Fundamentals of

Electronics
Prepared by:
Engr. Joy J. Labo
Learning Outcomes
Calculate voltage, current, gain, and attenuation in decibels and apply these formulas in
applications involving cascaded circuits.

■ Explain the relationship between Q, resonant frequency, and bandwidth.

■ Describe the basic configuration of the different types of filters that are used in communication
networks and compare and contrast active filters with passive filters.

■ Explain how using switched capacitor filters enhances selectivity.

■ Explain the benefits and operation of crystal, ceramic, and SAW filters.
Tuned Circuits
Gain

• Gain means amplification. If a

signal is applied to a circuit such
as the amplifier shown in Fig. 2-1
and the output of the circuit has
a greater amplitude than the
input signal, the circuit has gain.
Gain
• Gain is simply the ratio of the output
to the input. For input (Vin) and
output (Vout) voltages, voltage gain
AV is expressed as follows:

• The number obtained by dividing

the output by the input shows how
much larger the output is than the
input.
Examples
Example 1:
• If the input is 150 µV and the output is 75 mV, what is the gain?

75 𝑚𝑉
𝐴𝑣 = = 500
150 𝑚𝑉
Example 2:
• If the output is 0.6 V and the gain is 240, what is the input?

Example 3:
• What is the voltage gain of an amplifier that produces an output of 750 mV
for a 30-µV input?
Gain
• Since most amplifiers are also power amplifiers, the same procedure can
be used to calculate power gain
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑝 =
𝑃𝑖𝑛
where Pin is the power input and Pout is the power output

Example 4:
The power output of an amplifier is 6 watts (W). The power gain is 80.
What is the input power?
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 6
𝐴𝑝 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = = 0.075 𝑜𝑟 75𝑚𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑝 80
• When two or more stages of amplification or other forms of signal processing are cascaded, the overall gain
of the combination is the product of the individual circuit gains. Fig. 2-2 shows three amplifiers connected
one after the other so that the output of one is the input to the next.

• The voltage gains of the individual circuits are marked. To find the total gain of this circuit, simply multiply
the individual circuit gains:

AT = A1 x A2 x A3 = 5 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 = 60

• If an input signal of 1 mV is applied to the first amplifier, the output of the third amplifier will be 60 mV. The
outputs of the individual amplifiers depend upon their individual gains.
Example 5:
• Three cascaded amplifiers have power gains of 5, 2, and 17. The input
power is 40 mW. What is the output power?

• Ap = A1 x A2 x A3 = 5 𝑥 2 𝑥 17 = 17
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
• 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑝. 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑖𝑛
• 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 17 40𝑥10−3 = 6.8 𝑊

Example 6:
• A two-stage amplifier has an input power of 25 µW and an output
power of 1.5 mW. One stage has a gain of 3. What is the gain of the
second stage?
Attenuation
• It refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component. Many electronic circuits,
sometimes called stages, reduce the amplitude of a signal rather than increase it.

• If the output signal is lower in amplitude than the input, the circuit has loss, or
attenuation. Like gain, attenuation is simply the ratio of the output to the input.
The letter A is used to represent attenuation as well as gain:

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 = =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Circuits that introduce attenuation have a gain that is less than 1. In other
words, the output is some fraction of the input
• An example of a simple circuit with attenuation is a voltage divider such as that shown in
Fig. 2-3.

• The output voltage is the input voltage multiplied by a ratio based on the resistor values.
With the resistor values shown, the gain or attenuation factor of the circuit is

A = R2 /(R1 + R2 ) = 100/(200 + 100) = 100/300 5 0.3333

• If a signal of 10 V is applied to the attenuator, the output is Vout = VinA = 10(0.3333) =

3.333 V.
• When several circuits with attenuation are cascaded, the total attenuation is, again, the product of
the individual attenuations. The circuit in Fig. 2-4 is an example.

• The attenuation factors for each circuit are shown. The overall attenuation is
A T = A1 x A2 x A3

• With the values shown in Fig. 2-4, the overall attenuation is

AT = 0.2 x 0.9 x 0.06 = 0.0108

Given an input of 3 V, the output voltage is

Vout = AT Vin = 0.0108(3) = 0.0324 = 32.4 mV
• It is common in communication systems and equipment to cascade
circuits and components that have gain and attenuation. For example,
loss introduced by a circuit can be compensated for by adding a stage
of amplification that offsets it. An example of this is shown in Fig. 2-5.

•
• Here the voltage divider introduces a 4-to-1 voltage loss, or an attenuation of 0.25. To
offset this, it is followed with an amplifier whose gain is 4. The overall gain or attenuation
of the circuit is simply the product of the attenuation and gain factors. In this case, the
overall gain is
AT = A1 A2 = 0.25(4) = 1.

