III- SEMESTER

Dr. M A ALEEM- B.Sc MPED TS-SET PGDCA NIS (TT) PHD

Assistant Professor of Physical Education

Sri Krishna College of Physical Education

Haliya, Nalgonda
 1. WHAT IS SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY?

The word 'psychology' refers to the study of human behaviour. Sports psychology
denotes a sub-category of psychoiogy that deals with the behaviour of athletes
and teams engaged in competitive sports. Sports psychology is intimately
connected with human behaviour on the play field; both under practice and
competitive situations, with a view to bringing about a qualitative improvement
in the performance and maintaining the same during the stress of competition.

2. WHAT IS THE NEED OF SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY?

Sports psychology is an important ingredient of sports training programme and

deals with the way in which various psychological states and traits influence
sports performance. It is the application of psychology to the issues and
problems in the field of sports as the problems of sports persons are quite
unique different, subtle and complex.

The main purpose of sports psychology is to understand the behaviour of an

athlete and to modify it according to the demands of situations, to optimize the
benefits for elite performance and excellence.

3. DEFINE SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY AND GIVE ITS IMPORTANCE IN

THE FIELD OF SPORTS?

The areas sports psychologists teach vary from one person to another depending
on their experience and qualifications. Below are the top roles of an applied
sports psychologist, a mental game coaching who helps athletes improve
performance via mental training. According to John Luther, “Sports psychology
is an area which attempts to apply psychological facts and principles to learning
performance and associated human behaviour in whole field of sports.”

According to K.M. Burns, “Sports psychology for physical education is that

branch of psychology which deals with the physically fitness of an individual
through his participation in games and sports.” According to Singer, "Sports
psychology explores one’s behaviour in athletics."

The following points the importance of sports psychology :

Enhancement of Physiological Capacities : Sports psychology plays a very

unique role in the enhancement of physiological capacities such as strength,
speed and flexibility etc., Motivation plays a major role in the enhancement of
physical capacity of sport persons. It is well-known as well as an established fact
that psychological capacities or powers can increase physiological capacities of
individuals.
 Learning the Motor Skills: Sports psychology plays its major role in the
learning of motor skills. Motor skills learning depend on the individual’s level of
readiness, i.e., physiological readiness and psychological readiness. Physiological
readiness in children is development of the necessary strength, flexibility and
endurance as well as the development of various organ systems so that they may
perform motor skills required in the activity. Psychological readiness is related to
the learner’s state of mind. It means the desire and willingness to learn the
particular skill. In psychological readiness, sports psychology plays an important
role. Sports psychology is also helpful in the cognitive stage, the social-active
stage and the autonomous stage of motor skill learning.

In understanding the behaviour: Sports psychology helps in understanding

the behaviour of athletes or sports persons engaged in competitive sports.
Coaches also come to know the interest, attitude towards physical activity,
instincts, drives and personality of sports persons. It does not play its role only in
understanding of behaviour but it also plays its role in medication of behaviour
in various sports situations.

In controlling the emotions: Sports psychology plays a very important role

in controlling the emotions of sports persons during practice as well as
competition. Generally, these emotions may bring spontaneous changes in the
behaviour of sports persons. These are anger, disgust, gear, negative self thinking
and feeling of ownership, etc. If these emotions are not controlled well in time,
the performance may be decreased. Sports psychology plays a vital role at such
juncture. It helps in balancing the arousal of emotions which further improves
the performance.

In preparation of athletes psycho-logically for competitions : Sports psychology

also plays its role in preparation of athletes psychologically for competitions.
Intact, it has become a trend to give psychological tips to athletes or team players
before and after the competitions. That is why, sports psychologists’ services are
required with a national level and international level terms. They create the will
‘to win’ in the players.
WHAT IS THE NEED OF SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY?

Sports psychology is an important ingredient of sports training programme and

deals with the way in which various psychological states and traits influence
sports performance. It is the application of psychology to the issues and
problems in the field of sports as the problems of sports persons are quite
unique different, subtle and complex. The main purpose of sports psychology is
to understand the behaviour of an athlete and to modify it according to the
demands of situations, to optimize the benefits for elite performance and
excellence.

Emotions are at the top of the Prime Sport

Pyramid (above motivation, confidence, intensity, and focus) because they will
ultimately dictate how you perform throughout a competition. The emotions you
experience during a competition can cover a broad spectrum, from excitement
and elation to frustration, anger, and disappointment.

Emotions are often strong and can be troublesome when they linger and hurt
your performances for a long period of time.

Negative emotions can hurt performance both physically and mentally. They first
cause you to lose your prime intensity. With frustration and anger, your intensity
goes up and leads to muscle tension, breathing difficulties, and a loss of
coordination. These emotions also sap your energy and cause you to tire quickly.
When you experience despair and helplessness, your intensity drops sharply and
you no longer have the physical capabilities to perform well.

Negative emotions can also hurt you mentally. Your emotions are telling you
that, deep down, you're not confident in your ability to perform well and achieve
your competitive goals. Your confidence will decline and you will have negative
thoughts to go along with your negative emotions.

Also, since your negative emotions are so strong, you will likely have difficulty
focusing on what will help you to perform well; the negative emotions draw
your attention onto all of the negative aspects of your performance. Finally,
negative emotions can hurt your motivation to perform because you just don't
feel good and it's no longer fun.

For example, a tennis player is losing to an opponent that he believes he should

beat and, no matter what he tries, he can't seem to turn the match around. The
tennis player is likely to experience frustration and anger initially. These
emotions can be helpful at first because they motivate him to fight to clear the
path to his goal and regain control of the match. But if he's unable to change the
course of the match, then he may experience despair and helplessness, in which
he accepts that he cannot win, so he just gives up.
Q. DEFINE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EMOTIONS

The word emotion is derived from the latin word ‘emovere’, which means to stir
up or to move. An emotion refers to an involuntary, aroused state of an organism
involving physical, cognitive and behavioural components. It is described as a
combination of bodily arousal, e.g., increased heartrate, thoughts and feelings,
i.e. emotional tone and expressive behaviour i.e. facial expression. Some
characteristics of emotions are

1. Emotions may be positive, e.g., joy or negative, e.g., anger.

2. Emotions may occur for a brief period or may be long lasting.

3. Emotions may be important for our survival, e.g., fear or for our psychological
well-being, e.g., love.

4. Emotions differ in intensity in expression for e.g., annoyance-anger rage.

5. Complex emotions (higher cognitive level emotions) result from the

combination of basic emotions, for e.g., surprise and sadness lead to
disappointment.

