HAP 3201: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (LEC)

07: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

LAYERS OF GI TRACT:
Digestive system
● dis = apart; gerere = to carry
● consists of a group of organs that
break down the food we eat into
smaller molecules that can be used
by body cells.

● Mucosa- inner lining of the GI tract,

is a mucous membrane. It has
three layers
○ Epithelium- mainly
nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
serves a protective function
○ Lamina propria- areolar
connective tissue containing
many blood and lymphatic
vessels, which are the
routes by which nutrients
Two groups: absorbed into the GI tract
1. Gastrointestinal (GI) tract reach the other tissues of
- alimentary canal (alimentary = the body
nourishment) ○ Muscularis mucosae-
- a continuous tube that extends throws the mucous
from the mouth to the anus through membrane of the stomach
the thoracic and abdominopelvic and small intestine into
cavities. many small folds, which
2. Accessory digestive organs increase the surface area for
- teeth, tongue, salivary glands, digestion and absorption.
liver, gallbladder, and ● Submucosa- consists of areolar
pancreas. connective tissue that binds the
-Teeth aids in the physical mucosa to the muscularis.
breakdown of food, and the tongue ● Muscularis- contains skeletal
assists in chewing and swallowing. muscle that produces voluntary
swallowing
○ Myenteric plexus – lies
between the layers of the
muscularis;
 ○ a second plexus of neurons ● visceral peritoneum, which covers
● Serosa- portions of the GI tract that some of the organs in the cavity
are suspended in the abdominal and is their serosa
cavity have a superficial layer ● peritoneal cavity- slim space
containing lubricat- ing serous fluid
Neural innervation that is between the parietal and
Enteric Nervous System visceral portions of the peritoneum
● “brain of the gut” ● Ascites- the peritoneal cavity may
● - consists of about 100 million become distended by the
neurons that extend from the accumulation of several liters of
esophagus to the anus fluid
● Neurons of the ENS are arranged
into two plexuses: Folds of the peritoneum
○ Myenteric plexus ● The greater omentum- the longest
■ plexus of Auerbach peritoneal fold, drapes over the
■ located between the transverse colon and coils of the
longitudinal and small intestine like a “fatty apron.
circular smooth ● The falciform ligament - attaches
muscle layers of the the liver to the anterior abdominal
muscularis wall and diaphragm.
○ Submucosal plexus ● The lesser omentum arises as an
■ plexus of Meissner anterior fold in the serosa of the
■ found within the stomach and duodenum, and it
submucosa connects the stomach and
● Interneurons of the ENS duodenum to the liver
○ interconnect the neurons of ● mesentery- binds the jejunum and
the myenteric and ileum of the small intestine to the
submucosal plexuses. posterior abdominal wall
● Sensory neurons of the ENS ● mesocolon- bind the transverse
○ supply the mucosal colon (transverse mesocolon) and
epithelium and contain sigmoid colon (sigmoid mesocolon)
receptors that detect stimuli of the large intestine to the
in the lumen of the GI tract posterior abdominal wall

Two sensory receptors:

● Chemoreceptors- respond to
certain chemicals in the food
present in the lumen,
● Mechanoreceptors- such as
stretch receptors activated when
food distends (stretches) the wall of
a GI organ

Peritoneum

● peritoneum- the largest serous

membrane of the body
● parietal peritoneum, which lines
the wall of the abdominal cavity
MOUTH vestibule opposite the second
● mouth- also referred to as the oral maxillary (upper) molar tooth.
or buccal cavity ● submandibular glands- are found
● cheeks- form the lateral walls of in the floor of the mouth
the oral cavity.
● lips or labia- (= fleshy borders) are
fleshy folds surrounding the
opening of the mouth
● labial frenulum- inner surface of
each lip is attached to its
corresponding gum by a midline
fold of mucous membrane
● oral vestibule- is the space
bounded externally by the cheeks
and lips and internally by the gums
and teeth.
