

- Building automation systems (BAS) integrate electrical, mechanical, and HVAC (heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning) systems to optimize building performance, energy efficiency,
and occupant comfort. Automated controls, sensors, and actuators regulate lighting, temperature,
and airflow based on occupancy, time of day, and environmental conditions.

- Example: In commercial buildings, BAS systems automatically adjust lighting levels, HVAC
settings, and shading systems to optimize energy usage and create a comfortable indoor
environment for occupants. Automated scheduling and occupancy sensors further enhance
efficiency by turning off systems in unoccupied areas.

5. Maintenance and Condition Monitoring:

- Automation tools and predictive maintenance technologies monitor the condition of electrical
equipment, detect anomalies, and predict potential failures before they occur. Automated
diagnostic tests, remote monitoring systems, and predictive analytics algorithms optimize
maintenance schedules, reduce downtime, and extend equipment lifespan.

- Example: In a data center, automated monitoring systems continuously monitor electrical

equipment such as transformers, switchgear, and UPS (uninterruptible power supply) systems.
Predictive maintenance algorithms analyze data trends to identify early signs of equipment
 48

degradation or impending failures, allowing maintenance teams to take proactive measures to

prevent downtime.

Automation in electrical technology enables engineers, operators, and facility managers to

optimize the design, operation, and maintenance of electrical systems and infrastructure. By
leveraging automation tools and technologies, organizations can improve efficiency, reliability,
and safety in electrical operations while reducing costs and environmental impact.

CIVIL TECHNOLOGY

Automation in civil technology involves the application of automated systems and technologies to
enhance the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of civil infrastructure and
projects. Here's how automation is applied in different aspects of civil technology:

1. Design and Planning:

- Automation tools such as computer-aided design (CAD) and building information modeling
(BIM) software streamline the design and planning of civil engineering projects. These tools
automate tasks such as drafting, modeling, and simulation, enabling engineers to create accurate
designs, visualize projects in 3D, and analyze performance.

- Example: In civil engineering firms, BIM software is used to create digital models of buildings,
bridges, and infrastructure projects. Automated clash detection algorithms identify potential
conflicts between structural elements, mechanical systems, and architectural components during
the design phase, reducing errors and rework.

2. Construction Automation:

- Automation technologies improve efficiency, productivity, and safety in construction projects

by automating repetitive tasks, optimizing construction processes, and enhancing collaboration
between project stakeholders. Automated equipment, robotics, and drones are used for tasks such
as earthmoving, site preparation, and building assembly.

- Example: In large-scale construction projects, automated earthmoving equipment such as

bulldozers, excavators, and graders are equipped with GPS and robotic systems to automate
grading, excavation, and site preparation tasks. Robotic bricklaying machines automate the
placement of bricks and blocks, accelerating construction timelines and reducing labor costs.
 49

3. Monitoring and Control Systems:

- Automation systems monitor and control civil infrastructure such as bridges, dams, and
transportation networks to ensure safety, reliability, and optimal performance. Sensors, cameras,
and IoT (Internet of Things) devices collect real-time data on structural health, traffic flow, and
environmental conditions, enabling proactive maintenance and management.

- Example: In bridge engineering, automated structural health monitoring systems use sensors
embedded in bridge components to detect changes in structural integrity, such as cracks,
deformations, or vibrations. Automated traffic management systems use sensors and cameras to
monitor traffic flow, adjust signal timings, and provide real-time traffic information to drivers.

4. Asset Management and Maintenance:

- Automation tools and technologies optimize the maintenance and management of civil
infrastructure assets such as roads, railways, and utilities. Automated asset management systems
track asset lifecycles, schedule maintenance activities, and prioritize repairs based on condition
assessments and risk analysis.

- Example: In municipal governments, automated pavement management systems use data from
pavement condition surveys, traffic volume, and weather conditions to prioritize road maintenance
and rehabilitation projects. Automated inspection drones equipped with cameras and sensors
survey utility infrastructure such as power lines, pipelines, and transmission towers to identify
defects and assess conditions.

5. Smart Cities and Infrastructure:

- Automation is central to the development of smart cities and infrastructure, where

interconnected technologies and data-driven solutions optimize urban systems and services. Smart
transportation systems, energy grids, and water management systems leverage automation to
improve efficiency, sustainability, and quality of life for residents.

- Example: In smart transportation initiatives, automated traffic signal systems use real-time
traffic data and predictive analytics to optimize signal timings, reduce congestion, and improve
traffic flow. Automated energy management systems optimize energy usage, integrate renewable
energy sources, and reduce carbon emissions in smart grid networks.
 50

Automation in civil technology enables engineers, planners, and stakeholders to design, build, and
manage civil infrastructure more efficiently, sustainably, and resiliently. By leveraging automation
tools and technologies, organizations can improve project outcomes, minimize risks, and enhance
the quality of life in communities around the world.

