Session: 2023-24

Physics Lab Manual

Class - XII | Major File
Instructions to Follow:
1. Students are supposed to prepare Physics practical file in Physics practical manual of
any publication.
2. All content must be copied as it is in sequence, there should not be any type of cutting.
3. Calculations, Diagrams must be done neatly on blank page.
4. Use pen for making observation table on ruled page.
5. Use pencil for drawing diagrams. Pasting of diagram from the given content is not
allowed.
6. Only use Blue pen. You can use Black pen only for headings.
7. Cover your files with white paper at the time of submission.
8. Complete the index by writing aim for each experiment.
 INDEX

S.NO. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT DATE SIGN

To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a

1
graph for potential difference versus current.

To verify the laws of combination of resistance in series

2
by using Meter Bridge.

To find the resistance of a given wire using meter

3
bridge.

To determine the resistance of galvanometer by half

4
deflection method and find its figure of merit.

To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a

glass prism by plotting graph between the angle of
5
incidence and the angle of deviation and determine the
refractive index of materials of the prism.

To find the focal length of convex lens by u-v method

6 1 1
and plotting graphs between u and v or and .
u v

To determine the refractive index of glass slab by using

7
travelling microscope.

To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction

8
diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

1
 Experiment – 1
Aim: To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.
Apparatus:Two pieces of wire, a dc voltmeter, a dc ammeter, a rheostat, plug key, battery
eliminator, connecting wires, sand paper, a metre scale & screw gauge.
Theory: Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor
varies directly as potential difference between its ends.
R=V/𝐼
where V is potential difference and I is the current, passing through the conductor of
length L.
Resistivity 𝜌=RA/𝑙
where ‘R’ is the resistance, ‘A’ is the area of cross section of the wire (A=πr 2), ‘𝑙’is the
length of the wire.
Circuit Diagram:

Observation Table:
For Wire 1:
(a) Length of Wire = 30 cm.
(b) Diameter of Wire 1

CSR=LCx No. of coinciding

S.no. MSR D=MSR+CSR
CSD

1. 0 mm 0.01 mm x 25 =0.25 mm 0.25 mm

2. 0 mm 0.01 x 25 =0.25 mm 0.25 mm

(c) Resistance of wire 1

𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
L.C of Voltmeter = = 0.025 V, L.C. of ammeter = = 0.025 A
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎

S.no. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Resistance R=V/I

1. 7 x 0.025 = 0.175 V 2 x 0.025 = 0.05 A 3.5 𝛀

2. 11 x 0.025 = 0.262 V 3 x 0.025 = 0.075 A 3.6 𝛀

3. 14 x 0.025 = 0.35 V 4 x 0.025 = 0.1 A 3.5 𝛀

4. 18 x 0.025 = 0.437 V 5 x 0.025 = 0.125 A 3.6 𝛀

5. 21 x 0.025 = 0.525 V 6 x 0.025 = 0.15 A 3.5 𝛀

Rmean = 3.5 𝛀

2
For Wire 2:
(a) Length of Wire = 60 cm.
(b) Diameter of Wire 2

S.no. MSR CSR=LCx No. of coinciding CSD D=MSR+CSR

1. 0 mm 0.01 mm x 25 =0.25 mm 0.25 mm

2. 0 mm 0.01 x 25 =0.25 mm 0.25 mm

(c) Resistance of wire 2

𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
L.C of Voltmeter = 𝟏𝟎
= 0.025 V, L.C. of ammeter = 𝟏𝟎
= 0.025 A
S.no. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Resistance R=V/I

1. 7 x 0.025 = 0.175 V 1 x 0.025 = 0.025 A 7𝛀

2. 11 x 0.025 = 0.262 V 1.5 x 0.025 = 0.0375 A 7.3 𝛀

3. 14 x 0.025 = 0.35 V 2 x 0.025 = 0.05 A 7𝛀

4. 18 x 0.025 = 0.437 V 2.5 x 0.025 = 0.0625 A 7.2 𝛀

5. 21 x 0.025 = 0.525 V 3 x 0.025 = 0.075 A 7𝛀

Rmean = 7 𝛀

Calculation: (blank page)