● cavity proper- space that extends
from the gums and teeth to the
fauces ● submandibular ducts- run under
● fauces- the opening between the the mucosa on either side of the
oral cavity and the oropharynx mid- line of the floor of the mouth
(throat). and enter the oral cavity proper
● palate- or septum that separates lateral to the lingual frenulum.
the oral cavity from the nasal ● sublingual glands- are beneath
cavity, and forms the roof of the the tongue and superior to the
mouth. submandibular glands. Their ducts
○ hard palate—the anterior ● lesser sublingual ducts- open
portion of the roof of the into the floor of the mouth in the
mouth oral cavity proper.
○ soft palate- forms the SALIVATION
posterior portion of the roof ● Salivation is the secretion of saliva
of the mouth and is controlled by the autonomic
● palatoglossal arch extends to the nervous system.
side of the base of the tongue ● On average, 1000-1500 mL of
● palatopharyngeal arch extends to saliva is secreted daily.
the side of the pharynx. ● Parasympathetic stimulation
promotes continuous secretion of a
SALIVARY GLANDS moderate amount of saliva.
● salivary gland- gland that releases ● Saliva helps keep mucous
secretion called saliva into the oral membranes moist, lubricates
cavity. movements of tongue and lips
● major salivary glands- which lie during speech, and moistens the
beyond the oral mucosa, into ducts esophagus when swallowed.
that lead to the oral cavity ● Most components of saliva are
● parotid glands- are located inferior eventually reabsorbed.
and anterior to the ears, between
the skin and the masseter muscle TONGUE
● parotid duct- pierces the ● accessory digestive organ
buccinator muscle to open into the composed of skeletal muscle
covered with mucous membrane
 ● extrinsic muscles of the tongue- ● periodontal ligament- consists of
which originate outside the tongue dense fibrous connective tissue
(attach to bones in the area) and that anchors the teeth to the socket
insert into connective tissues in the walls and acts as a shock absorber
tongue, during chewing.
● intrinsic muscles of the tongue- ● dentin forms the majority of the
originate in and insert into tooth.
connective tissue within the tongue. ● enamel- consists primarily of
● lingual frenulum- fold of mucous calcium phosphate and calcium
membrane in the midline of the carbonate
undersurface of the tongue, ● cementum- another bonelike
● ankyloglossia- the person is said substance, which attaches the root
to be “tongue-tied” because of the to the periodontal ligament.
resulting impairment to speech. It ● pulp cavity, lies within the crown
can be corrected surgically. and is filled with pulp
● papillae- projections of the lamina ● apical foramen, through which
propria covered with stratified blood vessels, lymphatic vessels,
squamous epithelium and nerves enter a tooth.
● It is composed of four types of
papillae: filiform, fungiform, vallate,
and foliate.
○ The filiform papillae are the
most numerous and provide
a rough texture to the
tongue.
○ The fungiform papillae are
scattered among the filiform
papillae and contain taste
buds.
○ The vallate papillae are
● Endodontics- concerned with the
located at the back of the
prevention, diagnosis, and
tongue and also contain
treatment of diseases that affect
taste buds.
the pulp, root, periodontal ligament,
○ The foliate papillae are
and alveolar bone
located on the sides of the
● Orthodontics- concerned with the
tongue and contain taste
prevention and correction of
buds during childhood.
abnormally aligned teeth
● Lingual glands in the lamina
● Periodontics- concerned with the
propria of the tongue secrete both
treatment of abnormal conditions of
mucus and a watery serous fluid
the tissues immediately
that contains the enzyme lingual
surrounding the teeth, such as
lipase
gingivitis (gum disease).
● dentitions, or sets of teeth
TEETH
○ deciduous teeth- begin to
● teeth, or dentes- accessory
erupt at about 6 months of
digestive organs located in sockets
age, and approximately two
of the alveolar processes of the
teeth appear each month
mandible and maxilla.
thereafter, until all 20 are
● gingivae- extend slightly into each
present
socket.