• Another example is shown in Fig. 2-6, which shows two attenuation circuits and two
amplifier circuits. The individual gain and attenuation factors are given. The overall circuit
gain is
AT = A1 A2 A3 A4 = (0.1)(10)(0.3)(15) = 4.5.
• For an input voltage of 1.5 V, the output voltage at each circuit is
shown in Fig. 2-6.

• In this example, the overall circuit has a net gain. But in some
instances, the overall circuit or system may have a net loss. In any
case, the overall gain or loss is obtained by multiplying the individual
gain and attenuation factors.

Example 7:
A voltage divider such as that shown in Fig. 2-5 has values of R1=10 kΩ and
R2=470Ω.
a. What is the attenuation?
 𝑅2 470
A1 = 𝑅1+𝑅2
=
10470
= 0.045
b. What amplifier gain would you need to offset the loss for an overall
gain of 1?
AT=A1 A2
where A1 is the attenuation and A2 is the amplifier gain.
1
1 = 0.045 A2 A2 = 0.045 = 22.3

Note: To find the gain that will offset the loss for unity gain, just take
the reciprocal of attenuation: A2=1Τ𝐴1
Example 8:
• An amplifier has a gain of 45,000, which is too much for the
application. With an input voltage of 20 µV, what attenuation factor is
needed to keep the output voltage from exceeding 100 mV? Let A1 =
amplifier gain = 45,000; A2 = attenuation factor; AT = total gain.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 100𝑥 10−3
AT = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 20𝑥10−6
= 5000

𝐴𝑇 5000
AT = A1 A2 therefore A2 = 𝐴2 = 45000 = 0.1111
 Decibels
• The gain or loss of a circuit is usually expressed in
decibels (dB), a unit of measurement that was
originally created as a way of expressing the hearing
response of the human ear to various sound levels. A
decibel is one-tenth of a bel.
• When gain and attenuation are both converted to
decibels, the overall gain or attenuation of an
electronic circuit can be computed by simply adding
the individual gains or attenuations, expressed in
decibels.
• It is common for electronic circuits and systems to
have extremely high gains or attenuations, often in
excess of 1 million. Converting these factors to
decibels and using logarithms result in smaller gain
and attenuation figures, which are easier to use.
Decibel
Calculations
• Formula (1) is used for expressing the
voltage gain or attenuation of a circuit;
formula (2), for current gain or
attenuation. The ratio of the output
voltage or current to the input voltage
or current is determined as usual.
• The base-10 or common log of the
input/output ratio is then obtained and
multiplied by 20. The resulting number
is the gain or attenuation in decibels.
Example 9:
a. An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V. What
is the gain in decibels?
5
𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 0.003 = 20 log 1666.67 = 20 3.22 = 64.4

b. A filter has a power input of 50 mW and an output of 2 mW.

What is the gain or attenuation?
2
𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔0.04 = 10 −1.398 = −13.98
50

Note that when the circuit has gain, the decibel i gure is positive. If the
gain is less than 1, which means that there is an attenuation, the
decibel figure is negative.
• Now, to calculate the overall gain or attenuation of a circuit or system, you
simply add the decibel gain and attenuation factors of each circuit. An
example is shown in Fig. 2-7, where there are two gain stages and an
attenuation block.

• The overall gain of this circuit is AT = A1+A2+A3 = 15-20+35 = 30dB.

Decibels are widely used in the expression of gain and attenuation in
communication circuits.
• Ratios less than 1 give negative decibel values, indicating attenuation. Note
that a 2:1 ratio represents a 3-dB power gain or a 6-dB voltage gain.
Antilogs
• To calculate the input or output voltage or power, given the decibel
gain or attenuation and the output or input, the antilog is used. The
antilog is the number obtained when the base is raised to the
logarithm, which is the exponent:

The antilog is simply the base 10 raised to the dB/10 power.

 The table shows
some common
gain and
attenuation factors
and their
corresponding
decibel figures.
• Remember that the
logarithm y of a number N
is the power to which the
base 10 must be raised to
get the number
Example 10:
• A power amplifier with a 40-
dB gain has an output power
of 100 W. What is the input
power?
Example:
• An amplifier has a gain of 60 dB. If the input voltage is 50 µV, what is
the output voltage?
Since

Therefore
 dBm
• When the gain or attenuation of a circuit is expressed
in decibels, implicit is a comparison between two
values, the output and the input. When the ratio is
computed, the units of voltage or power are
canceled, making the ratio a dimensionless, or
relative, figure.
• When an absolute value is needed, you can use a
reference value to compare any other value. An often
used reference level in communication is 1 mW.
• When a decibel value is computed by comparing a
power value to 1 mW, the result is a value called the
dBm. It is computed with the standard power decibel
formula with 1 mW as the denominator of the ratio:
 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑊)
𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔
0.001(𝑊)

• Here Pout is the output power, or some power value you want to
compare to 1 mW, and 0.001 is 1 mW expressed in watts.
• The output of a 1-W amplifier expressed in dBm is, e.g.