(a) For Wire 1
𝑉 0.175
i. Resistance 𝑅1 = 𝐼
= 0.05
= 3.5 Ω
𝑉 0.262
ii. Resistance 𝑅2 = 𝐼
= 0.075
= 3.6 Ω
𝑉 0.35
iii. Resistance 𝑅3 = 𝐼
= 0.1
= 3.5 Ω
𝑉 0.437
iv. Resistance 𝑅4 = = = 3.6 Ω
𝐼 0.125
𝑉 0.525
v. Resistance 𝑅5 = 𝐼
= 0.15
= 3.5 Ω

(b) For Wire 2

𝑉 0.175
i. Resistance 𝑅1 = 𝐼
= 0.025 = 7 Ω
𝑉 0.262
ii. Resistance 𝑅2 = 𝐼
= 0.0375 = 7.3 Ω
𝑉 0.35
iii. Resistance 𝑅3 = 𝐼
= 0.05 = 7 Ω
𝑉 0.437
iv. Resistance 𝑅4 = 𝐼
= 0.0625 = 7.2 Ω
𝑉 0.525
v. Resistance 𝑅5 = 𝐼
= 0.075 = 7 Ω
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 +𝑅4 +𝑅5
Mean Unknown Resistance =𝑅 = 5

For Wire 1, RMean = 3.5 Ω

For Wire 2, RMean =7Ω

3
The specific resistance of the material of wire (1)
3.5×3.14
Resistivity 𝜌=RA/𝑙 = × (0.125 𝑋 10−3 )2 = 0.57 x 10-6 Ω m
0.3

The specific resistance of the material of wire (2)

7×3.14
Resistivity 𝜌=RA/𝑙 = × (0.125 𝑋 10−3 )2 = 0.57 x 10-6 Ω m
0.6

Result: 1. The resistance of the given wire (1) from graph R= 3.5 ohm
2. The specific resistance of the material of wire (1) = 0.57 x 10-6 Ω m
3. The resistance of the given wire (2) from graph R= 7 ohm
4. The specific resistance of the material of wire (2) = 0.57 x 10-6 Ω m
Precautions:
i. First of all, the circuit should be drawn and got checked.
ii. Connection should be tight.
iii. Before plugging in the key ensure that circuit and connectives are correct.
Sources of Error:
i. There may occur some contact resistance in the circuit.
ii. The connecting wires may not have negligible resistance.
iii. The unknown resistance of the metallic wire may also alter with the passage of
current through it.

4
 Experiment – 2
Aim: To verify the laws of combination of resistance in series by using Meter
Bridge.
Apparatus: Meter Bridge, connecting wires, battery, Resistance box, Galvanometer,
Jockey, Screw gauge, two resistance wires etc.
P R Q
Theory: According to “Wheat stone’s bridge”   S  R
Q S P
Replace “S” by an unknown resistance which can be calculated as:-
(100  l )  R
S
l
Where: 𝑙 = Length A to B of the Meter Bridge.
R = Resistance of resistance box.
For series combination of two resistance R1 and R2 , the combined resistance.

Rs = R1+R2
Circuit Diagram:

Observation:
i. Length of the first resistance wire ( L1 ) = 10 cm.
ii. Length of the second resistance wire ( L2 ) = 15 cm.
Observation Table:

Resistance of Balancing Length Unknown

Resistance Mean
Resistance box
S.No. Resistance connected A to B B to C (100  l )  R Resistance
R
(ohm) 𝒍 (cm) (100-𝒍) (cm) S  S (ohm)
l
1. R1 2 41 59 2.87
R1=2.51
2. R1 4 65 35 2.15
3. R2 2 38 62 3.20
R2=3.26
4. R2 4 55 45 2.27
5. R1 and R2 in series 2 22 78 7.09
RS=7.25
6. R1 and R2 in series 4 35 65 7.42

5
Calculation: (blank page)
2.87+2.15
i. Resistance R1 = 2
= 2.51 (Ohm)
3.26+3.27
ii. Resistance R2 = 2
= 3.26 (Ohm)
7.09+7.42
iii. Resistance Rs = 2
= 7.25 (Ohm)
Theoretical Value in series Difference in series
Rsr  R1  R2 = 2.51 + 3.26 Ds  Rs  Rsr = 7.25 – 5.77
= 5.77(ohm) = 1.48(ohm)
Result: Since the theoretical and experimental values Rs agree well within the limit of error
in experiment, the law of series combination of resistance is verified.
Precautions:
i. Make all the connections properly.
ii. Move the jockey gently over the meter bridge wire.
iii. The wire should be stretched and it should not make a loop.
Sources of Error:
i. The wire may not have uniform area of cross-section.
ii. Instrument screws may be loose.
iii. The plugs may not be clean.