 ○ permanent dentition esophagus posteriorly and to the
contains 32 teeth that erupt larynx anteriorly
between age 6 and Esophagus
adulthood. ● collapsible muscular tube
● Teeth are classified according to ○ esophageal hiatus-
their shape and function. The four pierces the diaphragm
types of teeth are incisors, through an opening
canines, premolars, and molars. ○ Hiatus hernia- part of the
○ Incisors are the front teeth stomach protrudes above
and are used for biting and the diaphragm through the
cutting food. esophageal hiatus.
○ Canines are located next to ● The esophagus secretes mucus
the incisors and are used for and transports food into the
tearing food. stomach. It does not produce
○ Premolars are located digestive enzymes, and it does not
between the canines and carry on absorption.
molars and are used for
grinding and crushing food. Deglutition
○ Molars are the largest teeth ● The movement of food from the
and are located at the back mouth into the stomach
of the mouth. They are used ● The deglutition process begins
for grinding and crushing with the voluntary phase, during
food. which the tongue pushes the bolus
of food to the back of the mouth
and into the pharynx.
● The pharyngeal phase of
swallowing is initiated by sensory
receptors that detect the presence
of the bolus in the pharynx.
● The esophageal phase of
swallowing involves the contraction
of smooth muscle in the
esophagus, which propels the
bolus through the esophagus and
into the stomach.
● The entire process of swallowing
is coordinated by the swallowing
center in the medulla oblongata
of the brainstem, which receives
Matication input from sensory receptors in the
● mastication- in which food is mouth, pharynx, and esophagus,
manipulated by the tongue, ground as well as from higher brain centers
by the teeth, and mixed with saliva. involved in voluntary control of
● Bolus- soft, flexible, easily swallowing.
swallowed mass.

Pharynx
● funnel-shaped tube that extends
from the internal nares to the
Stomach mucus, hydrochloric acid, and
pepsinogen.
● The lamina propria contains
numerous lymphoid follicles and
gastric pits that lead to gastric
glands.
● The muscularis mucosae is a thin
layer of smooth muscle that aids in
the release of secretions.
● The submucosa contains blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerve fibers.
● The muscularis externa has three
● J-shaped enlargement of the GI layers of smooth muscle: an inner
tract directly inferior to the oblique layer, a middle circular
diaphragm in the abdomen. layer, and an outer longitudinal
● Gastroenterology- medical layer.
specialty that deals with the ● The serosa is the outermost layer
structure, function, diagnosis, and of the stomach and is composed of
treat- ment of diseases of the connective tissue covered by a
stomach and intestines mesothelium.
● Anatomy
○ cardia - surrounds the open- Pancreas
ing of the esophagus into
the stomach.
○ Fundus- The rounded
portion superior to and to the
left of the cardia is the
○ Body- large central portion
of the stomach
○ pyloric antrum, connects to
the body of the stomach.
○ pyloric canal, leads to the
third region
○ pylorus - which in turn
connects to the duodenum
○ Rugae- stomach is empty,
the mucosa lies in large
folds
● The pylorus communicates with the ● The pancreas is a glandular organ
duodenum of the small intestine via located posterior to the stomach in
a smooth muscle sphincter called the abdominal cavity.
the pyloric sphincter ● The pancreas has both endocrine
● Lesser curvature- concave medial and exocrine functions.
border of the stomach ● The exocrine portion of the
● Greater curvature- convex lateral pancreas secretes digestive
border enzymes and bicarbonate ions into
● The surface epithelium contains the duodenum via the pancreatic
specialized cells that secrete duct.
 ● The digestive enzymes released by Histology of liver and gallbladder
the pancreas include pancreatic ● The liver is made up of many
amylase, lipase, and several lobules, each containing
different proteases such as hepatocytes (liver cells) and other
trypsin and chymotrypsin. specialized cells.