6. According to Ekman, there are six basic (universal) types of emotions, i.e.,
happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust.

The emotional threat also causes anxiety and all sorts of negative physical
symptoms. The previous links in the emotional chain make it nearly impossible
to focus effectively because there are so many negative things pulling your focus
away from a useful process focus. All of the previous links in the chain ultimately
result in very poor performance and little enjoyment in your sport.

In contrast, emotional challenge is associated with your enjoying the process of

your sport regardless of whether you achieve your goals. The emphasis is on
having fun and seeing the competition as exciting and enriching. Sports, when
seen as an emotional challenge, are an experience that is relished and sought out
at every opportunity. Thus, emotional challenge is highly motivating, to the point
where you love being in pressure situations.

The 6 Types of Basic Emotions and Their Effect on Human Behavior

There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live
and interact with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these
emotions. The choices we make, the actions we take, and the perceptions we have
are all influenced by the emotions we are experiencing at any given moment.

Psychologists have also tried to identify the different types of emotions that
people experience. A few different theories have emerged to categorize and
explain the emotions that people feel.
Basic Emotions

During the 1970s, psychologist Paul Eckman identified six basic emotions that he
suggested were universally experienced in all human cultures. The emotions he
identified were happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, surprise, and anger. He later
expanded his list of basic emotions to include such things as pride, shame,
embarrassment, and excitement.

Combining Emotions

Psychologist Robert Plutchik put forth a "wheel of emotions" that worked

something like the color wheel. Emotions can be combined to form different
feelings, much like colors can be mixed to create other shades.

According to this theory, the more basic emotions act something like building
blocks. More complex, sometimes mixed emotions, are blendings of these more
basic ones. For example, basic emotions such as joy and trust can be combined to
create love.

Happiness

Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the one that people
strive for the most. Happiness is often defined as a pleasant emotional state that
is characterized by feelings of contentment, joy, gratification, satisfaction, and
well-being.

Research on happiness has increased significantly since the 1960s within a

number of disciplines, including the branch of psychology known as positive
psychology. This type of emotion is sometimes expressed through:

 Facial expressions: such as smiling

 Body language: such as a relaxed stance
 Tone of voice: an upbeat, pleasant way of speaking

While happiness is considered one of the basic human emotions, the things
we think will create happiness tend to be heavily influenced by culture. For
example, pop culture influences tend to emphasize that attaining certain things
such as buying a home or having a high-paying job will result in happiness.

The realities of what actually contributes to happiness are often much more
complex and more highly individualized. 2 People have long believed
that happiness and health were connected, and research has supported the idea
that happiness can play a role in both physical and mental health.

Happiness has been linked to a variety of outcomes including increased longevity

and increased marital satisfaction.3 Conversely, unhappiness has been linked to a
variety of poor health outcomes.
Stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness, for example, have been linked to
things such as lowered immunity, increased inflammation, and decreased life
expectancy.4

Sadness

Sadness is another type of emotion often defined as a transient emotional state

characterized by feelings of disappointment, grief, hopelessness, disinterest, and
dampened mood.

Like other emotions, sadness is something that all people experience from time
to time. In some cases, people can experience prolonged and severe periods of
sadness that can turn into depression. Sadness can be expressed in a number of
ways including:

 Crying
 Dampened mood
 Lethargy
 Quietness
 Withdrawal from others

The type and severity of sadness can vary depending upon the root cause, and
how people cope with such feelings can also differ.

Sadness can often lead people to engage in coping mechanisms such as avoiding
other people, self-medicating, and ruminating on negative thoughts. Such
behaviors can actually exacerbate feelings of sadness and prolong the duration of
the emotion.
Fear

Fear is a powerful emotion that can also play an important role in survival. When
you face some sort of danger and experience fear, you go through what is known
as the fight or flight response.

Your muscles become tense, your heart rate and respiration increase, and your
mind becomes more alert, priming your body to either run from the danger or
stand and fight.5

This response helps ensure that you are prepared to effectively deal with threats
in your environment. Expressions of this type of emotion can include:

 Facial expressions: such as widening the eyes and pulling back the chin
 Body language: attempts to hide or flea from the threat
 Physiological reactions: such as rapid breathing and heartbeat
Fear is the emotional response to an immediate threat. We can also develop a
similar reaction to anticipated threats or even our thoughts about potential
dangers, and this is what we generally think of as anxiety. Social anxiety, for
example, involves an anticipated fear of social situations.

Some people, on the other hand, actually seek out fear-provoking situations.
Extreme sports and other thrills can be fear-inducing, but some people seem to
thrive and even enjoy such feelings.

Repeated exposure to a fear object or situation can lead to familiarity and

acclimation, which can reduce feelings of fear and anxiety. 6

This is the idea behind exposure therapy, in which people are gradually exposed
to the things that frighten them in a controlled and safe manner. Eventually,
feelings of fear begin to decrease.

Disgust

Disgust is another of the original six basic emotions described by Eckman.

Disgust can be displayed in a number of ways including:

 Body language: turning away from the object of disgust

 Physical reactions: such as vomiting or retching
 Facial expressions: such as wrinkling the nose and curling the upper lip

This sense of revulsion can originate from a number of things, including an

unpleasant taste, sight, or smell. Researchers believe that this emotion evolved as
a reaction to foods that might be harmful or fatal. When people smell or taste
foods that have gone bad, for example, disgust is a typical reaction.

Poor hygiene, infection, blood, rot, and death can also trigger a disgust response.
This may be the body's way of avoiding things that may carry transmittable
diseases.7

People can also experience moral disgust when they observe others engaging in
behaviors that they find distasteful, immoral, or evil.
Anger

Anger can be a particularly powerful emotion characterized by feelings of

hostility, agitation, frustration, and antagonism towards others. Like fear, anger
can play a part in your body's fight or flight response.