DRAFTING TECHNOLOGY

Automation in drafting technology refers to the use of automated systems and software tools to
assist in the creation, modification, and documentation of technical drawings and plans. Here's
how automation is applied in different aspects of drafting technology:

1. Computer-Aided Design (CAD):

- CAD software automates the drafting process by providing tools for creating precise 2D and
3D drawings of mechanical, architectural, electrical, and civil designs. Automation features
include parametric modeling, which allows users to define geometric constraints and relationships,
and dynamic blocks, which enable the creation of reusable components with variable properties.

- Example: In architectural firms, CAD software is used to create floor plans, elevations, and
sections of buildings. Automation tools such as automated dimensioning and annotation help
architects and drafters produce accurate and detailed drawings more efficiently.

2. Parametric Design:

- Parametric design software allows designers to create drawings and models that are driven by
parameters and constraints. Changes made to one part of the design automatically propagate to
related parts, ensuring consistency and reducing the need for manual updates.

- Example: In mechanical engineering, parametric CAD software is used to design complex

assemblies of machine parts. When a dimension or parameter is modified, the software
automatically updates the entire assembly to reflect the changes, saving time and reducing errors.

3. Automated Drawing Generation:

- Automated drawing generation tools automatically create technical drawings from 3D models
or assemblies. These tools extract information such as dimensions, annotations, and views from
the model and generate detailed drawings in accordance with industry standards.
 51

- Example: In manufacturing companies, automated drawing generation software is used to

produce engineering drawings for components and assemblies. Engineers can specify drawing
templates and standards, and the software automatically generates drawings with the required
views, dimensions, and annotations.

4. Drafting Standards and Templates:

- Automation tools assist drafters in adhering to drafting standards and conventions by providing
predefined templates, styles, and libraries of symbols and annotations. These resources ensure
consistency across drawings and help maintain compliance with industry standards.

- Example: In electrical engineering, drafting software provides libraries of standardized symbols

for circuit diagrams and schematics. Engineers can drag and drop symbols onto drawings, and the
software automatically assigns attributes such as part numbers and descriptions.

5. Revision Control and Collaboration:

- Automation tools facilitate revision control and collaboration by tracking changes to drawings,
managing version history, and enabling real-time collaboration between multiple users. Cloud-
based collaboration platforms allow drafters and designers to work on drawings simultaneously
and share feedback in real-time.

- Example: In architectural design firms, collaboration software allows architects, engineers, and
clients to review and annotate drawings online. Automated version control ensures that all
stakeholders are working with the latest revisions of the drawings.

Automation in drafting technology enhances productivity, accuracy, and collaboration by

streamlining the drafting process, enforcing drafting standards, and facilitating communication
between stakeholders. By leveraging automation tools and software, drafters and designers can
create high-quality technical drawings more efficiently and effectively.

Automation in electronics technology involves the application of automated systems and

technologies to design, manufacture, test, and maintain electronic components, devices, and
systems. Here's how automation is applied in different aspects of electronics technology:
 52

ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY

1. Electronic Design Automation (EDA):

- Electronic design automation tools automate the process of designing electronic circuits and
systems, including schematic capture, circuit simulation, and printed circuit board (PCB) layout.
These tools increase design productivity, reduce errors, and facilitate collaboration among
designers.

- Example: EDA software such as Cadence Allegro and Mentor Graphics PADS automate the
layout and routing of PCBs, allowing engineers to place components and route traces efficiently
while ensuring signal integrity and manufacturability.

2. Automated Testing and Measurement:

- Automated test equipment (ATE) and instrumentation automate the testing and measurement
of electronic components, circuits, and systems. These systems perform functional tests,
parametric measurements, and reliability testing to ensure product quality and compliance with
specifications.

- Example: In semiconductor manufacturing, automated wafer probers and testers perform

electrical tests on semiconductor wafers to screen for defects and ensure device functionality
before packaging and assembly.

3. Surface Mount Technology (SMT):

- Surface mount technology (SMT) assembly processes automate the placement and soldering
of electronic components onto PCBs. Automated pick-and-place machines and reflow soldering
systems increase assembly throughput, accuracy, and yield.

- Example: SMT assembly lines in electronics manufacturing facilities use automated pick-and-
place machines to accurately place surface mount components onto PCBs, followed by automated
reflow ovens to solder the components to the board.
 53

4. Automated Inspection and Quality Control:

- Automated inspection systems use machine vision, optical inspection, and X-ray imaging to
inspect electronic components, solder joints, and PCBs for defects such as misalignment, solder
bridges, and component placement errors. These systems improve product quality and reliability.