● These enzymes help break down ● Blood flows into the liver through
starches, fats, and proteins in the the hepatic artery and the hepatic
small intestine. portal vein. The hepatocytes
● The bicarbonate ions released by perform many functions, including
the pancreas help neutralize the the synthesis of bile, the storage of
acidic pH of the chyme coming glycogen, and the detoxification of
from the stomach. harmful substances such as
● The endocrine portion of the alcohol and drugs.
pancreas consists of islets of ● The bile produced in the liver is
Langerhans, which secrete carried through a network of small
hormones directly into the ducts and eventually converges
bloodstream. into larger bile ducts.
● The two main types of cells in the ● The bile ducts then join together to
islets are alpha cells, which secrete form the common hepatic duct,
glucagon to increase blood which leads to the gallbladder.
glucose levels, and beta cells, ● The gallbladder is lined with a
which secrete insulin to decrease single layer of columnar epithelium
blood glucose levels. and contains smooth muscle in its
● The pancreas therefore plays a walls. When food containing fats
crucial role in both digestion and enters the duodenum, the
glucose homeostasis. gallbladder contracts, releasing bile
through the common bile duct into
Liver and Gallbladder the duodenum.
● The liver is the largest gland in the
body and is located in the upper Small intestine
right quadrant of the abdomen.
○ Its main function is to
produce bile, which aids in
the digestion and absorption
of fats.
○ The liver also detoxifies
harmful substances in the
body and stores glycogen
for energy.
● The gallbladder is a small,
pear-shaped organ located
beneath the liver.
○ Its main function is to store
and concentrate bile ● Most digestion and absorption of
produced by the liver. nutrients occur in a long tube
○ When food enters the small ● Duodenum- first part of the small
intestine, the gallbladder intestine
releases bile into the ● jejunum- the next portion and is
duodenum to aid in the about 1 m (3 ft) long and extends to
digestion of fats. the ileum.
 ● Ileum- final and longest region of small intestine and are released
the small intestine into the lumen of the intestine to
● ileocecal sphincter- joins the assist in the final stages of
large intestine at a smooth muscle digestion.
sphincter
● Its inner surface is lined with Mechanical Digestion in the Small
finger-like projections called villi, Intestine
which increase the surface area for ● Segmentations are localized,
nutrient absorption. mixing contractions that occur in
● The villi are covered with a layer of portions of intestine distended by a
columnar epithelial cells, which are large volume of chyme.
responsible for nutrient absorption. ● migrating motility complex-
These cells are supported by a begins in the lower portion of the
layer of smooth muscle and stomach and pushes chyme
connective tissue, which contains forward along a short stretch of
blood vessels and lymphatic small intestine before dying out.
vessels called lacteals. ● The pancreas secretes pancreatic
● Goblet cells, which are scattered juice, which contains enzymes
among the columnar cells, produce such as amylase, trypsin,
mucus that lubricates the intestinal chymotrypsin, and lipase.
lining and protects it from ● Amylase breaks down
mechanical and chemical damage. carbohydrates into simple sugars,
● Other specialized cells in the small while trypsin and chymotrypsin
intestine include enteroendocrine break down proteins into smaller
cells, which produce hormones peptides.
that regulate digestive functions, ● Lipase breaks down lipids into fatty
and Paneth cells, which secrete acids and glycerol.
antimicrobial substances that help ● The liver produces bile, which is
protect the small intestine from stored in the gallbladder and
harmful bacteria. released into the small intestine to
emulsify fats, making them easier
Role of Intestinal Juice and to digest.