1
• 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 0.001 = 10 log 1000 = 10 3 = 30 𝑑𝐵𝑚

• Sometimes the output of a circuit or device is given in dBm. For

example, if a microphone has an output of 250 dBm, the actual
output power can be computed as follows:
Example 12:
• A power amplifier has an input of
90 mV across 10 kV. The output is
7.8 V across an 8-V speaker.
What is the power gain, in
decibels? You must compute the
input and output power levels
first.
dBc
• This is a decibel gain attenuation figure where the reference is the carrier. The
carrier is the base communication signal, a sine wave that is modulated. Often
the amplitude’s sidebands, spurious or interfering signals, are referenced to the
carrier.

Example 13:
An amplifier has a power gain of 28 dB. The input power is 36 mW. What is
the output power?
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑖𝑛
= 10𝑑𝐵/10 = 102.8 = 630.96
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 630.96 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 630.96 36𝑥10−3 = 22.71 𝑊
Example 14:
• A circuit consists of two amplifiers with gains of 6.8 and 14.3 dB and
two filters with attenuations of 216.4 and 22.9 dB. If the output
voltage is 800 mV, what is the input voltage?
Example 15:
• Express Pout 5 12.3 dBm in watts.

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 10𝑑𝐵𝑚/10 = 1012.3/10
0.001

= 101.23 = 17

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.001 𝑥 17 = 17𝑚𝑊

Reactive Components
• All tuned circuits and many filters are made up of inductive and
capacitive elements, including discrete components such as coils
and capacitors.
• Both coils and capacitors offer an opposition to alternating
current flow known as reactance, which is expressed in ohms
(Ω).
• Reactance is an opposition that directly affects the amount of
current in a circuit. In addition, reactive effects produce a phase
shift between the currents and voltages in a circuit.
• Capacitance causes the current to lead the applied voltage,
whereas inductance causes the current to lag the applied
voltage. Coils and capacitors used together form tuned, or
resonant, circuits.
 Capacitors
• A capacitor used in an ac circuit continually charges
and discharges. A capacitor tends to oppose voltage
changes across it. This translates to an opposition to
alternating current known as capacitive reactance
XC.
• The reactance of a capacitor is inversely
proportional to the value of capacitance C and
operating frequency f. It is given by the familiar
expression
1
𝑋𝑐 =
2𝑓𝐶

The reactance of a 100-pF capacitor at 2 MHz is

1
𝑋𝑐 = = 796.2Ω
2(2𝑥106 )(100𝑥10−12 )
• The formula can also be used to calculate either frequency or capacitance
depending on the application. These formulas are:
1 1
f = 2𝑋𝑐𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 2𝑓𝑋𝑐

• The wire leads of a capacitor have resistance and inductance, and the dielectric
has leakage that appears as a resistance value in parallel with the capacitor. These
characteristics, which are illustrated in Fig. 2-8, are sometimes referred to as
residuals or parasitics.
• The series resistance and inductance are very
small, and the leakage resistance is very high,
so these factors can be ignored at low
frequencies. At radio frequencies, however,
these residuals become noticeable, and the
capacitor functions as a complex RLC circuit.
Most of these effects can be greatly
minimized by keeping the capacitor leads very
short.

• Capacitance is generally added to a circuit by a

capacitor of a specific value, but capacitance
can occur between any two conductors
separated by an insulator.
 Inductors
• An inductor, also called a coil or choke, is simply a
winding of multiple turns of wire. When current is passed
through a coil, a magnetic field is produced around the
coil. If the applied voltage and current are varying, the
magnetic i eld alternately expands and collapses. This
causes a voltage to be self-induced into the coil winding,
which has the effect of opposing current changes in the
coil. This effect is known as inductance.

• The basic unit of inductance is the henry (H). Inductance

is directly affected by the physical characteristics of the
coil, including the number of turns of wire in the
inductor, the spacing of the turns, the length of the coil,
the diameter of the coil, and the type of magnetic core
material.
• When an inductor is used in an ac circuit, this opposition becomes continuous
and constant and is known as inductive reactance. Inductive reactance XL is
expressed in ohms and is calculated by using the expression

XL = 2πfL
For example, the inductive reactance of a 40-µH coil at 18 MHz is

XL= 2 18𝑥106 40x10−6 = 4522 Ω

Any wire or conductor exhibits a characteristic inductance. The longer the wire, the
greater the inductance.
• In addition to the resistance of the wire in an inductor, there is stray capacitance
between the turns of the coil (Fig. 2-10(a). The overall effect is as if a small
capacitor were connected in parallel with the coil, as shown in Fig. 2-10(b).