6
 Experiment-3
Aim:- To find the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge.
Apparatus: Meter Bridge, connecting wires, battery, Resistance box, Galvanometer, Jockey,
Screw gauge, two resistance wires etc.

Specific resistance(r) of a material of the given wire is given by

𝑋 𝜋 𝐷2
ρ= 4𝐿
L= Length of the given wire
D= Diameter of given wire
Circuit Diagram:

Observations:
I. Observation table for length(l) and unknown resistance (S):
Length of the resistance wire (L) =30 cm.
Unknown Resistance
Resistance of Resistance box
S.No. Balancing Length
R (ohm)

A to B 𝒍 (cm) B to C (100-𝒍) (cm)

1 1 36 64 S1= 1.77 Ω
2 2 51 49 S2= 1.92 Ω
3 3 61 39 S3= 1.9 Ω
4 4 67 33 S4= 1.97 Ω
5 5 72 28 S5= 1.94 Ω
Result:
(i) The value of unknown resistance S = 1.9Ohm.

7
 Experiment – 4
Aim: To determine the resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method and find its
figure of merit.
Apparatus: High resistance box, low resistance box, connecting wire, two one way key, battery
galvanometer, etc.
Theory: Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method:
When the key K 2 is open and K1 is closed the current I g through the galvanometer
is given as:

E
Ig =  K ----------(1)
RG
When the key K 2 is also closed and the value of resistance is so adjusted that the
galvanometer needle shows a half deflection the current I g through the
galvanometer is given as:
E.S . 1
Ig = = K -----------(2)
R(G  S )  G.S . 2
Divide the equation 1 and 2
R.S
G --------- (3)
RS
When R >>>> S then R-S=R and from equation (3) we get

G=S

The figure of merit K is defined as the current required to produce one division in the galvanometer.
E
K --------- (4)
( R  G )
Observation:
i. Total division in galvanometer = 30
ii. Emf of Battery (E) = 3 V

Calculation: (blank page)

R  S 3700×90
i. G1 = = = 92.10 (ohm)
R  S 3700−90
R  S 3300×90
ii. G2 = = = 92.52 (ohm)
R  S 3300−90
R  S 3900×90
iii. G3 = = = 92.12 (ohm)
R  S 3900−90

8
 R  S 4500×90
iv. G4 = = = 91.83 (ohm)
R  S 4500−90
R  S 5100×90
v. G5 = = = 91.61 (ohm)
R  S 5100−90
G1  G2  G3  G4  G5
G = (ohm)
5
G1  G2  G3  G4  G5 92.10+92.52+92.12+91.83+91.61
Mean, G = = 5
5
= 92.23 (ohm)
Observation Table:

Resistance Half deflection Resistance of Mean

Resistance of Galvanometer
Full deflection in L.R.B. in Resistance
S.No. H.R.B.
Galvanometer  S Galvanometer R S 
R (ohm) G (ohm)
(ohm)  /2 RS (ohm)
1. 3700 30 90 15 92.10
2. 3300 28 90 14 92.52
3. 3900 26 90 13 92.12 92.23
4. 4500 24 90 12 91.83
5. 5100 22 90 11 91.61

Figure of Merit of Galvanometer:

Resistance of Full deflection in Figure of Merit

E.M.F. of Battery E
S.No. H.R.B. Galvanometer
E (volt.) K (Ohm/div.)
R (ohm)  ( R  G )
1. 3 2700 30 35.81 x 10-6
2. 3 3300 28 31.58 x 10-6
3. 3 3900 26 28.90 x 10-6
4. 3 4500 24 27.21 x 10-6

Figure of Merit:
E
K1  3
= (2700+90)30 = 35.81 × 10−6 Ω/𝑑𝑖𝑣
( R  G )
E
K2  3
= (3300+90)28 = 31.58 × 10−6 Ω/𝑑𝑖𝑣
( R  G )
E
K3  3
= (3900+90)26 = 28.90 × 10−6 Ω/𝑑𝑖𝑣
( R  G )
E
K4  =
3
= 27.21 × 10−6 Ω/𝑑𝑖𝑣
( R  G ) (4500+90)24
Mean Figure of Merit,
K1  K 2  K3  K 4
K
4
35.81×10−6 +31.58×10−6 +28.90×10−6 +27.21×10−6
𝐾= 4
𝑜ℎ𝑚
= 30.87 × 10−6 (𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