When a threat generates feelings of anger, you may be inclined to fend off the
danger and protect yourself. Anger is often displayed through:

 Facial expressions: such as frowning or glaring

 Body language: such as taking a strong stance or turning away
 Tone of voice: such as speaking gruffly or yelling
 Physiological responses: such as sweating or turning red
 Aggressive behaviors: such as hitting, kicking, or throwing objects
 UNIT-II

PERSONALITY AND SPORT

Personality itself can influence many aspects of sport performance and

behaviour, some of which may well be out of the athlete’s cognitive control. It is
important to understand personality if dealing with athletes to promote the
best coping strategies and goals to assist in improving their performance.
Personality is the unique pattern of behaviour and characteristics a
person/athlete displays. Some psychologists believe success or failure on the
sports pitch is determined by personality. Personality is the ‘psychological
characteristics that make a person unique and account for regular patterns of
behaviour’.
Hollander (1971) provided a model to show how personality is
structured. The modelhas three layers:
1. The psychological core is innermost and this reflects the fairly permanent
traits that an individual has. It includes their beliefs, values, attitudes and self-
concept.
2. These traits determine how a person behaves and their typical responses. For
example if they are they are shy and timid then they will act like this in most
situations.

The outer layer is the role related behaviours. This is how we act in
particular situation

Q. DEFINING PERSONALITY

Personality is difficult to define due to its complex nature; however one

definition in the literature is ‘the characterisation of individual differences’.
The fact that everyone is different is extremely important when it comes to
sport and coaching. It is considered that personality relates to the specific
traits a person displays. A trait is a characteristic, which can be related to a
person, for example ‘laziness’
VIEW POINTS OF PERSONALITY PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

The psychoanalytic perspective of personality emphasizes the

importance of early childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. This
perspective on personality was created by psychiatrist Sigmund Freud who
believed that things hidden in the unconscious could be revealed in a number
of different ways, including through dreams, free association, and slips of the
tongue. Neo-Freudian theorists, including Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Alfred
Adler, and Karen Horney, believed in the importance of the unconscious but
disagreed with other aspects of Freud's theories.

Below are the most prominent psychoanalytic perspective theorists:

Sigmund Freud: Stressed the importance of early childhood events, the
influence of the unconscious, and sexual instincts in the development and
formation of personality.
Erik Erikson: Emphasized the social elements of personality development, the
identity crisis, and how personality is shaped over the course of the entire
lifespan.2
Carl Jung: Focused on concepts such as the collective unconscious, archetypes,
andpsychological types.
Alfred Adler: Believed the core motive behind personality involves striving for
superiority, or the desire to overcome challenges and move closer toward self-
realization. This desire to achieve superiority stems from underlying feelings
of inferiority that Adler believed were universal.
Karen Horney: Focused on the need to overcome basic anxiety, the sense of
being isolated and alone in the world. She emphasized the societal and cultural
factors that also play a role in personality, including the importance of the
parent-child relationship.
Q. DEFINE TRAIT APPROACH AND INTERACTIONAL APPROACH

The trait perspective of personality is centered on identifying,

describing, and measuring the specific traits that make up human personality.
By understanding these traits, researchers believe they can better comprehend
the differences between individuals.
Below are the most important trait perspective theorists:
Hans Eysenck: Suggested that there are three dimensions of personality: 1)
extraversion- introversion, 2) emotional stability-neuroticism, and 3)
psychoticism.
Raymond Cattell: Identified 16 personality traits that he believed could be
utilized to understand and measure individual differences in personality.
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: Introduced the big five theory, which identifies
five key dimensions of personality: 1) extraversion, 2) neuroticism, 3)
openness to experience, 4) conscientiousness, and 5) agreeableness

SITUATIONAL APPROACH

Certain situations and circumstances can influence a person’s day in a

positive or negative way. Depending on the circumstance, a normally positive
person may become more negative. On the other hand, a traditionally
pessimistic person may appear to be more positive. It is human nature for
emotions and personalities to differ depending on what is happening in our
lives.
Even if we are not aware of what others may be going through, it is
reasonable to assume that certain situations in the lives of all individuals
impacts their personality. If situations can influence personality and
personality can predict behavior, then situational influences also contribute to
predicting behavior. In 1968, Walter Mischel published a book entitled
Personality & Assessment. In his book, Mischel argued that an interactionist
approach was best suited when exploring personality, situations, and behavior.
This interactionist approach believes that both personality and situational
circumstances create behavior. This revelation created an upset in the
traditional view of
 The Situational Approach to Personality showcases behavior based
specifically on a particular situation or environmental constraint. Psychologists
look at an individual's observational learning and the learning aspects of social
reinforcement seen as a result.

INTERACTIONAL APPROACH

When a sports psychologist uses an interactional approach, they have to

consider both situational determinants and personality traits exhibited by the
individual. The interactional approach considers both psychological traits and
situational influences on behavior. The two aspects mix and can alter behavior.
Your psychological traits and environmental influences interact and combine
in unique ways to sculpt your behavior.
The Interactional Approach to psychology allows for a degree of
interaction between states and traits. This approach seeks to to understand
how behavior is influenced by both personality and social learning in the
environment.

USING PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURES

Personality measures such as Myers Briggs Type Indicator, Insights, or

Lumina Spark are the personality measures that most often get used in teams.
These provide an indication of people’s general personality tendencies, which
can be helpful to accelerate the learning about people working together for
optimum team dynamics and results.

Positive psychology measures such as Realise2, Virtues in Action Survey

of Character Strengths, Fordyce Emotions Questionnaire, BarOn Emotional
Quotient Inventory, and Grit Survey are measures typically used for individual
awareness and skill training. These provide a snap shot of psychological skills
and characteristics that focus on the promotion of strengths and the
development of psychological skills to maximise personal growth and
performance.