• This is the equivalent circuit of an inductor at high frequencies. At low

frequencies, capacitance may be ignored, but at radio frequencies, it is
sufficiently large to affect circuit operation. The coil then functions not as a pure
inductor, but as a complex RLC circuit with a self resonating frequency
• Another important characteristic of an inductor is its quality factor Q, the ratio
of inductive power to resistive power:

𝐼 2 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿
𝑄= =
𝐼2𝑅 𝑅

This is the ratio of the power returned to the circuit to the power actually
dissipated by the coil resistance. For example, the Q of a 3-µH inductor with a
total resistance of 45Ω at 90 MHz is calculated as follows:

2𝑓𝐿 2(90𝑥106 )(3𝑥10−6 ) 1695.6

𝑄= = = = 37.68
𝑅 45 45
Resistors
• At low frequencies, a standard low-wattage color-coded resistor
offers nearly pure resistance, but at high frequencies its leads have
considerable inductance, and stray capacitance between the leads causes
the resistor to act as a complex RLC circuit, as shown in Fig. 2-11. To
minimize the inductive and capacitive effects, the leads are kept very short
in radio applications.
Resistors
• They are made by depositing a carbon or metal film
in spiral form on a ceramic form. The size of the
spiral and the kind of metal film determine the
resistance value.

• Carbon film resistors are quieter than carbon-

composition resistors, and metal film resistors are
quieter than carbon film resistors. Metal film
resistors should be used in amplifier circuits that
must deal with very low level RF signals. Most
surface-mount resistors are of the metallic film
type.
Skin Effect
• The resistance of any wire conductor, whether it is a resistor or capacitor lead or
the wire in an inductor, is primarily determined by the ohmic resistance of the
wire itself. However, other factors influence it. The most significant one is skin
effect, the tendency of electrons flowing in a conductor to flow near and on the
outer surface of the conductor frequencies in the VHF, UHF, and microwave
regions (Fig. 2-12).
Skin Effect
• This has the effect of greatly decreasing the total cross-sectional area
of the conductor, thus increasing its resistance and significantly
affecting the performance of the circuit in which the conductor is
used. Skin effect lowers the Q of an inductor at the higher
frequencies, causing unexpected and undesirable effects.
Tuned Circuits and
Resonance
• A tuned circuit is made up of inductance and
capacitance and resonates at a specific
frequency, the resonant frequency. In general,
the terms tuned circuit and resonant circuit are
used interchangeably.

• Because tuned circuits are frequency-selective,

they respond best at their resonant frequency
and at a narrow range of frequencies around
the resonant frequency.
Series Resonant Circuit
• A series resonant circuit is made up of inductance, capacitance, and resistance, as
shown in Fig. 2-13. Such circuits are often referred to as LCR circuits or RLC
circuits. The inductive and capacitive reactances depend upon the frequency of
the applied voltage.
• Resonance occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. A plot
of reactance versus frequency is shown in Fig. 2-14, where fr is the resonant
frequency.
• The total impedance of the circuit is given by the expression

𝑍= 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

• When XL equals XC, they cancel each other, leaving only the resistance of the
circuit to oppose the current. At resonance, the total circuit impedance is simply
the value of all series resistances in the circuit. This includes the resistance of the
coil and the resistance of the component leads, as well as any physical resistor in
the circuit.

• The resonant frequency can be expressed in terms of inductance and

capacitance. A formula for resonant frequency can be easily derived. First,
express XL and XC as an equivalence: XL = XC.
• Since

In this formula, the frequency is in hertz, the inductance is in henrys, and the capacitance
is in farads.
Example 1.
• What is the resonant frequency of a 2.7-pF capacitor and a 33-nH inductor?

It is often necessary to calculate capacitance or inductance, given one of those

values and the resonant frequency. The basic resonant frequency formula can be
rearranged to solve for either inductance and capacitance as follows:
• For example, the capacitance that will resonate at a frequency of 18
MHz with a 12-µH inductor is determined as follows:

Example 2:
• What value of inductance will resonate with a 12-pF capacitor at 49
MHz?
• The response of a series resonant circuit (Fig. 2-
15), a plot of the frequency and phase shift of the
current in the circuit with respect to frequency.
• At VLF, the Xc >> XL; therefore, the current in the
circuit is very low because of the high impedance.
In addition, because the circuit is predominantly
capacitive, the current leads the voltage by nearly
90°.
• As the frequency increases, XC goes down and XL
goes up. The amount of leading phase shift
decreases. As the values of reactances approach
one another, the current begins to rise.
• When XL=XC, their effects cancel and the
impedance in the circuit is just that of the
resistance. This produces a current peak, where
the current is in phase with the voltage (0°).
• As the frequency continues to rise, XL > XC.
The impedance of the circuit increases
and the current decreases. With the
circuit predominantly inductive, the
current lags the applied voltage.
• If the output voltage were being taken
from across the resistor (Fig. 2-13), the
response curve and phase angle of the
voltage would correspond to those in Fig.
2-15.