- Example: Automated optical inspection (AOI) systems scan PCBs for defects such as missing
components, solder shorts, and misaligned components, providing real-time feedback to
manufacturing operators and engineers.

5. Automated Production and Assembly:

- Automated production systems and assembly lines automate the manufacturing of electronic
products and devices, including consumer electronics, automotive electronics, and medical
devices. Robotics, conveyor systems, and automated workstations increase manufacturing
efficiency, consistency, and scalability.

- Example: High-volume electronics manufacturing facilities use automated assembly lines

equipped with robots, conveyors, and automated test stations to produce smartphones, tablets, and
other consumer electronics devices with high throughput and quality.

6. Product Lifecycle Management (PLM):

- Product lifecycle management software automates the management of electronic product data
throughout the product development lifecycle, from initial design and prototyping to
manufacturing and end-of-life management. PLM systems streamline collaboration, version
control, and change management.

- Example: PLM software such as Siemens Teamcenter and Dassault Systèmes ENOVIA
automate the management of electronic product data, including CAD files, bills of materials
(BOMs), and documentation, ensuring data integrity and traceability across the product lifecycle.

Automation in electronics technology enhances productivity, quality, and efficiency throughout

the entire product lifecycle, from design and manufacturing to testing and maintenance. By
leveraging automation systems and technologies, electronics manufacturers can accelerate time-
to-market, reduce costs, and deliver innovative products that meet the demands of today's fast-
paced electronics industry.
 54

WELDING AND FABRICATION TECHNOLOGY

Automation in welding and fabrication technology involves the use of automated systems and
equipment to perform welding and fabrication processes with precision, efficiency, and
consistency. Here's how automation is applied in different aspects of welding and fabrication:

1. Robotic Welding:

- Robotic welding systems use industrial robots equipped with welding torches to perform
welding operations with high accuracy and repeatability. These systems are programmed to follow
predefined welding paths and parameters, ensuring consistent weld quality and productivity.

- Example: In automotive manufacturing, robotic welding cells are used to weld chassis
components, body panels, and exhaust systems. Robots can access tight spaces and perform
complex welds with speed and precision, reducing cycle times and improving production
efficiency.

2. Automated Welding Fixtures:

- Automated welding fixtures are used to hold workpieces in the correct position and alignment
during welding operations. These fixtures may incorporate clamps, jigs, and positioners that are
controlled electronically or hydraulically to ensure accurate positioning and stability.

- Example: In shipbuilding, automated welding fixtures are used to assemble large steel plates
and sections into ship hulls. The fixtures hold the plates in position while robotic welding systems
weld seams and joints, ensuring dimensional accuracy and structural integrity.

3. Welding Positioners and Manipulators:

- Welding positioners and manipulators are automated devices that rotate, tilt, or move
workpieces during welding operations to achieve optimal welding positions and angles. These
devices improve accessibility, visibility, and ergonomics for welders, resulting in higher quality
welds.

- Example: In aerospace manufacturing, welding positioners and manipulators are used to

assemble aircraft structures and components. These devices rotate and tilt fuselage sections and
wing panels to allow welders to access all areas and weld joints with precision
 55

4. Automated Weld Inspection:

- Automated weld inspection systems use advanced imaging technologies such as lasers,
cameras, and ultrasonic sensors to inspect welds for defects such as cracks, porosity, and
incomplete fusion. These systems provide real-time feedback on weld quality and integrity,
reducing the need for manual inspection.

- Example: In pipeline construction, automated weld inspection systems are used to inspect welds
on pipeline sections before they are buried underground. These systems detect defects and
anomalies in the weld bead and heat-affected zone, ensuring the integrity of the pipeline.

5. Computer-Aided Welding (CAW):

- Computer-aided welding (CAW) software simulates welding processes and predicts welding
outcomes using numerical modeling and simulation techniques. CAW software helps optimize
welding parameters, predict distortion and residual stresses, and identify potential issues before
actual welding takes place.

- Example: In heavy machinery manufacturing, CAW software is used to simulate welding

processes for large structural components such as crane booms and excavator arms. Engineers can
optimize welding sequences, electrode selections, and heat input parameters to minimize distortion
and ensure weld quality.

Automation in welding and fabrication technology improves productivity, quality, and safety by
leveraging robotic systems, automated fixtures, inspection technologies, and simulation tools. By
automating welding and fabrication processes, manufacturers can achieve higher throughput,
lower costs, and greater consistency in weld quality, leading to improved competitiveness and
customer satisfaction.

In summary, automation in the College of Engineering Technology encompasses a holistic

approach to integrating automated systems and technologies into the curriculum, research, and
industry partnerships to prepare students for careers in automation engineering and drive
innovation in engineering practice and education. By embracing automation, engineering colleges
can equip students with the skills and knowledge needed to thrive in an increasingly automated
world and contribute to advancements in engineering and technology.