Performance skills measures that either measure levels of skills such as

Sport Confidence Inventory and Athlete Coping Skills Inventory or usage of
psychological skills in sport such as Test of Performance Strategies are
measures used to get an understanding of current level and/or usage for
psychological skills training to match the mental demands of their specific
sport’s requirements. These are a great way to introduce psychological skills
training into sports performance.
All of the above-mentioned measures are self-report questionnaires with
the aim of quantifying aspects of an athlete’s psychological traits and states, so
of course they involve people assessing and rating their perception of
themselves. However, questionnaires are not the only way to evaluate
psychological skills…

Q. DEFINE PERSONALITY. EXPLAIN THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT

PERSONALITY?

The word personality is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which was used
to refer to masks worn by actors during a stage performance, Thus, the
meaning of personality was interpreted as ‘projected behaviour’ of an
individual. According to Norman Munn, “Personality is a unique combination
of individual’s physical structure, needs, interests, abilities and aptitudes.”
According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psychophysical systems that determines his unique
adjustments to the environment.” Personality is shaped by biological factors
like heredity and endocrine glands and by psychosocial factors like family, peer
groups, school and culture.
 (i) Heredity – It implies the genetic inheritance of an individual. Heredity
affects the physical characteristics, for e.g., height, physique, etc. It also
influences the self-concept which in turn influences personality.
(ii) Endocrine glands – Personality is shaped by endocrine glands like
pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, gonads, etc. Over secretion or under
secretion of hormones produced by these glands can adversely affect our
personality, for e.g., over secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary gland
leads to gigantism (very tall). (iii) Family – As the first agency of socialization,
the fqmily exerts a strong influence on personality. Aspects of family such as
family structure, atmosphere, and relationships, family interactions and
childrearing practices influence personality, for e.g., if parents show rejection
or over protection, etc., towards the child, it leads to low self-esteem and has
adverse effects on the personality.
(iv)Peer group – It refers to individuals of the same age group, e.g.,
classmates or sharing the same interests, e.g., members of a sports club.
Influence of the peer group is most noticed in adolescence since it serves as a
reference group. The influence of peer group on the person may be positive
such as developing healthy gender attitudes, skills of communication, etc., or it
may be negative e.g., developing aggressive tendencies, prejudices, etc.
(v) School – Various aspects of school such as teaching-learning process,
academic and cocurricular facilities, role of the teachers, school location,
management and discipline, etc., influence the child’s personality, for e.g.,
teachers who are well qualified, creative, build a rapport which the students,
tend to motivate students and help to develop a good personality.
(vi) Mass media – It includes print media e.g., newspapers; audio-visual
media e.g., T.V. and new media e.g., internet. Media is a source of information,
education, entertainment and even socialization. It has a considerable effect on
our value system, behaviour patterns and personality. However, excessive
dependence on media may lead to egocentrism, poor academic performance,
difficult in concentration, sleep disturbance, etc.
(vii) Cultural factors – Culture refers to the customs, values and social
behaviour of a particular society. Every culture has its own set of beliefs,
norms, expectations, etc., which influence the thoughts, feelings and behaviour
of its members.

The type of personality of a person expressing his Libido outward is

1. Cognitive Personality
2. Aesthetic Personality
3. Extrovert Personality
4. Religious Personality

Personality refers to the distinctive attributes of a person that characterize him

or her. It is to understand what makes people unique and different from each
other. According to American Psychological Association, “Personality refers to
individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and
behaving.” Carl Jung also developed a theory of personality. His theory is one
of the type theories of personality, as it involved typology
of introversion and extroversion.
Jung (1923) described:
Extroverts as preferring to engage with the outside world of objects sensory
perception and action. The type of personality of a person expressing his
Libido outward is Extrovert Personality.
Introverts he described as being more focused on the internal world of
reflection, are thoughtful and insightful. The type of personality of a person
expressing his Libido inward is the Introvert Personality.

Theory of the Libido: Jung (1948) disagreed with Freud regarding the role of
sexuality. He believed the libido was not just sexual energy, but instead
generalized psychic energy. For Jung, the purpose of psychic energy was to
motivate the individual in a number of important ways, including spiritually,
intellectually, and creatively. It was also an individual's motivational source for
seeking pleasure and reducing conflict.
Cognitive theories of personality focus on the processes of information
encoding and retrieval, and the role of expectations, motives, goals, and beliefs
in the development of stable personality characteristics. This approach differs
from personality theories that emphasize either the conditions within which
personality develops (e.g., behavioral theories) or the trait structures that are
revealed in those various conditions (e.g., evolutionary and trait theories).
Aesthetic Personality: Psychological aesthetics has primarily focused on one
aspect of the aesthetic experience in the form of liking, pleasure, and
preference. Aesthetics associations with personality.
Religious Personality: It is not an independent personality trait.
So, Extroverts as preferring to engage with the outside world of objects,
sensory perception, and action. The type of personality of a person expressing
his Libido outward is Extrovert Personality.

Q. ACCORDING TO PSYCHOLOGISTS, WHAT ARE THE TWO

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOTIVATION?
Motivation can be defined as a reason that leads an individual to act in a
certain way. The phenomenon of motivation isn’t limited to just humans and
occurs in every organism living. The reasons might not always be the same
between two individuals acting in a certain way, but almost every action is
directed by certain motivation.
Motivation can be further divided into two different types.
Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Both kinds of motivation take part equally in the day-to-day life of an
individual, and there are basic similarities and differences between the two.
• The act of being motivated by internal factors to perform certain actions and
behaviour is called Intrinsic Motivation.
• Whenever an individual performs an action or behaviour because the
individual is affected by external factors such as rewards or punishments, such
a form of motivation is called Extrinsic Motivation.
Intrinsic Motivation- An intrinsically motivated activity will always be
rewarded due to the direct relationship between the activity and the goal. This
secures a continuous motivation to do the activity. Intrinsic motivation is
internal. It occurs when people are compelled to do something out of pleasure,
importance, or aspiration. So, it does not require an external push, unlike
extrinsic motivation which requires an external motivating factor. So intrinsic
motivation is more beneficial.
Extrinsic Motivation- When an activity is performed to accomplish the goal of
an external reward, the person is said to be extrinsically motivated. Extrinsic
motivation occurs when external factors compel the person to do something.
This is motivation based on external rewards and has nothing to do with the
activity directly. The Behaviourists' approach to motivation mainly focuses on
the external rewards of reinforcement and punishment.