• It shows, the current is highest in a region

centered on the resonant frequency. The
narrow frequency range over which the
current is highest is called the bandwidth.
(Fig. 2-16).
• The upper and lower boundaries of the bandwidth are defined by two cutoff
frequencies designated f1 and f2 . These cutoff frequencies occur where the
current amplitude is 70.7 percent of the peak current.

• Current levels at which the response is down 70.7 percent are called the half-
power points because the power at the cutoff frequencies is one-half the
power peak of the curve.

𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = (0.707 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘)2 𝑅 = 0.5 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 2 𝑅

• The bandwidth BW of the tuned circuit is defined as the difference between

the upper and lower cutoff frequencies:
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
• The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is determined by the Q of the circuit.

• If the Q of a circuit resonant at 18 MHz is 50, then the bandwidth is BW = 18/50

BW = 0.36 MHz = 360 kHz.

Example 3:
What is the bandwidth of a resonant circuit with a frequency of 28 MHz and a Q of
70?
• Since the bandwidth is approximately centered on the resonant frequency, f1
is the same distance from fr as f2 is from fr . This fact allows you to calculate
the resonant frequency by knowing only the cutoff frequencies:

fr = 𝑓1 . 𝑓2

• If the circuit Q is very high (>100), then the response curve is approximately
symmetric around the resonant frequency. The cutoff frequencies will then be
roughly equidistant from the resonant frequency by the amount of BW/2.

• Thus, the cutoff frequencies can be calculated if the bandwidth and the
resonant frequency are known:
• The relationship between circuit
resistance Q and bandwidth is extremely
important. The higher Q is, the smaller
the bandwidth. Low Qs produce wide
bandwidths or less selectivity.

• In turn, Q is a function of the circuit

resistance. A low resistance produces a
high Q, a narrow bandwidth, and a
highly selective circuit. A high circuit
resistance produces a low Q, wide
bandwidth, and poor selectivity.

• In most cases, Q is controlled directly by

the resistance of the inductor. Fig. 2-17
shows the effect of different values of Q
on bandwidth.
Example 4:
The upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a resonant circuit are found to
be 8.07 and 7.93 MHz. Calculate (a) the bandwidth, (b) the approximate
resonant frequency, and (c) Q.

Example 5:
What are the approximate 3-dB down frequencies of a resonant
circuit with a Q of 200 at 16 MHz?
• Resonance produces an interesting but useful phenomenon in a series RLC circuit.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 2-18(a). At resonance, assume XL = XC = 500 V. The
total circuit resistance is 10 Ω. The Q of the circuit is then
𝑋𝐶 500
𝑄= = = 50
𝑅 10

• If the applied or source voltage Vs is 2 V, the circuit current at resonance will be

𝑉𝑠 2
𝐼= = = 0.2𝐴
𝑅 10
When the reactances, the resistances, and the current are known, the voltage
drops across each component can be computed:
• The voltage drops across the inductor and capacitor are significantly higher than the
applied voltage, known as the resonant step-up voltage. Although the sum of the
voltage drops around the series circuit is still equal to the source voltage, at
resonance the voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90° and the voltage
across the capacitor lags the current by 90° [Fig. 2-18(b)].
The resonant step-up voltage across the coil or capacitor can be
easily computed by multiplying the input or source voltage by Q: VL =
VC = QVs. In the example in Fig. 2-18, VL = 50(2) = 100 V.

Example 6:
• A series resonant circuit has a Q of 150 at 3.5 MHz. The
applied voltage is 3 µV. What is the voltage across the
capacitor?
Parallel Resonant Circuits
• A parallel resonant circuit is formed when the inductor and capacitor are connected
in parallel with the applied voltage, as shown in Fig. 2-19(a). In general, resonance in
a parallel tuned circuit can also be defined as the point at which XL = XC.
• The resonant frequency is therefore calculated by the resonant frequency formula
given earlier. If we assume lossless components in the circuit (no resistance), then
the current in the inductor equals the current in the capacitor IL = IC.
• Although the currents are equal, they are 180° out of phase, as the phasor
diagram in Fig. 2-19(b) shows. The current in the inductor lags the applied voltage
by 90°, and the current in the capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90°, for a
total of 180°.