9
Result: The resistance of Galvanometer G = 92.23 (ohm) and figure of merit
𝑜ℎ𝑚
K= 30.87 × 10−6 ( )
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Precautions:
i. Draw the circuit diagram before making any connection.
ii. All of the connections and the keys should be tight.
iii. The e.m.f. of the battery should be constant.
Sources of Error:
i. The e.m.f. of the battery may not be constant.
ii. The galvanometer divisions may not be equal.

10
 Experiment – 5
Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a glass prism by plotting graph
between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation and determine the
refractive index of materials of the prism.
Apparatus: Drawing board, Prism, Drawing pins, Protector, Meter scale, white sheet, etc.
A  Dm
sin( )
Theory: The refractive index of glass prism is:  2
A
sin
2
A = Angle of Prism
Dm = Angle of min. deviation

Observation:
i. Angle of Prism A = 60˚

Calculation: (blank page)

Angle of prism Angle of min deviation
A = 60˚ Dm = 38˚

A  Dm 60  38
sin( ) sin( ) sin 49 0.7547
 2 = 2 = = = 1.50
A 60 Sin30 0.50
Sin Sin
2 2
Observation Table:
S.No. Angle of incidence (i) Angle of Deviation (d) Angle of Min. Deviation (Dm)
1. 30 0 48 0
2. 85 0 440
3. 40 0 40 0
4. 45 0 38 0
5. 50 0 39 0 38 0

6. 55 0 410
7. 60 0 420

11
Result: From the graph minimum deviation angle Dm = 38 0
Degree and refractive index  = 1.50
Precaution:
i. The pins should be fixed with care.
ii. The pins should be placed vertically.
iii. The angle of incidence should lie between 30 0 and 60 0 .

Sources of Error:
i. Measurement of the angle may be wrong.
ii. Pin pricks may be thick.

12
 Experiment – 6

Aim: To find the focal length of convex lens by u-v method and plotting graph between u
and v.
Apparatus: Optical Bench, Lens Holder, Knitting needle, convex lens, Meter scale etc.
Theory: Focal length of convex lens is-
uv
f 
u v
U = object distance v = image distance

Observation:
i. Rough focal length of convex lens = 10 (cm)
ii. Length of knitting needle = 7 (cm)
Calculation: (blank page)
Focal length of convex lens
uv  15  33 uv  17  26
f1  = = 10.31 (cm) f2  = = 10.25 (cm)
u  v  (15  33) u  v  (17  26)
uv  19  23 uv  21  21
f3  = = 10.40 (cm) f4  = = 10.50 (cm)
u  v  (19  23) u  v  (21  21)
uv  23 19
f5  = = 10.40 (cm)
u  v  (23  19)
Mean focal length of convex lens
f1  f 2  f 3  f 4  f5 10.31  10.25  10.40  10.50  10.40 51.86
f  = = = 10.37 (cm)
5 5 5

Observation Table:

Position of Object Image Focal Mean

1 1
S.No. Lens Object Image Distance Distance (cm) (cm) length focal
L (cm) O (cm) I (cm) U (cm) I (cm) u v 𝐮. 𝐯/u+v length
1. 80 69 32 15 33 0.066 0.030 10.31
2. 80 63 37 17 26 0.058 0.038 10.25
3. 80 61 38 19 23 0.052 0.043 10.40 10.37
4. 80 59 38 21 21 0.047 0.047 10.50
5. 80 57 38 23 19 0.043 0.052 10.40

13
Result: Mean focal length of convex lens is f  10.37cm
Precaution:
i. The heights of the tips of the needles and the pole of the lens should be the same.
ii. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip between needle and the image of the
object needle.
iii. The uprights should be in a vertical way and principle axis of the lens should be
horizontal.
Sources of Error:
i. The uprights may not be vertical
ii. The parallax removal may not be perfect.