Q. STATE ANY FOUR IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION?

1. Motivation helps to change negative or indifferent attitudes of an employee

to positive attitudes so as to achieve organizational goals.
2. Motivation helps to improve the performance levels of employees as well as
the organization. Good motivation in the organization helps to achieve higher
levels of performance as motivated employees contribute their maximum
efforts for organizational goals.
3. Motivation helps to reduce employee turnover and thereby saves the cost of
new recruitment and training.
4. Motivation helps to reduce absenteeism in the organization.
5. Motivation helps managers to introduce changes smoothly without much
resistance from people.
Maslow's Need Hierarchy-Theory of Motivation:
Maslow’s Theory focuses on the needs as the basis for motivation. It classifies
human needs into five categories. It helps managers to realise that need level of
employees should be identified to provide motivation to them.
It is based on the following assumptions:
(i) People’s behaviour is based on their needs
(ii) (ii) People’s needs are in hierarchical order.
(iii) (iii) A satisfied need can no longer motivate a person.
(iv) (iv) A person moves to the next higher level of hierarchy only when the
lower

Q. ELABORATE VARIOUS TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION USED IN

GAMES AND SPORTS?
There are various suitable techniques to motivate athletes. These are as under
(a) coach as a motivator: The method of teaching or coaching adopted by
players has an important bearing in motivating them. A good communicative
skill accompanied with demonstration exerts a great motivating force and
energises an individual to perform better. coach plays a major role in clearing
the concept of athlete. Even the schedule planned by a coach serves as a
motivational factor.
(b) Competition: Healthy competitions should be organised so that the
participants are satisfied. Competitions lead to self-improvement. To compete
with other athletes is a psychological motivation where one tries to show his
best capabilities against the fired norms. Competitions bring out best to reach
for success in the sense of fair competitions respecting regulations. First it
should start at low level.
(c) Equipment: In the present scenario, equipment provided to an athlete
serves as a great motivational technique. Latest gadgets, well maintained
ground, good quality equipment (for safety) motivate athlete to practise hard.
(d) Praise and criticism: Praise is the most powerful tool to motivate. Whether
it is verbal or non-verbal it provides a positive feedback and leads to self-
improvement. This helps the athlete to continue striving hard for future
improvement. A simple pat on the back, can do wonders. Sometimes criticism
also motivates the athletes because focus is on correcting major errors, positive
and right direction along with criticism gives the accurate feedback.
(e) Rewards: Rewards have long been used as a method of motivating
athletes. Actually rewards generate interest and enthusiasm among athletes.
Rewards. which include praise, money, trophy, gift, job, recognition, grade,
certificate or medal have a good impact on athletes.

UNIT-III
Q. WHAT IS AGGRESSION?
Aggression refers to a range of behaviour that can result in both physical and
psychological harm to oneself, others or objects in the environment. This type of
social interaction centres on harming another person, either physically or
mentally.
Q. EXPLAIN TWO TYPES OF AGGRESSION IN SPORTS.
Aggression is of two types:
(a) Hostile Aggression: Hostile aggression is when the main aim is to cause
harm or injury to your opponent. For example, a bowler sending a bouncer
to distract the concentration of batsman.
(b) Instrumental Aggression is when the main aim in achieving the goal by
using aggression. For example, a rugby player using aggression to tackle his
opponent to win the ball. The player is not using the aggression to hurt his
opponent but rather to win the ball back. Experienced athletes use instrumental
Aggression. The player is not having any grudges and shake hands when playing
against each other.
Q. WHAT IS AGGRESSION IN SPORTS?
Aggression has been defined as: “Any form of behaviour directed toward the
goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such
treatment.” This definition raises several points:
Aggression is behaviour. Thinking negative thoughts or being angry is not
aggression.
Aggression is intentional behaviour. Accidental harm is not aggression. The
idea of intent is usually interpreted by the referee.
Aggression involves harm or injury. This may be physical, but could be
psychological, such as trying to embarrass an opponent.
Aggression involves living beings. Kicking your dog is aggression, but kicking
a chair is not.

Hostile Aggression In Sport Psychology

For an individual to be showing hostile aggression their primary aim is to cause

injury to the other human being. Their intent is on causing pain and suffering.

Hostile aggressors find reinforcement to their behaviour in the pain, suffering

and injuries caused.

A good example of hostile aggression is a bowler throwing a bouncer to

deliberately shake up the concentration of a batsman. Some crickerters have
deliberately done this in the past with the intent towards injury.

A vert high profile example of hostile aggression was the reaction of French
footballer Zinedine Zidane during the 2006 World Cup final after being
aggravated by Italy defender Marco Materazzi

An Insight Into Instrumental Aggression

Sometimes aggressive behaviour in sports is rewarded with success. For athletes
driven by instrumental aggression their goal is the realisation of an external goal:
Whether this is fame, money or victory in performance.
 Q. WHAT CAUSES AGGRESSION?
What causes some athletes to completely lose control. Those moments of
madness and frustration that lead to aggressive behaviour. Are aggressive
individuals a story of nature or nurture?

Over the years four key theories of aggression have been put forward

1. Instinct Theory
2. Frustration Aggression Theory
3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
4. Revised Frustration Aggression Theory

Instinct Theory and Catharsis In Sport

Instinct theory refers to early beliefs that an athlete's inevitability to be aggressive

builds up over time before being expressed. It's the analogy of tightening a spring
until it forcibly unwinds.

The instinct can either be expressed with a show of aggression such as attacking
another living being or through displacement as catharsis. Catharsis is where
feelings of aggression are released through socially acceptable means such as
sporting activities.

Whilst many sports participants might consider that sport provides a socially
acceptable means for them to vent their frustrations in the form of catharsis it is
widely acknowledged within the psychology fraternity that no innate biologically
aggressive behaviour has been identified and therefore very little support has
been given to the notion of catharsis from the scientific community in assessing
that sport offers a socially acceptable means of dispersing our natural aggressive
feelings.