• Now, by applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the circuit, the sum of the individual
branch currents equals the total current drawn from the source. With the
inductive and capacitive currents equal and out of phase, their sum is 0.

• Thus, at resonance, a parallel tuned circuit appears to have infinite resistance,

draws no current from the source and thus has infinite impedance, and acts as an
open circuit. However, there is a high circulating current between the inductor
and capacitor.
• Energy is being stored and transferred between the inductor and capacitor. Because
such a circuit acts as a kind of storage vessel for electric energy, it is often referred to
as a tank circuit and the circulating current is referred to as the tank current.
• Typically, we can assume that the capacitor has practically zero losses and the
inductor contains a resistance, (Fig. 2-20(a).
• At resonance, where XL = XC, the impedance of the inductive branch of the circuit
is higher than the impedance of the capacitive branch because of the coil
resistance.

• The capacitive current is slightly higher than the inductive current. Even if the
reactances are equal, the branch currents will be unequal and therefore there will
be some net current flow in the supply line.

• The source current will lead the supply voltage (Fig. 2-20(b). The result is a very
high resistive impedance, approximately equal to

𝑉𝑠
𝑍= 𝐼𝑇
• To simplify the mathematics involved, convert the circuit to an equivalent circuit in which
the coil resistance is translated to a parallel resistance that gives the same overall results,
as shown in Fig. 2-21. The equivalent inductance Leq and resistance Req are calculated with
the formulas

and Q is determined by the formula

𝑋𝐿
𝑄= 𝑅𝑊
where RW is the coil winding resistance

• If Q is high, usually more than 10, Leq is approximately equal to the actual inductance
value L. The total impedance of the circuit at resonance is equal to the equivalent parallel
resistance:
𝑍 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞
 Example 7:
What is the impedance of a parallel LC circuit
with a resonant frequency of 52 MHz and a Q
of 12? L 5 0.15 µH.

If the Q of the parallel resonant circuit is greater than 10, the following simplified formula can be used to calculate
the resistive impedance at resonance:
𝐿
𝑍= 𝐶𝑅𝑊
The value of RW is the winding resistance of the coil.
Example 8:
• Calculate the impedance of the circuit given in Example 7 by using the formula Z =
L/CR.

• This is close to the previously computed value of 592 V. The formula Z = L/CRW is
an approximation
• A frequency and phase response curve of a
parallel resonant circuit is shown in Fig. 2-22.

• Below fr, XL < XC; thus, IL >IC, and the circuit

appears inductive. The line current lags the
applied voltage.

• Above fr, XC < XL; thus, the IC > IL and the circuit
appears capacitive.

• Therefore, the line current leads the applied

voltage. The phase angle of the impedance will
be leading below resonance and lagging above
resonance.
• Note that the Q of a parallel circuit, which was previously expressed as Q = XL/RW,
can also be computed with the expression
𝑅𝑃
𝑄=
𝑋𝐿

where RP is the equivalent parallel resistance, Req in parallel with any other
parallel resistance, and XL is the inductive reactance of the equivalent inductance
Leq.

• You can set the bandwidth of a parallel tuned circuit by controlling Q. The Q can
be determined by connecting an external resistor across the circuit. This has the
effect of lowering RP and increasing the bandwidth.
Example 9:
• What value of parallel resistor is needed to set the bandwidth of a parallel tuned
circuit to 1 MHz? Assume XL = 300 V, RW = 10 V, and fr = 10 MHz.
 Solve the following:
1. At what frequency will a 2-µH inductor
have a reactance of 300 Ω?

2. A 2.5-µH inductor has a resistance of

23 V. At a frequency of 35 MHz, what
is its Q?

3. What is the resonant frequency of a

0.55-µH coil with a capacitance of 22
pF?
Filters
Filter
• A filter is a frequency-selective circuit. Filters are
designed to pass some frequencies and reject
others. The series and parallel resonant circuits
are examples of filters.

• There are numerous ways to implement filter

circuits. Simple filters created by using resistors
and capacitors or inductors and capacitors are
called passive filters because they use passive
components that do not amplify.
 • Low-pass filter. Passes frequencies below a critical
frequency called the cutoff frequency and greatly
attenuates those above the cutoff frequency.

• High-pass filter. Passes frequencies above the cutoff but

rejects those below it.
5 basic kinds • Bandpass filter. Passes frequencies over a narrow range
of filter between lower and upper cutoff frequencies.

circuits • Band-reject filter. Rejects or stops frequencies over a

narrow range but allows frequencies above and below to
pass.