Brush-Border Enzymes ● Once nutrients have been broken
● Intestinal juice is a clear, slightly down into their component parts,
alkaline liquid secreted by the they are absorbed into the
glands of the small intestine. bloodstream through the villi of the
● Intestinal juice also provides an small intestine and transported to
optimal pH for the action of the liver.
digestive enzymes and assists in ● Aminopeptidase cleaves off the
the emulsification of fats. amino acid at the amino end of a
● Brush-border enzymes are peptide.
enzymes located on the surface of ● Dipeptidase splits dipeptides (two
the microvilli of the small intestine. amino acids joined by a peptide
● These enzymes include sucrase, bond) into single amino acids.
maltase, lactase, and peptidases, ● Lipase- Enzymes that split
which break down disaccharides triglycerides and phospholipids
and peptides into their component ● Amphipathic- ​each bile salt has a
parts. hydrophobic (nonpolar) region and
● Brush-border enzymes are a hydrophilic (polar) region.
produced by the cells lining the
Large Intestine Mechanical Digestion in the Large
Intestine
● gastroileal reflex- intensifies
peristalsis in the ileum and forces
any chyme into the cecum.
● haustral churning- . In this
process, the haustra remains
relaxed and becomes distended
while they fill up. When the
distension reaches a certain point,
the walls contract and squeeze the
contents into the next haustrum.
● Mass peristalsis- a strong
peristaltic wave that begins at
about the middle of the transverse
● terminal portion of the GI tract.
colon and quickly drives the
● Proctology- deals with the
contents of the colon into the
diagnosis and treatment of
rectum.
disorders of the rectum and anus
● gastrocolic reflex in the colon-
● Cecum- Hanging inferior to the
mass peristalsis usually takes
ileocecal valve
place three or four times a day,
● Appendix- Attached to the cecum
during or immediately after a meal.
is a twisted, coiled tube, measuring
about in length
The Defecation Reflex
● Mesoappendix- attaches the
● defecation reflex that results in
appendix to the inferior part of the
defecation, the elimination of feces
mesentery of the ileum.
from the rectum through the anus.
● Colon- open end of the cecum
● Feces are stored in the rectum
merges with a long tube
until they can be eliminated from
● Rectum- the last six inches of the
the body.
large intestine that stores feces
● When the rectum becomes
before elimination.
sufficiently distended with feces,
● Anal canal- the passage through
stretch receptors in the rectal wall
which feces leaves the body.
are activated, which triggers the
● Anal columns- mucous membrane
defecation reflex.
of the anal canal is arranged in
● The defecation reflex involves
longitudinal folds
both voluntary and involuntary
● Teniae coli- three longitudinal
components. The voluntary
muscular bands that run along the
component involves the conscious
length of the colon.
decision to defecate, while the
● Haustra- pouches that form in the
involuntary component involves the
colon due to contractions of the
relaxation of the internal anal
teniae coli.
sphincter and the contraction of the
● Epiploic appendages: small fatty
rectum and external anal sphincter.
projections that hang from the
● The relaxation of the internal anal
surface of the large intestine.
sphincter is mediated by the
● Ileocecal valve: a sphincter
parasympathetic nervous system,
muscle that controls the flow of
which causes smooth muscle in the
material from the small intestine
rectal wall to contract and push the
into the large intestine.
feces towards the anus. At the
 same time, the external anal the walls of the villi and
sphincter is voluntarily relaxed to enter the bloodstream.
allow the feces to be expelled from ○ Waste products move from
the body. the small intestine to the
● The defecation reflex is also large intestine, where water
influenced by a number of factors, is reabsorbed and feces are
including diet, physical activity, and formed.
medications. ● Ghrelin is secreted by the stomach
○ For example, a diet that is and increases appetite.
high in fiber can help to ● Glucose-dependent
promote regular bowel insulinotropic peptide (GIP) and
movements, while certain glucagon-like peptide (GLP) are
medications can cause secreted by the small intestine in
constipation or diarrhea. response to food.
● GIP and GLP stimulate the
Phases of digestion pancreas to release insulin, which
● The cephalic phase: increases blood glucose
○ Sight, smell, taste, or even concentration.
thought of food triggers the ● GIP and GLP are called incretins
release of saliva and and provide a feedforward control
digestive enzymes in the mechanism that anticipates the
mouth. increase in blood glucose.