Frustration-Aggression Theory

The frustration-aggression theory refers to aggression being as a direct result of

goal blockage or failure to achieve a specific goal.

Psychologists initially observed that most aggressive acts occur when people
exhibit feelings of frustration. However the frustration-aggression theory carries
little weight due to it's insistence that frustration causes aggression. It does not
 factor into account that many individuals with develop coping strategies to deal
with their feelings of frustration.

Q. EXPALIN ABOUT BANDURA'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Bandura (1977) believed that behaviours are learnt as a result of environmental

factors in the form of observational learning. As human's we consider the
relationship between our actions and subsequent consequences through a
procedure of information processing.

Therefore observational learning can only occur when cognitive processes are
exhibited.

More On Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiement

 Bobo Doll Experiment - Simply Psychology an insight into Bandura's use of bobo
dolls to showcase social learning for aggressive, violent behaviours.

Bandura's Dolls Experiment

In 1973 Bandura noted that children who watched adult models partake in
violent acts of aggression in the form of beating up bobo dolls were more likely to
commit subsequent violent acts themselves when compared to those children
who did not witness such behaviour. This relationship helped to shape Bandura's
Social Learning Theory. These actions were further reinforced in cases where the
children were made to copy the violent acts of the adults.
 UNIT-IV
Q. DEFINE ANXIETY IN SPORT

Anxiety is commonly experienced by athletes at all levels in sport – for some, it

can either help or hinder their athletic performance.

It is therefore important to understand what it is, what causes it, how we can
measure it and how athletes can manage it.

Q. DESCRIBE ABOUT OF ANXIETY IN SPORT

Anxiety is a complex, multi-dimensional construct. It is defined as a negative

emotional state associated with activation or arousal of the body. Even though
anxiety is a negative emotional state, its effect on athletic performance can either
be positive, negative or for some, have no impact depending on factors related to
the athlete and the task.

Anxiety is made up of cognitive and somatic components. It can manifest itself in

different ways, this can be through state or trait anxiety. Below we will explore
what this means…

Cognitive Anxiety

This is the mental/emotional component of anxiety which relates to the athlete’s

psychological processes and thoughts. These can include worry, apprehension,
negative thoughts and focusing on irrelevant information or tasks.

Let’s take a footballer who is about to take a penalty as an example. They may be
having negative thoughts such as “I can’t do this” or “I’m not good enough.” They
may also have poor concentration, be irritable towards the referee and unable to
make up their mind when selecting their target.

Somatic Anxiety

This is the physical component of anxiety which relates to the physical symptoms.
For example, our footballer taking the penalty may experience an increase in
their heart rate, shaking, chest pains, hot flushes or sudden chills, tension in their
neck muscles and butterflies in their stomach.
Trait Anxiety

Trait anxiety refers to an innate part of an athlete’s personality characteristic,

which represents a predisposition to perceive situations as threatening and
respond with an increase in state anxiety.

State Anxiety

State anxiety is a temporary response to a specific situation, such as when our

footballer is taking a penalty.

In reality, it’s impossible to separate the extent that an athlete’s anxiety may be
innate or due to the situation. However, it is helpful to consider that not all
athletes will or should show the same baseline of anxiety for a given situation.

Q. WHAT CAUSES ANXIETY IN SPORT?

We mentioned at the very start of this article, that anxiety can have a positive,
negative or indifferent effect on athletic performance depending on factors
related to the athlete and the task. We’re going to delve into these two factors
now…

The Athlete

Every athlete possesses an optimal range of anxiety that is most beneficial for
their performance. This optimal range is known as their Individual Zone of
Optimal Functioning (IZOF).

Some athletes may perform at their best when they have a low level of anxiety
(athlete A in the image below) whereas other athletes may perform at their best
when they have a moderate level of anxiety (athlete B) or a high level of anxiety
(athlete C). If the athlete’s anxiety level falls outside of their optimum zone, then
it may have a negative effect on their performance.
Q. HOW CAN WE MEASURE ANXIETY IN SPORT?

The two main ways we can measure anxiety, is through observations and
questionnaires. In this next section, I’m going to discuss these methods and their
advantages and disadvantages.

Observations

For this, we can watch the athlete perform during a game or competition. This
can be done either live or through video analysis.

The advantages of these observations are that they will provide a true and
realistic picture of the athlete, their behaviour and their anxiety in their sport
specific environment throughout the game or competition. However, the athlete’s
anxiety levels may be increased if they know they are being watched and it will be
a subjective evaluation of how the athlete responds.

Questionnaires

There are three questionnaires we can use to measure anxiety in sport, these
include the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Competitive State Anxiety
Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) and the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT). The table
below provides a brief description of each questionnaire:

Q. HOW CAN YOU MANAGE ANXIETY IN SPORT?

If our athlete is experiencing anxiety that is having a negative impact on their

performance, it’s important that we provide them with coping recourses through
psychological skills training to help the athlete cope with stressors and be in their
optimum zone for performance. These coping recourses include:

 Self-talk
 Emotion regulation
 Relaxation
 Cognitive re-appraisal
Stress and Anxiety in Athletics
Introduction

All athletic trainers should be concerned with how stress and anxiety affect their
athletes. Many athletes struggle with stress and anxiety on a daily basis. Each
athlete reacts to the stress and anxiety differently. The purpose of this paper is to
explore the differences between stress and anxiety, as well as how these
conditions affect athletes.

Q. WHAT IS STRESS?

Martens, Vealey, and Burton (1990) stated, “stress has been defined as stimulus,
intervening and response to variables by different researchers. As a stimulus
variable stress is a precipitator; as an intervening variable, a mediator; and as a
response variable, a behavior.” There are many factors which can cause stress for
an athlete. There are two ways these are demonstrated, the stress model and the
stress response process. See the diagrams below.

Stress Model, Graham-Jones & Hardy (1990)

The stress model demonstrates what factors affect stress in sport. Stress can
affect performance, the way an athlete responds to the stress can affect it, and the
management of the stress can negatively or positively affect the athlete’s stress
level.