• All-pass filter. Passes all frequencies equally well over its

design range but has a fixed or predictable phase shift
characteristic.
 RC Filters

An RC coupling circuit is an example of a high-pass filter because the ac component of the input
voltage is developed across R and the dc voltage is blocked by the series capacitor. Furthermore,
with higher frequencies in the ac component, more ac voltage is coupled.

RC filters use combinations of resistors and capacitors to achieve the desired

response. Most RC filters are of the low-pass or high-pass type.

Some band-reject or notch filters are also made with RC circuits. Bandpass filters can
be made by combining low-pass and high-pass RC sections, but this is rarely done.
 Low Pass Filter
• It is a circuit that introduces no attenuation at
frequencies below the cutoff frequency but
completely eliminates all signals with frequencies
above the cutoff.

• Low-pass filters are sometimes referred to as high

cut filters. Its ideal response curve (Fig. 2-23.)

• The simplest form of low-pass filter is the RC circuit

shown in Fig. 2-24(a). The circuit forms a simple
voltage divider with one frequency-sensitive
component, in this case the capacitor. The
frequency response of the basic circuit is illustrated
in Fig. 2-24(b).
• The cutoff frequency, also known as the critical frequency, is
determined by the expression

• For example, if R = 4.7 kΩ and C = 560 pF, the cutoff frequency is

Example 1:
• What is the cutoff frequency of a single-section RC low-pass filter with R = 8.2 kΩ
and C = 0.0033 µF?
• At the cutoff frequency, the output amplitude is
70.7% of the input amplitude at lower frequencies.
This is the so-called 3-dB down point. The filter has
a voltage gain of 23 dB.

• At frequencies above the cutoff frequency, the

amplitude decreases at a linear rate of 6 dB/octave
or 20 dB/decade. An octave is defined as a
doubling or halving of frequency, and a decade
represents a one-tenth or times-10 relationship.

• If a faster rate of attenuation is required, two RC

sections set to the same cutoff frequency can be
used (Fig. 2-25(a).
• A low-pass filter can also be implemented
with an inductor and a resistor (Fig. 2-26).
The cutoff frequency is determined by
using the formula

𝑅
𝑓𝑐𝑜 =
2𝐿

• The RL low-pass filters are not as widely

used as RC filters because inductors are
usually larger, heavier, and more
expensive than capacitors. Inductors also
have greater loss than capacitors because
of their inherent winding resistance.
 High Pass Filters

• A high-pass filter passes frequencies

above the cutoff frequency with little
or no attenuation but greatly
attenuates those signals below the
cutoff.
• The ideal high-pass response curve is
shown in Fig. 2-27(a). Approximations
to the ideal response curve shown in
Fig. 2-27(b) can be obtained with a
variety of RC and LC filters.
• The basic RC high-pass filter is shown in Fig. 2-28(a).
• At low frequencies, XC is very high. When XC >>R, the voltage divider effect provides
high attenuation of the low-frequency signals.
• As the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases. When the capacitive
reactance is equal to or less than the resistance, the voltage divider gives very little
attenuation. Therefore, high frequencies pass relatively unattenuated.
• The cutoff frequency is the same as that for the low-pass circuit and is derived
from setting XC equal to R and solving for frequency:
1
𝑓𝑐𝑜 =
2𝑅𝐶

The roll-off rate is 6 dB/octave or 20 dB/decade.

A high-pass filter can also be implemented with a coil and a resistor, as
shown in Fig. 2-28(b). The cutoff frequency is
𝑅
𝑓𝑐𝑜 =
2𝐿

The response curve is the same as that shown in Fig. 2-27(b). The rate of
attenuation is 6 dB/octave or 20 dB/decade, as was the case with the low-pass
filter. Improved attenuation can be obtained by cascading filter sections.
Example 2:
• What is the closest standard EIA resistor value that will produce a cutoff
frequency of 3.4 kHz with a 0.047-µF capacitor in a high-pass RC filter?

The closest standard values are 910 and 1000 V, with 1000 being the closest.
 RC Notch Filter

• Notch filters are also referred to as bandstop

or band-reject filters.
• They are used to greatly attenuate a narrow
range of frequencies around a center point.
Notch filters accomplish the same purpose,
but for a single frequency.
• A simple notch filter that is implemented with
resistors and capacitors (Fig. 2-29(a)) is called
a parallel-T or twin-T notch filter, a variation
of a bridge circuit. A typical response curve is
shown in Fig. 2-29(b).
The center notch frequency is computed with the formula

1
𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ =
2𝑅𝐶
For example, if the values of resistance and capacitance are 100 kV and 0.02 µF, the
notch frequency is
• Twin-T notch filters are used primarily at low frequencies, audio and below.
A common use is to eliminate 60-Hz power line hum from audio circuits
and low-frequency medical equipment amplifiers.