○ The parasympathetic ● Motilin, substance P, and
nervous system is bombesin stimulate motility of the
activated, which stimulates intestines.
the stomach to produce ● Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
more acid and enzymes. (VIP) stimulates secretion of ions
● The gastric phase: and water by the intestines and
○ Food enters the stomach inhibits gastric acid secretion.
and mixes with gastric juices ● Gastrin-releasing peptide
(acid, enzymes, and mucus). stimulates the release of gastrin.
○ The stomach expands and ● Somatostatin inhibits gastrin
contracts to mix and break release.
down food into a liquid
called chyme. Development of the Digestive System
○ The stomach releases
chyme in small amounts to ● During the fourth week of
the small intestine development, endoderm cells form
● The intestinal phase: a cavity called the primitive gut,
○ Chyme enters the small which is the forerunner of the
intestine, which releases gastrointestinal tract.
hormones that signal the ● The gastrointestinal tract includes
pancreas to produce the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
bicarbonate and digestive small intestine, large intestine,
enzymes. rectum, and anus.
○ Bile is released from the ● The endodermal layer gives rise
gallbladder to help emulsify to the epithelial lining and glands of
fats. most of the gastrointestinal tract,
○ Nutrients are absorbed in which are responsible for the
the small intestine through
 secretion of digestive enzymes and stomach acid flows back into the
absorption of nutrients. esophagus, causing heartburn and
● The mesodermal layer produces other symptoms.
the smooth muscle and connective 2. Peptic ulcer disease: A condition
tissue of the gastrointestinal tract, in which sores develop on the lining
which are responsible for peristaltic of the stomach or small intestine,
contractions and providing often caused by bacteria or
structural support. extended use of nonsteroidal
● The gastrointestinal tract anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
undergoes several morphological 3. Inflammatory bowel disease
and physiological changes during (IBD): A group of disorders,
development to become the including Crohn's disease and
functional digestive system in ulcerative colitis, that cause chronic
adults. inflammation in the digestive tract.
● The digestive system begins to 4. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): A
form during the third week of common, chronic disorder that
embryonic development. affects the large intestine, causing
● At this stage, the embryo is a flat abdominal pain, bloating, and
disk with three germ layers: changes in bowel habits.
endoderm, mesoderm, and 5. Diverticulitis: Inflammation or
ectoderm. infection of pockets that can form in
● The endoderm gives rise to the the lining of the large intestine.
lining of the digestive tract, 6. Hemorrhoids: Swollen veins in the
including the pharynx, esophagus, lower rectum or anus that can
stomach, intestines, and cause pain, bleeding, and other
associated structures. symptoms.
● The mesoderm gives rise to the 7. Gastroenteritis: An infection or
muscles, connective tissues, and inflammation of the digestive tract,
blood vessels of the digestive often caused by a virus, bacteria,
system. or parasite.
● The ectoderm gives rise to the 8. Malabsorption disorders:
nervous system, including the Conditions that interfere with the
enteric nervous system (ENS), absorption of nutrients from food,
which controls the digestive such as lactose
system.
● During the fourth week of References:
development, the foregut, midgut, Bryan H. Derrickson and Gerard J.
and hindgut begin to form. Tortora; Principles of Anatomy
● By the end of the sixth week, the
digestive tube is complete, and the and Physiology 15th Ed. (2018)
mouth and anus have formed at Elaine N. Marieb ; Human Anatomy &
either end.
● Throughout life, the digestive Physiology 12th Ed. (2023)
system undergoes changes in VanPutte, C. L., & Seeley, R. R.
response
(2021). Seeley's anatomy &
Disorder:
physiology 11th Ed. New York,
1. Gastroesophageal reflux disease NY: McGraw-Hill.
(GERD): A condition in which