The stress response process (shown below) consists of five stages. Stage 1 is the
environmental demand; stage 2 is the athlete’s perception of the environmental
demand; stage 3 is the stress response to the environmental demand; stage 4 is
the behavioral consequences of the stress response to the behavioral demand;
stage 5 is the return to a homeostatic position.
Stress is a factor of life that affects everyone, but athletes tend to suffer from it
more than non-athletes, due to the amount they are required to balance, between
schoolwork, practices and games, as well as family pressures and everyday life.

Stress Disorders

The study of stress in sport lies within the realm of sport psychology. There are
many disorders which are related to stress. Typically an athlete is diagnosed with
general stress disorder, but there are more specific stress disorders as well. These
disorders include, but are not limited to, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD),
depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Stress can be manifested
in people with OCD because the person will become so obsessed with their
traditions, whether it is the number of times they must turn a light off, or clean
their hands, if the person does not do it the correct number they will because
stressed and will consume their thoughts until they go and correct it.

Depression can cause a person to become stress, and stress can cause depression
because a person will become preoccupied with what is stressing them out, and
will begin to focus only on that and soon not find pleasure in their normal
everyday activities which will end up like a snowball effect and continue to get
worse, unless they get help. Post-traumatic stress disorder is not usually a
disorder that affects athletes but sometimes it may, especially after a traumatic
car accident, or serious injury. PTSD is a very serious condition that can lead to
further problems such as suicide. This is a condition not to be taken lightly and if
the athlete is showing any signs of PTSD, they should be referred to a counseling
center in order to get proper treatment.

There are many different stress disorders, many which need specialized
treatment. At any time an athletic trainer feels like the athlete’s stress level is
becoming too high and unmanageable then the athlete needs to set up with a
counseling center so they can get proper help, and tools to help lower their stress
level.

Signs and Symptoms

There are many signs and symptoms of stress, and everyone is different, so one
sign or symptom described by one athlete may not be what another athlete
experiences. Ray and Weise-Bjornstal (1999) described seven categories in which
an athlete may experience stress. These categories are: affective, behavioral,
biological/physiological, cognitive, imaginal, interpersonal, and sensory (Ray and
Weise-Bjornstal, 260). Each category has its own signs and symptoms. Affective
signs and symptoms include: anxiety, anger, guilt, depression, shame and feeling
sorry for oneself. Behavioral signs and symptoms include: sleeping disturbances,
restlessness, aggressive behavior, alcohol or drug abuse, sulking, crying, poor
performance, absenteeism, and clenched fists. Biological or physiological signs
and symptoms include muscle tension, increased heart rate, indigestion, stomach
spasms, pain and headaches.

Cognitive signs and symptoms are frustration, worries, distortion, exaggeration,

unrealistic performance expectations, self-defecting statements and self
handicapping. The imaginal signs and symptoms include images of failure,
images of reinjury, flashbacks of being injured, images of helplessness, and
images of embarrassment. The interpersonal signs and symptoms include
withdrawal, manipulation and argumentation.
 UNIT-V

Q. WHAT IS AROUSAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION?

According to the arousal theory of motivation, each person has a unique arousal
level that is right for them. When our arousal levels drop below these
personalized optimal levels, we seek some sort of stimulation to elevate them.

For example, if our levels drop too low we might seek stimulation by going out to
a nightclub with friends. If these levels become too elevated and we become
overstimulated, we might be motivated to select a relaxing activity such as going
for a walk or taking a nap.

One of the key assumptions of the arousal theory is that we are motivated to
pursue actions that help us maintain an ideal balance.

When we become overly aroused, we seek soothing activities that help calm and
relax us. If we become bored, we head in search of more invigorating activities
that will energize and arouse us. It's all about striking the right balance, but that
balance is unique to each individual.

Arousal theory shares some commonalities with drive-reduction theory. But

instead of focusing on reducing tension, arousal theory suggests that we are
motivated to maintain an ideal level of arousal.

Key Features

There are several features of the arousal theory of motivation that distinguish this
line of thinking.

Arousal Levels Are Highly Individual

Optimal arousal levels vary from one individual to the next. There are many
factors that might influence each person's optimal arousal levels, including
genetics, experience, and current mood.

Your arousal preferences, in general, may be specified by your genetic makeup,

but environmental factors can also play a role in how you are feeling at any given
moment. One person may have very low arousal needs while another individual
might require very high levels.
Behavior Is Motivated by Arousal Levels

The person with low arousal needs might be motivated to pursue simple activities
such as crocheting or watching a movie in order to maintain their arousal levels.
The individual with high arousal needs, on the other hand, might be motivated to
seek risky or thrilling activities such as motorcycle racing or skydiving in order to
maintain his or her ideal levels.

If you need to raise your arousal levels, you might:

 Engage in physical activity

 Socialize with friends
 Try something new and exciting
 Watch an action-packed movie

If you need to lower your arousal levels, you might:

 Enjoy a relaxing hobby

 Read a book
 Take a bath
 Take a nap

No matter what your arousal needs are, you will be motivated to act in order to
maintain these levels. If you need more arousal, you will pursue actions designed
to raise those levels. If you need less, you will seek out ways to calm down and
relax.

Arousal Influences Performance

One of the assertions of the arousal theory of motivation is that our levels of
arousal can influence our performance. But again, balance is key.

Higher arousal levels can sometimes help us perform better, but it can also
impair performance if arousal levels are too high.

This concept is commonly referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson Law. The law states
that increased levels of arousal will improve performance, but only up until the
optimum arousal level is reached. At that point, performance begins to suffer as
arousal levels increase. Additionally, if you're doing a complex task, high or low
levels of arousal will affect you more than if you're doing something simple.

Most students have experienced this phenomenon when taking final exams.
Increased arousal can lead to better test performance by helping you stay alert,
focused, and attentive. Excessive arousal can lead to test anxiety and leave you
nervous and unable to concentrate on the test. When arousal levels are very high
or very low, performance tends to be worse.