Example 3
• What values of capacitors would you use in an RC twin-T notch filter to
remove 120 Hz if R = 220 kΩ?
LC Filters

• At radio frequencies, it is more

common to see LC filters made with
inductors and capacitors. Inductors
for lower frequencies are large, bulky,
and expensive, but those used at
higher frequencies are very small,
light, and inexpensive.
Filter Terminology
❑Passband. The frequency range over which the
filter passes signals. It is the frequency range
between the cutoff frequencies or between the
cutoff frequency and zero (for low-pass) or
between the cutoff frequency and infinity (for
high-pass).

❑Stop band. The range of frequencies outside the

passband, i.e., the range of frequencies that is
greatly attenuated by the filter. Frequencies in
this range are rejected.

❑Attenuation. The amount by which undesired

frequencies in the stop band are reduced. It can
be expressed as a power ratio or voltage ratio of
the output to the input. It is usually given in
decibels.
Filter Terminology
❑Insertion loss. Insertion loss is the loss the filter introduces to the signals in the
passband. Passive filters introduce attenuation because of the resistive losses in the
components. Insertion loss is typically given in decibels.

❑Impedance. Impedance is the resistive value of the load and source terminations of
the filter. Filters are usually designed for specific driving source and load impedances
that must be present for proper operation.

❑Ripple. Amplitude variation with frequency in the passband, or the repetitive rise
and fall of the signal level in the passband of some types of filters, is known as ripple.
It is usually stated in decibels. There may also be ripple in the stop bandwidth in
some types of filters.
 Filter Terminology
❑Shape factor. Also known as bandwidth ratio, it is the ratio of the
stop bandwidth to the pass bandwidth of a bandpass filter. It
compares the bandwidth at minimum attenuation, usually at the
23-dB points or cutoff frequencies, to that of maximum
attenuation and thus gives a relative indication of attenuation
rate or selectivity. The smaller the ratio, the greater the
selectivity with ideal value equal to 1.

❑Pole. It is a frequency at which there is a high impedance in the

circuit. It is also used to describe one RC section of a filter. For LC
low- and high-pass filters, the number of poles is equal to the
number of reactive components in the filter. For bandpass and
band-reject filters, the number of poles is generally assumed to
be one-half the number of reactive components used.

❑Zero. This term refers to a frequency at which there is zero

impedance in the circuit.
 Filter Terminology

Envelope delay. Also known as time delay,

envelope delay is the time it takes for a specific
point on an input waveform to pass through the
filter.

Roll-off. Also called the attenuation rate, roll-off is the

rate of change of amplitude with frequency in a filter.
The faster the roll-off, or the higher the attenuation
rate, the more selective the filter is, i.e., the better able
it is to differentiate between two closely spaced signals,
one desired and the other not.
Low- and High-Pass LC Filters
• Fig. 2-31 shows the basic low-pass filter configurations. The basic two-pole circuit
in Fig. 2-31(a) provides an attenuation rate of 12 dB per octave or 20 dB per
decade. These sections may be cascaded to provide an even greater roll-off rate.
 Types of Filters
❑Butterworth. This filter effect has maximum
flatness in response in the pass band and a
uniform attenuation with frequency. The
attenuation rate just outside the passband is
not as great as can be achieved with other
types of filters.

❑Chebyshev. They have extremely good

selectivity; i.e., their attenuation rate or roll-
off is high, much higher than that of the
Butterworth. The attenuation just outside the
passband is also very high. The main problem
though is that it has ripple in the passband.
The response is not flat or constant which can
be a disadvantage in some applications.
 Types of Filters
❑Cauer (Elliptical). They produce an even greater
attenuation or roll-off rate than do Chebyshev filters
and greater attenuation out of the passband.
However, they do this with an even higher ripple in
the passband as well as outside of the passband.

❑Bessel. Also called Thomson filters, they provide the

desired frequency response (i.e., low-pass, bandpass,
etc.) but have a constant time delay in the passband.
Solve the given problem:

• A simple low-pass RC filter having a

cut-off frequency of 1 kHz is
connected to a constant ac source of
10V. Calculate C if R = 10 kΩ.
References:
• Blake, Roy. (2018). Electronic Communication Systems, Paperback International Edition. Cengage, India

• Frenzel, Louise Jr, E. (2016). Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, 4 th Edition. McGraw Hill
Education, New York

• Tomasi, Wayne. (2019). Advanced Electronic Communications Systems, 6th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
New Jersey

• Testbook. Retrieved June 19, 2020, from https://testbook.com/question-answer/a-simple-low-pass-rc-filter-

having-a-cut-off-frequ--5e99f395f60d5d4c0effac17