14
 Experiment – 7

Aim: To determine the refractive index of glass slab by using travelling microscope.
Apparatus: Travelling microscope, glass slab, white paper sheet, chalk powder, marker, etc.
Theory: Refractive index of glass slab is-
Re aldepth

Apparentdepth
Real depth = r3  r1 Apparent depth = r3  r2
r3  r1

r3  r2

Observation:
i. Range of main scale = 14 cm
ii. Total no. of division in main scale = 280
14
iii. Minimum reading of main scale = = 0.5 (mm)
280
Total no. of division in vernier scale = 50
L.C. of Travelling microscope =
Minimum reading of main scale = 0.05 = 0.001 cm = 0.01 mm
Total division in vernier scale 50
Observation Table:
Real Apparent Refractive
Reading on vertical scale when microscope is focused on (mm)
S. Thickness Thickness Index
No. Cross mark without slab Cross mark with slab Lycopodium Powder 𝑟 −𝑟
r3-r1 (mm) r3-r2 µ = 𝑟3 −𝑟1
(r1) (r2) (r3) 3 2

1. 42+0x0.01 =42 47.5+2x0.01 = 47.52 60.5+3x0.01 = 60.53 18.53 12.83 1.44

2. 48+0x0.01 = 48 53+0x0.01 = 53 66+6x0.01 = 66.06 18.06 13.06 1.38

3. 54+0x0.01 = 54 59.5+2x0.01 = 59.52 72.5+7x0.01 = 72.57 18.57 13.05 1.42

Calculation: (blank page)
r3  r1 18.53
i. 1  = = 1.44
r3  r2 12.83
r3  r1 18.06
ii. 2  = = 1.38
r3  r2 13.06
r3  r1 18.57
iii. 3  = = 1.42
r3  r2 13.05
Mean Refractive index
1   2   3 1.4  1.38  1.42 4.24
 = = = 1.41
3 3 3
15
Result:
i. The refractive index of glass slab is µ = 1.41

Precaution:
i. The microscope screw should be moved only is one direction in order to avoid back
lash error.
ii. The particles used should be pretty fine.

Sources of Error:
i. The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

16
 Experiment – 8

Aim: To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.
Apparatus: Two voltmeter, Millimeter, Micro ammeter, Battery, One way Key, Connecting
wire P-N junction apparatus etc.
V
Theory: Dynamic Resistance R 
I
V
Static Resistance r 
I

Observation:
(A) Forward Bias:
 Range of Voltmeter = 1 (volt.)
 Range of Ammeter = 10 (mA)
range 1
 Least count of voltmeter = = = 0.02 (volt.)
no.ofdivision 50
range 10
 Least count of Ammeter = = = 0.2 ( miliamp.)
no.ofdivision 50
(B) Reverse Bias:
 Range of Voltmeter = 50 (volt.)
 Range of Ammeter = 100 ( A)
Range 2
 Least count of Voltmeter = = = 0.2𝑉
No.ofdivision 10

Range 100
 Least count of Ammeter = = 2 ( A) .
No.ofdivision 50
Observation Table:
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
S.No. V f (Volt.) I f (  amp) V f (volt) I f (  amp)
Div. Div. X L.C. Div. Div. x L.C. Div. Div. x L.C. Div. Div. x L.C.
1. 34 0.68 4 0.8 10 2 4 8
2. 35 0.70 5 1.0 15 3 5 10
3. 36 0.72 10 2 20 4 8 16
4. 38 0.76 15 3 25 5 10 20
5. 40 0.80 25 5 30 6 12 24
6. 42 0.84 30 6 35 7 15 30
7. 44 0.88 42 8.4 40 8 16 32
8. 45 0.90 45 9 45 9 20 40
17
Calculation: Blank Page
 Forward Bias:
V 0.8−0.76 0.04
a. Dynamic Resistance Rr  = = = 20Ω
I (5−3)×1𝑂−3 2×10−3
V 0.8
b. Static Resistance rr  = = 160 Ω
I 5×10−3
 Reverse Bias:
6−5
a. Dynamic Resistance = = 2.5 × 105 Ω
(24−20)×10−6
6
b. Static Resistance = = 2.5 × 105 Ω
24×10−6

Result: The forward bias and reverse bias characteristics of the given p-n junction diode are
shown on two sheets of graph paper.

18
Precaution:
i. All of the connections must be neat and tight.
ii. The ends of the connecting wire should be cleaned using sand before making any
connections.
iii. The current should be passed for the minimum possible time.
Sources of Error:
i. The markings on the millimeter and voltmeter may not be accurate.
ii. The p-n junction diode supplied may be vary.

19