Activation, also called arousal, in psychology, the stimulation of

the cerebral cortex into a state of general wakefulness, or attention. Activation
proceeds from various portions of the brain, but primarily from the reticular
formation, the nerve network in the midbrain that monitors ingoing and outgoing
sensory and motor impulses. Activation, however, is not the same as direct
cortical stimulation by specific sense receptors, such as being awakened by noise.
It involves, rather, a complex of impulses that are both internal and external to
the body. Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the degree of arousal

Q. WHAT IS BEHAVIORAL ACTIVATION?

Behavioral activation is an approach to mental health that involves someone

using behaviors to influence their emotional state. It is often a part of cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT), but it can also be a standalone treatment.

Theories of Arousal

Sporting performance and its relationship with arousal can be demonstrated by

several theories:

Drive Theory

Inverted U hypothesis

Catastrophe Theory

Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF) Theory

Drive Theory

This is a linear relationship between arousal and performance, as arousal

increases sot ot does performance.
However evidence suggests that this theory is only relevant up to a point, after
which an athlete can be over aroused and performance decreases.

Inverted U hypothesis

This theory states that there is an optimal level of arousal (which will differ from
sport to sport and athlete to athlete). Performance levels will be at their highest at
the optimal point of arousal. If arousal is too low or too high performance will be
lower.

Catastrophe Theory
This theory differs from the inverted U hypothesis by linking arousal and anxiety. If the athlete is
experiencing high levels of cognitive state anxiety as arousal rises towards the athletes threshold, the
athlete experiences a dramatic drop in performance. This theory does also rely on the need for both
arousal and cognitive anxiety to achieve optimal performance.

Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF) (Hanin)

The relationship of stress, anxiety and arousal all impact upon motivation and
the improvement of performance up to a point. However optimal performance
has many other variables that impact upon arousal and the individual:

Personality
Extroverts perform well when aroused Introverts perform best at low levels of
arousal

Task
Simple/Gross performed better in high arousal levels Complex/fine Performed
better in low arousal levels

Stage of learning Autonomous stage perform better in high arousal levels

Cognitive and associative stages perform better in low arousal levels

Unlike the inverted U hypothesis ZOF states that individuals perform optimally
at different arousal levels depending upon the above factors, therefore not all
athletes optimal performance is at the top of the inverted U.
 Personality Task type Stages of
Learning

Athlete A Introvert Simple/Gross skills,

cognative/associative
e.g. Shotput phase
Low Zone of Functioning
(low arousal)

Athlete C Extrovert Complex/Fine skills, e.g. Spin bowling Autonomous

High Zone of Functioning
(high arousal)

Effects of arousal on sporting performance

If the performer perceives arousal levels to be positive it will have a positive

impact on performance (getting in the zone). However if the changes are viewed
as negative it will increase both somatic and cognitive state
anxiety. Choking occurs in high-pressure situations and this heightened state
cause extreme nervous and performance catastrophe.
Controlling stress, arousal and anxiety

Progressive muscular relaxation is a technique used to remove tension in the

muscles. This technique allows the athlete to contract relaxation and tension
within the muscles. It also combines the control of breathing helping with the
symptoms of somatic state anxiety. There are many different types of this
biofeedback control.

Drive theory of motivation has been given by -

1. Victor Vroom

2. Maslow

3. R.S. Woodworth

4. Hull

Option 4 : Hull According to the drive theory, an organism is motivated to act

when a need has to be satisfied. Hull, a prominent proponent of the theory
suggested that all motives are related to basic physiological needs. Physiological
or social drives are learned behaviour of the organism to satisfy these needs.
Many psychologists felt that the drive theory is only a partial explanation for
motivation as psychological and social motivations may not be directly tied to
primary physiological needs.

Drive Theory- Hull developed a version of behaviourism in which the stimulus

(S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon
characteristics of both O and S.

In other words, Hull was interested in studying intervening variables that

affected behaviour such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior training
(habit strength). Like other forms of behaviour theory, reinforcement is the
primary factor that determines to learn.

However, in Hull’s theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction plays a much

more important role in behaviour than in other frameworks.

Hull proposed many types of variables that accounted for generalisation,

motivation, and variability (oscillation) in learning.
One of the most important concepts in Hull’s theory was the habit strength
hierarchy: for a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways.
The likelihood of a specific response has a probability that can be changed by
reward and is affected by various other variables.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that the drive theory of
motivation has been given by hull.

What is the Drive Theory in Sport?

In this post we discuss the Drive Theory in Sport and:

What is involved in the Drive Theory in Sport?

What is it?

What are the Disadvantages of the Drive Theory in Sport?

Sporting Examples of the Drive Theory in Action

What Can Coaches and Athletes Learn from the Drive Theory In Sport?

What is involved in the Drive Theory?

The drive theory in sport aims to demonstrate the relationship between arousal
levels and performance. The two factors involved in the drive theory in sport are:

Arousal

Performance

This post is part of our series into arousal and performance. Our other posts
include:

The Inverted U Theory in Sport

Catastrophe Theory in Sport

Personality Types
Q. WHAT IS THE DRIVE THEORY IN SPORT?

Clark Hull is seen as the pioneer on the drive theory in sport and in 1943,
published Principles of behaviour: an introduction to behavior theory. In his
research, Hull (1943) claimed that there is a significant relationship between
arousal and performance. Hull (1943) suggests that as a individuals arousal levels
increases, performance will also increase. Alternatively, if an individuals arousal
levels decreases, then the performance would also decrease.

This research has since evolved into a new area of sports psychology and arousal
theories. Most noticeably being the inverted U theory and the Catastrophe theory

Q.WHAT IS THE DISADVANTAGES OF THE DRIVE THEORY?

The main argument against the accuracy of the drive theory in sport is that the
theory does not cater for any decline in performance if arousal is too high.

Hull (1943) claims as arousal continues to increase, performance will also

continue to improve. However, other researchers suggest that performance will
begin to decrease if an athletes arousal increase too much (Fazey & Hardy, 1988).
The most common alternative arousal theories to the drive theory are:

The Inverted U Theory

The Catastrophe Theory

Both theories suggest that each individual athlete has an optimum point at which
arousal leads to the best possible performance. Whereas, the drive theory does
not suggest this and claims performance will continually increase as long as
arousal levels increase.